工程管理英语2013

THE OWNER'S PERSECTIVE

1.1 The Project Life Cycle

The acquisition of a constructed facility usually represents a major capital investment, whether its owner happens to be an individual, a private corporation or a public agency. Since the commitment of resources for such an investment is motivated by market demands or perceived needs, the facility is expected to satisfy certain objectives within the constraints specified by the owner and relevant regulations.

With the exception of the speculative housing market, where the residential units may be sold as built by the real estate developer, most constructed facilities are custom made in consultation with the owners. A real estate developer may be regarded as the sponsor of building projects, as much as a government agency may be the sponsor of a public project and turns it over to another government unit upon its completion. From the viewpoint of project management, the terms “owner”and “sponsor” are synonymous because both have the ultimate authority to make all important decisions. Since an owner is essentially acquiring a facility on a promise in some form of agreement, it will be wise for any owner to have a clear understanding of the acquisition process in order to maintain firm control of the quality, timeliness and cost of the completed facility.

From the perspective of an owner, the project life cycle for a constructed facility may be illustrated schematically in Figure 1.1. Essentially, a project is conceived to meet market demands or needs in a timely fashion. Various possibilities may be considered in the conceptual planning stage, and the technological and economic feasibility of each alternative will be assessed and compared in order to select the best possible project. The financing schemes for the proposed alternatives must also be examined, and the project will be programmed with respect to the timing for its completion and for available cash flows. After the scope of the project is clearly defined, detailed engineering design will provide the blueprint for construction, and the definitive cost estimate will serve as the baseline for cost control. In the procurement and construction stage, the delivery of materials and the erection of the project on site must be carefully planned and controlled. After the construction is completed, there is usually a brief period of start-up or shake-down of the constructed facility when it is first occupied. Finally, the management of the facility is turned over to the owner for full occupancy until the facility lives out its useful life and is designated for demolition or conversion.

Of course, the stages of development in Figure 1.1 may not be strictly sequential. Some of the stages require iteration, and others may be carried out in parallel or with overlapping time frames, depending on the nature, size and urgency of the project. Furthermore, an owner may have in-house capacities to handle the work in every stage of the entire process, or it may seek professional advice and services for the work in all stages. Understandably, most owners choose to handle some of the work in-house and to contract outside professional services for other components of the work as needed. By examining the project life cycle from an owner’ s perspective we can focus on the proper roles of various activities and participants in all stages regardless of the contractual arrangements for different types of work.

In the United States, for example, the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers has in-house capabilities to deal with planning, budgeting, design, construction and operation of waterway and flood control structures. Other public agencies, such as state transportation departments, are also deeply involved in

all phases of a construction project. In the private sector, many large firms such as DuPont, Exxon, and IBM are adequately staffed to carry out most activities for plant expansion. All these owners, both public and private, use outside agents to a greater or lesser degree when it becomes more advantageous to do so.

Figure 1.1 The Project Life Cycle of A Constructed Facility

The project life cycle may be viewed as a process through which a project is implemented from cradle to grave. This process is often very complex; however, it can be decomposed into several stages as indicated by the general outline in Figure 1.1. The solutions at various stages are then integrated to obtain the final outcome. Although each stage requires different expertise, it usually includes both technical and managerial activities in the knowledge domain of the specialist. The owner may choose to decompose the entire process into more or less stages based on the size and nature of the project, and thus obtain the most efficient result in implementation. Very often, the owner retains direct control of work in the planning and programming stages, but increasingly outside planners and financial experts are used as consultants because of the complexities of projects. Since operation and maintenance of a facility will go on long after the completion and acceptance of a project, it is usually treated as a separate problem except in the consideration of the life cycle cost of a facility. All stages from conceptual planning and feasibility studies to the acceptance of a facility for occupancy may be broadly lumped together and referred to as the Design/Construct process, while the procurement and construction alone are traditionally regarded as the province of the construction industry.

Owners must recognize that there is no single best approach in organizing project management throughout a project's life cycle. All organizational approaches have advantages and disadvantages, depending on the knowledge of the owner in construction management as well as the type, size and location of the project. It is important for the owner to be aware of the approach which is most appropriate and beneficial for a particular project. In making choices, owners should be concerned with the life cycle costs of constructed facilities rather than simply the initial construction costs. Saving small amounts of money during construction may not be worthwhile if the result is much larger operating costs or not meeting the functional requirements for the new facility satisfactorily. Thus, owners must be very concerned with the quality of the finished product as well as the cost of construction itself. Since facility operation and maintenance is a part of the project life cycle, the owners’expectation to satisfy investment objectives during the project life cycle will require consideration of the cost of operation and maintenance. Therefore, the facility's operating management

should also be considered as early as possible, just as the construction process should be kept in mind at the early stages of planning and programming.

1.2 Major Types of Construction

Since most owners are generally interested in acquiring only a specific type of constructed facility, they should be aware of the common industrial practices for the type of construction pertinent to them. Likewise, the construction industry is a conglomeration of quite diverse segments and products. Some owners may procure a constructed facility only once in a long while and tend to look for short term advantages. However, many owners require periodic acquisition of new facilities and/or rehabilitation of existing facilities. It is to their advantage to keep the construction industry healthy and productive. Collectively, the owners have more power to influence the construction industry than they realize because, by their individual actions, they can provide incentives or disincentives for innovation, efficiency and quality in construction. It is to the interest of all parties that the owners take an active interest in the construction and exercise beneficial influence on the performance of the industry.

In planning for various types of construction, the methods of procuring professional services, awarding construction contracts, and financing the constructed facility can be quite different. For the purpose of discussion, the broad spectrum of constructed facilities may be classified into four major categories, each with its own characteristics.

Residential Housing Construction

Residential housing construction includes single-family houses, multi-family dwellings, and high-rise apartments. During the development and construction of such projects, the developers or sponsors who are familiar with the construction industry usually serve as surrogate owners and take charge, making necessary contractual agreements for design and construction, and arranging the financing and sale of the completed structures. Residential housing designs are usually performed by architects and engineers, and the construction executed by builders who hire subcontractors for the structural, mechanical, electrical and other specialty work. An exception to this pattern is for single-family houses as is shown in Picture 1.1, which may be designed by the builders as well.

Picture 1.1 Residential Housing Construction (courtesy of Caterpillar, Inc. )

The residential housing market is heavily affected by general economic conditions, tax laws, and the monetary and fiscal policies of the government. Often, a slight increase in total demand will cause a substantial investment in construction, since many housing projects can be started at different locations by different individuals and developers at the same time. Because of the relative ease of entry, at least at the lower end of the market, many new builders are attracted to the residential housing construction. Hence, this market is highly competitive, with potentially high risks as well as high rewards.

Institutional and Commercial Building Construction Institutional and commercial building construction encompasses a great variety of project types

and sizes, such as schools and universities, medical clinics and hospitals, recreational facilities and sports stadiums, retail chain stores and large shopping centers, warehouses and light manufacturing plants, and skyscrapers for offices and hotels, as is shown in Picture 1.2. The owners of such buildings may or may not be familiar with construction industry practices, but they usually are able to select competent professional consultants and arrange the financing of the constructed facilities themselves. Specialty architects and engineers are often engaged in designing a specific type of building, while the builders or general contractors undertaking such projects may also be specialized in only that type of building.

Picture1.2 Construction of the PPG Building in Picture1.3 Construction of a Benzene Plant Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania (courtesy of PPG Industries, Inc.) in Lima, Ohio( courtesy of Maintowoc Company, Inc. ) Because of the higher costs and greater sophistication of institutional and commercial buildings in comparison with residential housing, this market segment is shared by fewer competitors. Since the construction of some of these buildings is a long process which once started will take some time to proceed until completion, the demand is less sensitive to general economic conditions than that for speculative housing. Consequently, the owners may confront an oligopoly of general contractors who compete in the same market. In an oligopoly situation, only a limited number of competitors exist, and a firm’s price for services may be based in part on its competitive strategies in the local market. Specialized Industrial Construction

Specialized industrial construction usually involves very large scale projects with a high degree of technological complexity, such as oil refineries, steel mills, chemical processing plants and coal-fired or nuclear power plants, as is shown in Picture 1.3. The owners usually are deeply involved in the development of a project, and prefer to work with designers-builders such that the total time for the completion of the project can be shortened. They also want to pick a team of designers and builders with whom the owner has developed good working relations over the years.

Although the initiation of such projects is also affected by the state of the economy, long range demand forecasting is the most important factor since such projects are capital intensive and require considerable amount of planning and construction time. Governmental regulation such as the rulings of the Environmental Protection Agency and the Nuclear Regulatory Commission in the United States can also profoundly influence decisions on these projects.

Infrastructure and Heavy Construction

Infrastructure and heavy construction includes projects such as highways, mass transit systems, tunnels, bridges, pipelines, drainage systems and sewage treatment plants, as is shown in Picture 1.4. Most of these projects are publicly owned and therefore financed either through bonds or taxes. This

category of construction is characterized by a high degree of mechanization, which has gradually replaced some labor intensive operations.

The engineers and builders engaged in infrastructure construction are usually highly specialized since each segment of the market requires different types of skills. However, demands for different segments of infrastructure and heavy construction may shift with saturation in some segments. For example, as the available highway construction projects are declining, some heavy construction contractors quickly move their work force and equipment into the field of mining where jobs are

available.

1.3 Selection of Professional Services

When an owner decides to seek professional services for the design and construction of a facility, he is confronted with a broad variety of choices. The type of services selected depends to a large degree on the type of construction and the experience of the owner in dealing with various professionals in the previous projects undertaken by the firm. Generally, several common types of professional services may be engaged either separately or in some combination by the owners. Financial Planning Consultants

At the early stage of strategic planning for a capital project, an owner often seeks the services of financial planning consultants such as certified public accounting ( CPA) firms to evaluate the economic and financial feasibility of the constructed facility, particularly with respect to various provisions of federal, state and local tax laws which may affect the investment decision. Investment banks may also be consulted on various options for financing the facility in order to analyze their long-term effects on the financial health of the owner organization.

Architectural and Engineering Firms

Traditionally, the owner engages an architectural and engineering (A/E) firm or consortium as technical consultant in developing a preliminary design. After the engineering design and financing arrangements for the project are completed, the owner will enter into a construction contract with a general contractor either through competitive bidding or negotiation. The general contractor will act as a constructor and/or a coordinator of a large number of subcontractors who perform various specialties for the completion of the project. The A/E firm completes the design and may also provide on site quality inspection during construction. Thus, the A/E firm acts as the prime professional on behalf of the owner and supervises the construction to insure satisfactory results. This practice is most common in building construction.

In the past two decades, this traditional approach has become less popular for a number of reasons, particularly for large scale projects. The A/E firms, which are engaged by the owner as the prime professionals for design and inspection, have become more isolated from the construction

Picture 1.4 Construction of the Dame Point

Bridge in Jacksonville, Florida ( courtesy of

Mary Lou Maher)

process. This has occurred because of pressures to reduce fees to A/E firms, the threat of litigation regarding construction defects, and lack of knowledge of new construction techniques on the part of architect and engineering professionals. Instead of preparing a construction plan along with the design, many A/E firms are no longer responsible for the details of construction nor do they provide periodic field inspection in many cases. As a matter of fact, such firms will place a prominent disclaimer of responsibilities on any shop drawings they may check, and they will often regard their representatives in the field as observers instead of inspectors. Thus, the A/E firm and the general contractor on a project often become antagonists who are looking after their own competing interests. As a result, even the constructability of some engineering designs may become an issue of contention. To carry this protective attitude to the extreme, the specifications prepared by an A/E firm for the general contractor often protects the interest the A/E firm at the expense of the interests of the owner and the contractor.

In order to reduce the cost of construction, some owners introduce value engineering, which seeks to reduce the cost of construction by soliciting a second design that might cost less than the original design produced by the A/E firm. In practice, the second design is submitted by the contractor after receiving a construction contract at a stipulated sum, and the saving in cost resulting from the redesign is shared by the contractor and the owner. The contractor is able to absorb the cost of redesign from the profit in construction or to reduce the construction cost as a result of the re-design. If the owner had been willing to pay a higher fee to the A/E firm or to better direct the design process, the A/E firm might have produced an improved design which would cost less in the first place. Regardless of the merit of value engineering, this practice has undermined the role of the A/E firm as the prime professional acting on behalf of the owner to supervise the contractor.

Design/Construct Firms

A common trend in industrial construction, particularly for large projects, is to engage the services of a design/construct firm. By integrating design and construction management in a single organization, many of the conflicts between designers and constructors might be avoided. In particular, designs will be closely scrutinized for their constructability. However, an owner engaging a design/construct firm must insure that the quality of the constructed facility is not sacrificed by the desire to reduce the time or the cost for completing the project. Also, it is difficult to make use of competitive bidding in this type of design/construct process. As a result, owners must be relatively sophisticated in negotiating realistic and cost-effective construction contracts.

One of the most obvious advantages of the integrated design/construct process is the use of phased construction for a large project. In this process, the project is divided up into several phases, each of which can be designed and constructed in a staggered manner. After the completion of the design of the first phase, construction can begin without waiting for the completion of the design of the second phase, etc. If proper coordination is exercised, the total project duration can be greatly reduced. Another advantage is to exploit the possibility of using the turnkey approach whereby an owner can delegate all responsibility to the design/construct firm which will deliver to the owner a completed facility that meets the performance specifications at the specified price. Professional Construction Managers

In recent years, a new breed of construction managers ( CM ) offers professional services from the inception to the completion of a construction project. These construction managers mostly come

from the ranks of A/E firms or general contractors who may or may not retain dual roles in the service of the owners. In any case, the owner can rely on the service of a single prime professional to manage the entire process of a construction project. However, like the A/E firms of several decades ago, the construction managers are appreciated by some owners but not by others. Before long, some owners find that the construction managers too may try to protect their own interest instead of that of the owners when the stakes are high. It should be obvious to all involved in the construction process that the party which is required to take higher risk demands larger rewards. If an owner wants to engage an A/E firm on the basis of low fees instead of established qualifications, it often gets what it deserves; or if the owner wants the general contractor to bear the cost of uncertainties in construction such as foundation conditions, the contract price will be higher even if competitive bidding is used in reaching a contractual agreement. Without mutual respect and trust, an owner cannot expect that construction managers can produce better results than other professionals. Hence, an owner must understand its own responsibility and the risk it wishes to assign to itself and to other participants in the process. Operation and Maintenance Managers

Although many owners keep a permanent staff for the operation and maintenance of constructed facilities, others may prefer to contract such tasks to professional managers. Understandably, it is common to find in-house staff for operation and maintenance in specialized industrial plants and infrastructure facilities, and the use of outside managers under contracts for the operation and maintenance of rental properties such as apartments and office buildings. However, there are exceptions to these common practices. For example, maintenance of public roadways can be contracted to private firms. In any case, managers can provide a spectrum of operation and maintenance services for a specified time period in accordance to the terms of contractual agreements. Thus, the owners can be spared the provision of in-house expertise to operate and maintain the facilities.

Facilities Management

As a logical extension for obtaining the best services throughout the project life cycle of a constructed facility, some owners and developers are receptive to adding strategic planning at the beginning and facility maintenance as a follow-up to reduce space-related costs in their real estate holdings. Consequently, some architectural/ engineering firms and construction management firms with computer-based expertise, together with interior design firms, are offering such front-end and follow-up services in addition to the more traditional services in design and construction. This spectrum of services is described in Engineering News Record (now ENR) as follows: Facilities management is the discipline of planning, designing, constructing and managing space -—in every type of structure from office buildings to process plants. It involves developing corporate facilities policy, long-range forecasts, real estate, space inventories, projects (through design, construction and renovation), building operation and maintenance plans and furniture and equipment inventories.

A common denominator of all firms entering into these new services is that they all have strong computer capabilities and heavy computer investments. In addition to the use of computers for aiding

design and monitoring construction, the service includes the compilation of a computer record of building plans that can be turned over at the end of construction to the facilities management group of the owner. A computer data base of facilities information makes it possible for planners in the owner's organization to obtain overview information for long range space forecasts, while the line managers can use as built information such as lease/tenant records, utility costs, etc. for day-to-day operations.

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第一册 excuse 原谅 me 我(宾格) yes 是的 is be动词现在时第三人称单数this 这 your 你的，你们的 handbag （女用）手提包pardon 原谅，请再说一遍 it 它 thank you 感谢你（们） very much 非常地 umbrella 伞 please int. 请 here ad 这里 my possessive adjective 我的ticket 票 number 号码 five num. 五 sorry 对不起的 sir 先生 cloakroom 衣帽存放处, Mr. 先生 good 好 Miss小姐 new 新的 student 学生 French & 法国人 German & 德国人 nice 美好的 meet 遇见 Japanese 日本人 Korean & 韩国人 Chinese 中国人 too ad 也 I 我 am be动词现在时第一人称单数are be动词现在时复数 name 名字 what 什么 nationality 国籍 job 工作 keyboard 电脑键盘operator 操作人员engineer 工程师 Hello 喂（表示问候） hi 喂，嗨 well 身体好 fine 美好的 thanks 谢谢 goodbye 再见 see 见 whose 谁的 blue 蓝色的 perhaps 大概 white 白色的 catch 抓住 colour 颜色 green 绿色 come 来 upstairs 楼上 smart 时髦的，巧妙的 hat 帽子 same 相同的 lovely 可爱的，秀丽的 customs 海关 officer 官员 girl 女孩，姑娘 Danish 丹麦人 friend 朋友 Norwegian 挪威人passport 护照 brown 棕色的 tourist 旅游者 employee 雇员 hard-working 勤奋的 sales reps推销员 man 男人 office 办公室 assistant 助手 matter 事情 children 孩子们（child的复数）tired 累,疲乏 boy 男孩 thirsty 渴 Mum 妈妈（儿语）

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2013年普通高等学校招生全国统一考试（上海卷） 英语 II. Grammar and Vocabulary Section A 25. — I?m looking for a nearby place for my holiday. Any good ideas? — How about the Moon Lake? It is ________ easy reach of the city. A. by B. beyond C. within D. from 26. Those who smoke heavily should remind ________ of health, the bad smell and the feelings of other people. A. theirs B. them C. themselves D. oneself 27. Bob called to tell his mother that he couldn?t enter the house, for he ________ his key at school. A. had left B. would leave C. was leaving D. has left 28. It?s a ________ clock, made of brass and dating from the nineteenth century. A. charming French small B. French small charming C. small French charming D. charming small French 29. The school board is made up of parents who ________ to make decisions about school affairs. A. had been elected B. had elected C. have been elected D. have elected 30. They promised to develop a software package by the end of this year, ________ they might have. A. however difficult B. how difficult C. whatever difficulty D. what difficulty 31. The judges gave no hint of what they thought, so I left the room really ________. A. to be worried B. to worry C. having worried D. worried 32. The students are looking forward to having an opportunity ________ society for real-life experience. A. explore B. to explore C. exploring D. explored 33. I have no idea ________ the cell phone isn?t working, so could you fix it for me? A. what B. why C. if D. which 34. Young people may risk ________ deaf if they are exposed to very loud music every day. A. to go B. to have gone C. going D. having gone 35. Sophia got an e-mail ________ her credit card account number. A. asking for B. ask for C. asked for D. having asked for 36. I cannot hear the professor clearly as there is too much noise ________ I am sitting. A. before B. until C. unless D. where 37. ________ at the photos, illustrations, title and headings and you can guess what the reading is about. A. To look B. Looking C. Having looked D. Look 38. An ecosystem consists of the living and nonliving things in an area ________ interact with one another. A. that B. where C. who D. what 39. Among the crises that face humans ________ the lack of natural resources.

2013年高考真题——英语(山东卷)word版有答案

2013年普通高等学校招生全国统一考试（山东卷） 英语 本试卷分第I卷和第II卷两部分，共12页，满分150分。考试用时120分钟。考试结束后，将本试卷降答题卡一并交回。 注意事项： 1.答题前，考生务必用0.5毫米黑色签字笔将自己的姓名、座号、考生号、县区和科类填 写在答题卡和试卷规定的位置上。 2.第I卷每小题选出答案后，用2B铅笔把答题卡上对应题目的答案标号涂黑；如需改动， 用橡皮擦干净后，再选涂其他答案标号。 3.第II卷必须用0.5毫米黑色签字笔作答，答案必须写在答题卡上各题目指定区域内相应 的位置，不能写在试卷上；如需改动，先划掉原来的答案，然后再写上新的答案；不能使用涂改液】胶带纸、修正带。不按以上要求作答的答案无效。 第I卷（共105分） 第一部分：听力（共两节，满分30分） 该部分分为第一、第二两节。注意：回答听力部分时，请先将答案标在试卷上。听力部分结束时，你将有两分钟的时间将你的答案转涂到客观题答题卡上。 第一节（共5小题；每小题1.5分，满分7.5分） 听下面5段对话。每段对话后有一个小题，从题中所给的A、B、C三个选项中选出最佳选项，并标在试卷的相应位置。听完每段对话后，你都有10秒钟的时间来回答有关小题和阅读下一小题。每段对话仅读一遍。 例：How much is the shirt? A.￡19.15 B. ￡ 9.18 C. ￡9.15 答案是C。 1. What does the man want to do? A. Take photos B. Buy a camera C. Help the woman 2. What are the speakers talking about? A. A noisy night B. Their life in town C. A place of living 3. Where is the man now? A. on his way B. In a restaurant C. At home 4. What will Celia do? A. find a player B. Watch a game C. Play basketball 5. What day is it when the conversation takes place? A. Saturday B. Sunday C. Monday 第二节（共15小题；每小题1.5分，满分22.5分） 听下面5段对话或独白。每段对话或独白后有几个小题，从题中所给的A、B、C三个选项中选出最佳选项，并标在试卷的相应位置。听每段对话或独白前，你将有时间阅读各个小题，每小题5秒钟；听完后，各小题将给出5秒钟的作答时间。每段对话或独白读两遍。 听下面一段对话，回答第6至7两个小题。 6. What is Sara going to do? A. Buy John a gift B. Invite John to France C. Give John a surprise 7. What does the man think of Sara’s plan?