Design for safety in safecharts with risk ordering of states

Design for Safety in Safecharts with Risk

Ordering of States

Nimal Nissanke and Hamdan Dammag

School of Computing,Information Systems and Mathematics,South Bank

University,103Borough Road,London SE10AA

Abstract

Safecharts is a variant of Statecharts intended exclusively for safety critical systems design.With two separate representations for functional and safety requirements, Safecharts brings the distinctions and dependencies between them into sharper fo-cus,helping both designers and auditors alike in modelling and reviewing safety features.Safecharts incorporates ways to represent equipment failures and failure handling mechanisms and uses a safety oriented classi?cation of transitions and a safety oriented scheme for resolving any unpredictable non-deterministic pattern of behaviour.It achieves these through an explicit representation of risks posed by hazardous states by means of an ordering of states and a concept called risk band. Recognising the possibility of gaps and inaccuracies in safety analysis,Safecharts do not permit transitions between states with unknown relative risk levels.How-ever,in order to limit the number of transitions excluded in this manner,Safecharts provides a default interpretation for relative risk levels between states not covered by the risk ordering relation,requiring the designer to clarify the risk levels in the event of a disagreement and thus improving the risk assessment process.

Key words:Safety,Statecharts,Risk ordering,Risk assessment,Failures

1Introduction

Provision of safety in critical systems is based on a combination of well–known strategies such as avoidance,elimination,prevention,evasion and tol-erance of faults that could potentially contribute to hazards.These strategies address faults that could arise in di?erent stages of the life cycle,some in Email addresses:nissanke@https://www.wendangku.net/doc/6a18425197.html,(Nimal Nissanke),dammagh@https://www.wendangku.net/doc/6a18425197.html, (Hamdan Dammag).

Preprint submitted to Elsevier Science1November2001

pre-operational development stages while others during the system operation. Since they can have di?erent and,sometimes,con?icting design goals,the de-sign process is fraught with complexities.A systematic approach to design is, therefore,essential.In addition to being based on sound engineering principles, there are several other desirable attributes of such an approach,including the means to facilitate good practice and to address the needs speci?c to safety critical systems design.These have been the main aims of Safecharts(Dammag et al.,1999),(Nissanke et al.,2000)–a visual formalism based on Statecharts (Harel et al.,1985)(Harel,1987)and developed exclusively for safety critical systems design.

Turning to the attributes mentioned above with respect to systematic de-sign,Safecharts addresses an important need in safety critical systems design, namely,means to represent run–time failures and safety mechanisms.The re-sult is an integrated framework where functional design and safety design can progress hand in hand,helping to combat pre-operational faults in both kinds of design.Safecharts seeks to promote sound engineering principles through the adoption of Statecharts-a well established formalism in the area of re-active systems.In this respect,Safecharts shares in common the traditional virtues of Statecharts,namely,visual appeal,modular and hierarchical repre-sentation of systems and mathematical rigour.Its strategy is to use Statecharts as done conventionally to represent functional requirements and to provide an extended notation to capture safety requirements.Safecharts distinguishes the use of these two notations in terms of a functional layer and a safety layer and concentrates its e?ort exclusively on the features of the latter.Demarcation drawn in this manner between function and safety helps focusing on safety matters without being distracted by functional issues,the evaluation of impli-cations of function on safety and the assurance of safety provisions for each and every action involving any risk.Conservative assumptions made in Safecharts with respect to missing information and non-deterministic outcomes alerts the designer to their implications and,if appropriate,to take corrective measures. These are means through which Safecharts strives to facilitate good practice.

A key feature of the safety layer is the ordering of states according to risks posed by them,re?ecting both the likelihood of hazards and the magnitude of their potential consequences.One of the uses of the resulting risk ordering relation,or the risk graph,is the characterisation of transitions according to the nature of relative risk posed by their target and source states.This results in three categories of transitions:safe,unsafe and neutral transitions. Recognising the role of human competence in safety analysis and,as a result, the possibility of gaps and inaccuracies in such analysis,Safecharts do not permit,on the grounds of prudence,transitions between states with unknown relative risk levels.As a result,many transitions,including those which can be functionally useful,could be potentially excluded between states lying in sparsely covered areas of the risk graph.Safecharts relieves the e?ect of this

restriction by providing a default interpretation for relative risk levels between states not covered by the risk ordering relation.This is done through the concept of risk band.The default interpretation places a burden on the designer to clarify the risk levels in the event of a disagreement,thus bringing about a re?nement of the risk graph to a level of accuracy required by the design.

2Safecharts

2.1Statecharts–An Outline

Statecharts forms the basis of Safecharts;see(Harel et al.,1985)(Harel,1987) for more details on Statecharts.There are three categories of states in Stat-echarts:and,or and basic.An and-state,or a or-state,consists generally of two or more substates.In diagrams,substates of and-states and or-states are distinguished by dashed and solid lines respectively.Being in an and-state means being in all of its substates simultaneously,while being in an or-state means being in exactly one of its substate.A basic state is a state with no substates.Statecharts thus enables the construction of a hierarchy of states and extends conventional?nite state machines by and/or decomposition of states.Changes in state are brought about by transitions.In an or-state,for example,a transition may bring about a distinct change in the state by mov-ing the currently active substate to another substate.Transitions are shown as arrows from one state to another and are labelled.The most general form of labelling is e[c]/a,e being an event that triggers the transition,c a condition that guards the transition when e occurs,and a an action that is carried out precisely if and when the transition takes place.Once generated,the action a is broadcast to the whole Statechart,triggering,if applicable,other transi-tions in the system.A default state,pointed by a short arrow,is a substate of an or-state to be entered by any transition if its arrow terminates on the boundary of the or-state concerned.

2.2Features of Safecharts

As was mentioned in Section1,Safecharts maintains two separate layers in the representation of any system.The functional layer speci?es the trans-formational behaviour of the system purely from a functional point of view using Statecharts in the conventional sense,whereas the safety layer is de-voted exclusively to safety issues.Central to various features of the safety layer is an ordering of system states according to risks posed by them.Math-ematically,it is a relation and is denoted by .It is also referred to as a

risk graph.Treatment of transitions and default states and representation of failure handling safety mechanisms are all based on this ordering of states. The relation may consist of pairs of states which are known to be either of two distinct risk levels or of an identical risk level.This can also be repre-sented mathematically by decomposing into two relations:a partial order relation and an equivalence relation,denoted by and≈respectively.The interpretation of this notation is such that,given two distinct states s1and s2, s1 s2–the risk level of s1is known to be lower than,or equal to,the risk level of s2.

s1 s2–the risk level of s1is known to be strictly lower than that of s2. s1≈s2–the risk levels of s1and s2are known to be identical.

Based on the risk graph,Safecharts classi?es transitions according to the na-ture of risks they carry and,accordingly,extends the speci?cation(labelling) of transitions with additional guards and enforcement conditions.Thus,tran-sitions belong to three categories:safe(from a higher risk state to lower risk state),unsafe(from a lower risk state to higher risk state)and neutral(be-tween states of the same risk level).Being an exhaustive classi?cation,this precludes transitions between states the risk levels of which are unknown(i.e. non–comparable by ).The reasoning behind this principle is prudence and it is intended to prompt the designer to resolve,as a matter of discipline,the risk levels of any non-comparable states,if a transition is desired between them. Transition labelling in Safecharts has the general form e[c]/a[l,u)Ψ[G],with e,c and a remaining the same as in Section2.1and certain components being mandatory depending on the risk classi?cation of the transition concerned. [l,u)is a right-open time interval from time l to time u.Ψis a safety enforce-ment pattern speci?ed using two alternative symbols: and ,and[G]is a safety clause.t [G]is mandatory for unsafe transitions and means that the transition t is forbidden to execute as long as G holds.t[l,u) [G]is manda-tory for safe transitions and means that the transition t is forced to execute within[l,u)from whenever G begins to hold irrespective of the occurrence of its triggering event.

Turning to failures,each component is represented in the form of an or-state with two distinguished substates,denoted generically by in and out,meaning respectively that the component is functioning correctly or has failed.The nature of these two states are such that in out.Associated with these states are also two generic events:a nondeterministic eventεsignifying a failure,and an eventμsignifying a maintenance or repair action which returns the component back to service.It follows from the above thatεtriggers an unsafe(low-to-high risk)transition,whileμtriggers a safe(high-to-low risk) transition.A component may have more than one failure mode,in which case out may itself be an or-state with a distinct substate for each of the failure modes,possibly with further transitions to model failure propagation.

3Risk bands

3.1Risk and the Need for a Risk Ordering Relation

Despite our focal interest in risk,below is a brief outline of several facets of risk(Redmill,1997)of immediate relevance here.Risks are associated with undesirable events,or accidents,capable of causing injury or danger to human life or damage to property or the environment.In the context of this work, such events result primarily from breaches of reliability(system or equipment failures).Risks involved are primarily‘speculative’,undertaken by choice in pursuit of a service(reward).Risks consist of two contributory factors:the like-lihood(probability)of occurrence of a hazard concerned and scale of damage or consequences,each contributing proportionately to the severity of overall risk.In relation to the risk ordering relation,two particularly important risk management activities are risk analysis(analysis of causes and quantitative or qualitative assessment of consequences)and risk prioritisation(judicious dis-crimination between relatively close estimates of severity of risk on the basis of social or economic preferences).These two tasks are of crucial importance in putting the design approach advocated in this paper into practice.

Risk management strategies include,amongst others,avoidance,elimination or reduction,and acceptance of risk.In the context of this work,they take the form of several speci?c categories of safety requirements aimed at reducing the exposure to risk,namely,through a)safe initialisation when the system or equipment is returned to service,b)prohibitive conditions attached to tran-sitions taking the system from a low risk state to a high risk state to deliver a service,c)mandatory timely transitions taking the system from a high risk state to a low risk state after delivering a service,and d)fail–safe and fail–soft patterns of behaviour in response to equipment failures.An implication of such safety requirements is that relative risk levels posed by di?erent states are known,at least in the case of source and target states of transitions,thus justifying the need for a risk ordering relation such as introduced earlier.

3.2The Need for Risk Bands

Role of human competence in risk analysis and risk prioritisation has certain implications,especially in relation to the accuracy and the completeness of the resulting risk graph and the uniformity of coverage of the state space by the risk graph.A point in question is the possibility of extreme cases, where a few states may happen to be non-comparable with a large number of other states by the risk ordering relation,though the states in the two groups

concerned may themselves be mutually comparable with one another.Based on an implicit assumption that the arcs in the graph run upwards,Figure 1(a)gives an example,where the state i happens to be non-comparable with the states d,e,f,g,h and c ,and the state b with the states a,d,e,f,g,h and c .State c is also non-comparable with the states d,e,i and b .Consequently,if reliance is placed solely on ,the principle of barring transitions between non-comparable states will exclude transitions in either direction between the above mentioned states.The concept of risk band is designed to overcome such situations,if such an extensive exclusion of transitions is undesirable.H G

F

E

C

D

I B

A J H G F E D A C I J

B J t 1(?1) (?1) t 2t 6(0) (?1) t 3t 10(?1) (+1) t 9t 5(?1) t 7(?1) t 11(?1) t 12(?1) t 13(?1) (?3) 4t (?1) t 8RB(5)RB(4)RB(3)RB(2)RB(1)RB(6)(a) (b) (c)

I H F B E C D A

G Fig.1.Non–comparable states in a risk graph,risk bands and risk distances.

3.3De?nition of Risk Bands

Risk bands are an enhancement of the risk ordering relation .By de?nition,each state belongs to a unique risk band and every pair of distinct states belonging to the same risk band is there either because the states concerned are comparable by ≈(explicitly stated to have an identical risk level)or non-comparable by .The intended use of risk bands is to allow all transitions between pairs of states either belonging to di?erent risk bands,or belonging to the same risk band but comparable by ≈.Therefore,excluded transitions are only those between states residing in the same risk band but not comparable by ≈.Risk bands are thus a default scheme for ranking states according to risk levels when is inadequate on its own.Obviously,unacceptability of such a default interpretation of risks should prompt the designer to reassess the risk levels of the states concerned more accurately.

Given the risk ordering relation ,and assuming that risk bands are indexed numerically from 1to some n ,risk bands of states may be de?ned according to the following set of rules:

(i)States in the highest risk band n consists of exactly a)maximal elements (states)in the partial order relation but excluding those elements,if any,which are comparable by ≈with any of the rest of elements in ,and b)ele-ments which are comparable by ≈with those elements de?ned in (a)above.

(ii)Any state s with just a single immediate(distinct)successor state,which is in risk band i according to ,is in risk band(i?1).However,if a state s has more than one immediate successor state,then it has a risk band one less than the lowest of the risk bands of its immediate successor states.

(iii)For any states s1and s2,if s1≈s2then both states s1and s2are in the same risk band.

Figure1(b)illustrates the above rules using the risk graph given in Figure1(a). As a result,transitions such as those between state i and f can now be intro-duced.The number of prohibited transitions can thus be reduced signi?cantly, in this case,to transitions between the pairs of states:i and g,i and h,b and f,and c and e.Position of state b in Figure1(b)is signi?cant;due to the lack of knowledge about the risk posed by the state b,it is now considered to be of a higher risk nature compared to the states c,e,d and a.

3.4Uses of Risk Bands

Risk bands allow a novel safety oriented approach to resolution of nondeter-minism between simultaneously enabled con?icting transitions.Approaches such as(Pnueli et al.,1991)resolve such nondeterminism on the basis of scope of transitions and(Day,1993)on the basis of the hierarchy of their source state.As a safety oriented improvement,our previous work(Dammag et al.,1999)suggested prioritisation of transitions based on according to the risk level of their target states so that lower the risk level of its target state, higher is the priority enjoyed by a given transition.A de?ciency of using just is that two con?icting transitions with a common source state would still enjoy the same priority if their target states happen to be non-comparable by ,irrespective of the relative positions of the latter states in the banded risk graph.

In this respect,risk bands result in a new concept called risk distance.For a given transition,risk distance is the risk band index of its target state minus that of its source state,the positive and negative signs signifying respectively an increasing and decreasing risk.Any nondeterminism between two or more transitions can now be resolved by giving higher priority to the transition with the shortest risk distance.In the case of transitions with equal risk distances, prioritisation may be based on the cumulative risk distances of future transi-tions of con?icting transitions,i.e.those that could be triggered in one or more speci?c number of subsequent steps.In the case of several future transitions, the transition with the shortest risk distance is to be considered for comparison with other competing future transitions.Nondeterminism may still continue to persist even with future transitions,but this kind of nondeterminism is considered a safe nondeterminism since all outcomes are identical in terms of the risks involved.

As an illustration,for a set of transitions introduced between states in Fig-ure1(b),Figure1(c)shows their risk distances in parentheses.Here,due to its shorter risk distance,the transition t5will enjoy higher priority over t6,if they happen to be in con?ict.In the case of t1and t2being in con?ict,it is necessary to consider their future transitions in the next step,i.e.t3in the case of t1and t4in the case of t2.Since the cumulative risk distances of their future transitions are-2and-4respectively,the transition t2enjoys higher priority over t1.However,non-deterministic situations could still occur.This is the case when t5and t7are in con?ict since the cumulative risk distances covering their future transitions(t8,or t11,for t5and t10for t7)are the same. The concept of risk band subsumes the concept of risk ordering relation.As a result,the classi?cation of transitions into safe,unsafe and neutral transitions can now be based on risk bands,rather than on the risk ordering relation as in (Dammag et al.,1999).According to the new de?nitions,safe transitions have negative risk distances,unsafe transitions positive risk distances and neutral transitions zero risk distances.

4A Case Study Illustrating Safecharts–A Nuclear Reactor

As an illustrative case study,this section considers certain aspects of a nuclear reactor of a power plant.The nuclear reaction,taking place in a bundle of fuel rods called the core,is controlled by cadmium control rods held above the core by magnetic clamps.In an emergency,control rods are released into the core in an action called scram to halt the nuclear reaction.The water circulating through primary circuit,passing through the reactor,extracts the heat from the nuclear reaction.It acts as a coolant and prevents fuel rods from over-heating.The heat so extracted from the core is subsequently passed on to the water circulating through the secondary circuit,located outside the reactor, creating the steam used in the generation of electricity.Maintenance of correct temperature and pressure is critical for the processes involved.For example, loss of coolant in the primary circuit–an accident referred to as LOCA–can lead to extreme temperatures and pressures,damaging the reactor building and causing release of radiation.In the case of such an event,operation of a relief valve in the vessel can relieve the pressure,by letting the coolant to?ow out into a safe drainage system.

Several of the above components played a critical role in the accident at the Three Mile Island(TMI)nuclear power plant in1979;see(Bignell et al.,1984) and(Leveson,1995).A closure of a valve in the secondary circuit stopped the process of heat exchange between the two circuits,leading to an abnormally high temperature?rst in the coolant of the primary circuit and then in the reactor.As expected,the pressure relief valve opened and the control rods

dropped,bringing the conditions inside the reactor to an acceptable level. At this stage,the pressure relief valve should have closed,but instead mal-functioned and remained stuck-open.This went undetected by the operators because of a misleading sensor,attached to a solenoid operating the valve rather than to the valve itself.

Fig.2.Safechart model of reactor core

A Safechart representation of the reactor,shown in Figure2with certain sim-pli?cations and conventions1,consists of several and-ed components:core, control rods,relief valve and primary circuit,with the latter two expanded in Figures3and4respectively.The core consists of two or-substates:critical and non-critical,each decomposed into further substates.Transitions trig-gered by start-up and shut-down,brought about by the movements of control rods,enable alternations between the critical and non-critical substates.The state control rods consists of two substates:non-operational(a failure state) and operational.The latter has a safe state for initialisation.The state primary circuit,shown in Figure3,consists of attributes such as pressure,temperature, coolant content,etc.,and not components(valves,pumps,etc.)which bring about changes in those attributes.

In relief valve(prv),Figure4(a),the failure state stuck consists of two sub-states:stuck-closed and stuck-opened,entered depending on the generic event v.The sensor,modelled as part of the relief valve,picks up failures of the valve through the static reaction prv-stuck and,similarly,its current status through the static reactions prv-working,prv-close,etc.In tracing the chain 1For brevity,diagrams show an integrated view of the functional and safety layers. In any or-state,higher risk states are placed higher in its diagram compared to lower risk states.Transition labelling is kept to a minimum.Dashed line arrows show internal transitions that can be observed but not controlled,whereas solid line arrows show controllable transitions.

of events that led to the TMI accident in our model,the time when the high temperature in the coolant of the primary circuit triggered the opening of the relief valve corresponds to reaching the state excessive in the substate temper-ature (pressure )of primary circuit .The occurrence of the event up (and down )is established by the monitoring equipment.The relevant transition generates the actions open in prv and scram in control rods .The state opened in prv has a lower risk level than the state closed .The event open ,therefore,triggers a safe transition with a mandatory time limit [l ,u )and generates the event drain in primary circuit .As the situation returned to a more acceptable state,the event down in primary circuit should have taken place,triggering the event close in prv .However,another possible event is the occurrence of the generic event v ,an event not bound by the rules on prioritisation of non-deterministic transitions.This event would have resulted in the static reaction prv -stuck and the sensor moving to prv-out ,letting the operators take an appropriate action to avert,or mitigate,any accident.In the TMI accident,this failure was not detected due to the form of attachment of sensors.FULL EMPTY NORMAL

UNDER?LIMIT ABOVE?LIMIT AMBIENT

EXPLOSION EXCESSIVE NORMAL STOPPED LEAKAGE

DRAINING .SLOW .FAST NORMAL .

drain

..... . . . down /close down DROPED OFF open, scram /close up flow

LOCA LOCA /open primary circuit

STABLE UNSTABLE

temperature(pressure)coolant content leak up /Fig.3.Safechart model of primary circuit

μ v εv STUCK?CLOSED STUCK?OPENED SR: PRV?stuck [ ]1G [ ]1G c l o s e [l , u ](b)

(a) εv

STATUS STUCK OPERATIONAL OPENED SR: PRV?working

SR: PRV?close SR: PRV?open open / drain CLOSED Fig.4.Safechart model of relief valve

Relative risk levels of the states opened and closed of prv are not ?xed and alternate from situation to situation.This can be captured by replacing dy-namically the state status in Figure 4(a)with that in Figure 4(b),which consists of a di?erent risk graph.Dynamic ?uctuation of risk levels in this manner is due to situational events –an issue under current research.

5Conclusions

In formalisms intended for safety critical systems design,the capability to explicitly represent risks posed by hazardous states can have a number of bene?ts.These include greater alertness to safety issues in the design process and e?ective means to ensure a more comprehensive and a correct capture of safety requirements than what could be achieved otherwise.This has been demonstrated here in Safecharts–a novel variant of Statecharts proposed in (Dammag et al.,1999)for speci?cation and design of safety critical systems. This capability has wider relevance in similar state–based formalisms such as Petri nets.Representation of risk is based on a risk ordering relation,enhanced by a concept called risk band for compensating conservatively for any gaps in the risk assessment process.The two concepts together provide a formal frame-work for safety oriented classi?cation of transitions,safety oriented de?nition of default states,representation of safety mechanisms and safety oriented res-olution of any non–determinism between con?icting transitions.Areas under current research include the study of situational events-events that dynam-ically alter the risk ordering relation-and a mathematical de?nition of the semantics of Safecharts.

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F.Redmill,Practical risk management,in F.Redmill and C.Dale(eds.),Life Cycle Management for Dependability,Springer,1997.

英语单词惯用法集锦解析

英语单词惯用法集锦 习惯接动词不定式的动词（V to inf) adore(vi极喜欢) dread （vt.不愿做，厌恶）plan 计划 afford（+to,vt有条件，能承担）endeavour （vt，竭力做到，试图或力图）prefer（vt.宁可；宁愿(选择)；更喜欢）agree 同意endure(忍受.cannot ~ to) prepare准备 aim (vi[口语]打算：) engage (vi.保证，担保；) presume(vt.冒昧；敢于[用于第一人称时为客套话]：) appear (vi.似乎；显得) essay(vt.尝试，试图) pretend(vt.自命；自称；敢于；妄为) apply （申请）expect（期望，希望）proceed（开始，着手，）arrange （vi.做安排，(事先)筹划）fail （vt.未做…；疏忽)promise(许诺，保证做 ask （要求）forget （vt. 忘记）purpose （vt.决心，打算） beg （vt.正式场合的礼貌用语]请(原谅)，请(允许)：I beg to differ.恕我不能赞同）guarantee（保证，担保）refuse（拒绝）bear 承受，忍受hate（[口语]不喜欢；不愿意；）regret （vt. 抱歉；遗憾）begin help （有助于，促进）remember（记住） bother （vi.通常用于否定句]麻烦，费心）hesitate（vi.犹豫；有疑虑，不愿）scheme（策划做）care （vt.想要；希望；欲望[后接不定式，常用于否定、疑问及条件句中]）hope （vt.希望，盼望，期待）seek（vt.谋求，图谋[后接不定式]） cease （停止; 不再(做某事)[正式] intend （打算；想要）seem（似乎，好像[后接不定式或从句]；觉得像是，以为[ choose （意愿；选定；决定）itch start开始claim （vt. 主张；断言；宣称） continue （继续）like 喜欢swear（vt.起誓保证；立誓要做(或遵守） dare （vt.敢，敢于，勇于，胆敢）long（vi.渴望；热望；极想） decline（vt.拒绝，拒不(做、进入、考虑等) manage（设法完成某事）threaten（vt.威胁，恐吓，恫吓）deign （屈尊做）mean（有意[不用进行时）trouble（vi.费心，费神；麻烦）demand（vi.要求，请求：）need （需要）try（设法做） deserve (应得) neglect (疏忽) undertake(承诺,答应，保证) desire （希望渴望）offer（表示愿意(做某事)，自愿；）venture（冒险(做某事））determine（vi.决心，决意，决定，）omit （疏忽，忘记）want 想要 die （誓死做）pine （渴望）wish （希望） 习惯接“疑问词+动词不定式”的动词（有时也包括VN wh-+to do) advise 建议explain 解释perceive 觉察，发觉 answer 答复find 得知，察觉persuade 说服，劝说；使某人相信 ask 询问，问forget 忘记phone 打电话 assure 保证guess 臆测，猜度pray 祈祷 beg 请求，恳求hear 小心聆听（法庭案件）promise 允诺 conceive 想象，设想imagine 以为，假象remember记得 consider 考虑，思考indicate 暗示remind 提醒，使想起 convince 使相信inform告知通知instruct告知，教导 see 看看，考虑，注意decide 解决，决定know 学得，得知 show 给人解释；示范；叙述；discover发现；知道learn 得知，获悉 signal以信号表示doubt 怀疑，不相信look 察看；检查；探明 strike 使想起；使突然想到；使认为suggest 提议，建议tell 显示，表明；看出，晓得；warn 警告，告诫think 想出；记忆，回忆；想出，明白wonder 纳闷，想知道 wire 打电报telegraph 打电报 习惯接动名词的动词（包括v+one’s/one+v+ing) acknowledge 认知，承认…之事实escape免除，避免omit疏忽，忽略 admit 承认，供认excuse 原谅overlook 放任，宽容，忽视adore （非正式）极为喜欢fancy 构想，幻想，想想postpone 延期，搁置 advise 劝告，建议finish完成prefer较喜欢 appreciate 为…表示感激(或感谢)forbid 不许，禁止prevent预防 avoid 逃避forget 忘记prohibit 禁止，妨碍

The way常见用法

The way 的用法 Ⅰ常见用法： 1)the way+ that 2)the way + in which（最为正式的用法） 3)the way + 省略（最为自然的用法） 举例：I like the way in which he talks. I like the way that he talks. I like the way he talks. Ⅱ习惯用法： 在当代美国英语中，the way用作为副词的对格，“the way+ 从句”实际上相当于一个状语从句来修饰整个句子。 1)The way =as I am talking to you just the way I’d talk to my own child. He did not do it the way his friends did. Most fruits are naturally sweet and we can eat them just the way they are—all we have to do is to clean and peel them. 2）The way= according to the way/ judging from the way The way you answer the question, you are an excellent student. The way most people look at you, you’d think trash man is a monster. 3）The way =how/ how much No one can imagine the way he missed her. 4）The way =because

常见动词用法

1、keep ①keep + 形容词表示“保持” Please keep quite. 请保持安静。 ②keep + 宾语+ 形容词（或介词短语）表示“把……保持在某一状态” We must do everything we can to keep the air clean. 我们必须尽一切所能保持空气清洁。 ③keep sb doing sth 表示“让某人做某事” ——只能用现在分词作宾语补足语，不能用不定式。 He kept us waiting for two hours. 他让我们等了两个小时。 He kept us to wait for two hours. (错误) ④keep on doing sth和keep doing sth 表示“继续做某事，反复做某事”，可换用。 但keep on doing 更强调动作的反复性或做事人的决心。 He keeps on phoning me, but I don’t want to talk to him. Though he failed 3 times, he kept on trying. 他老是给我打电话，但我不想同他讲话。虽然他已失败了3次，但他仍继续干下去。 keep doing sth 经常用于静态动词。 He kept lying in bed all day long. 他整天都躺在床上。 ⑤keep …from doing sth 表示“阻止，使免于” He kept them from fishing in the lake. 他不让他们在那个湖里捕鱼。 2、may not / mustn’t / needn’t / wouldn’t ①may not be 是may be的否定式，意为“可能不是，也许不是” He may be there.他可能在那里。He may not be there.他可能不在那里。 ②must 意为“必须”，mustn’t 意为“千万不可，绝对不可” 所以Must we/I ……?的否定回答要用needn’t—意为“不必” -Must we get there before 11 o’clock？ -No, we needn’t. ③wouldn’t = would not 意为“不会，不愿” I wouldn’t say no. 3、do ①do表示“做”，做某事，常指某种不具体的活动；make表示“制作”，指做出某种具体的东西。

The way的用法及其含义(二)

The way的用法及其含义（二） 二、the way在句中的语法作用 the way在句中可以作主语、宾语或表语： 1.作主语 The way you are doing it is completely crazy.你这个干法简直发疯。 The way she puts on that accent really irritates me. 她故意操那种口音的样子实在令我恼火。The way she behaved towards him was utterly ruthless. 她对待他真是无情至极。 Words are important, but the way a person stands, folds his or her arms or moves his or her hands can also give us information about his or her feelings. 言语固然重要,但人的站姿,抱臂的方式和手势也回告诉我们他(她)的情感。 2.作宾语 I hate the way she stared at me.我讨厌她盯我看的样子。 We like the way that her hair hangs down.我们喜欢她的头发笔直地垂下来。 You could tell she was foreign by the way she was dressed. 从她的穿著就可以看出她是外国人。 She could not hide her amusement at the way he was dancing. 她见他跳舞的姿势，忍俊不禁。 3.作表语 This is the way the accident happened.这就是事故如何发生的。 Believe it or not, that's the way it is. 信不信由你, 反正事情就是这样。 That's the way I look at it, too. 我也是这么想。 That was the way minority nationalities were treated in old China. 那就是少数民族在旧中

动词以及动词短语的用法(动词后加to do 还是doing)

一动词加-ing 的情况 consider, suggest/advise,look forward to, excuse/pardon admit,delay/put off,fancy avoid,miss,keep/keep on,practise deny,finish,enjoy/appreciate forbid,imagine,risk can't help,mind,allow/permit,escape 考虑建议盼原谅, 承认推迟没得想. 避免错过继续练, 否认完成就欣赏. 禁止想象才冒险, 不禁介意准逃亡. 如：建议：advise,suggest,冒险:risk,献身:devote oneself to 二动词后加doing 和加to do sth. 意思不一样的情况 ①remember doing指记住过去做过的事，remember to do指记住将来要做的事，表示“不要忘记”。 ②forget doing表示忘记过去做过的事，forget to do表示“没有想起做某事”。 ③mean doing表示“意味着做某事”，mean to do表示“打算做某事”。 ④regret doing表示对已做过的事感到后悔，regret to do表示对将要做的事表示遗憾。 ⑤stop doing表示“停止做某事”，stop to do是停止做正在做的事以便去做另外一件事，这里的to do不是stop的宾语而是stop的目的状语。 ⑥try doing表示“尝试做某事”，try to do表示“设法、试图做某事”。 ⑦go on doing表示继续做同一件事，go on to do表示做完一件事后，接下去做另外一件事。 三动词后加to do sth. afford负担得起agree同意appear似乎，显得arrange安排 ask问attempt企图beg请求begin开始 choose选择claim要求decide决定demand要求 desire愿望determine决定expect期望fail不能 forget忘记happen碰巧hate憎恨，厌恶hesitate犹豫 hope希望intend想要learn学习long渴望 love爱manage设法mean意欲，打算need需要 neglect忽视offer提供omit忽略，漏other扰乱；烦恼

(完整版)the的用法

定冠词the的用法： 定冠词the与指示代词this ,that同源,有“那(这)个”的意思,但较弱,可以和一个名词连用,来表示某个或某些特定的人或东西. (1)特指双方都明白的人或物 Take the medicine.把药吃了. (2)上文提到过的人或事 He bought a house.他买了幢房子. I've been to the house.我去过那幢房子. (3)指世界上独一无二的事物 the sun ,the sky ,the moon, the earth (4)单数名词连用表示一类事物 the dollar 美元 the fox 狐狸 或与形容词或分词连用,表示一类人 the rich 富人 the living 生者 (5)用在序数词和形容词最高级,及形容词等前面 Where do you live?你住在哪? I live on the second floor.我住在二楼. That's the very thing I've been looking for.那正是我要找的东西. (6)与复数名词连用,指整个群体 They are the teachers of this school.(指全体教师) They are teachers of this school.(指部分教师) (7)表示所有,相当于物主代词,用在表示身体部位的名词前 She caught me by the arm.她抓住了我的手臂. (8)用在某些有普通名词构成的国家名称,机关团体,阶级等专有名词前 the People's Republic of China 中华人民共和国 the United States 美国 (9)用在表示乐器的名词前 She plays the piano.她会弹钢琴. (10)用在姓氏的复数名词之前,表示一家人 the Greens 格林一家人(或格林夫妇) (11)用在惯用语中 in the day, in the morning... the day before yesterday, the next morning... in the sky... in the dark... in the end... on the whole, by the way...

indesign常用快捷键

49. 直接复制选区 按住选择工具、直接选 择工具或编组选择工具 + Alt 键并进行拖动* 50. 直接复制并偏移选区 Alt + 向左箭头键、向右箭头键、向上箭头键或向下箭头键 51. 直接复制选区并将其偏移 10 倍** Alt + Shift + 向左箭头键、向右箭头键、向上箭头键、向下箭头键 52. 移动选区** 向左箭头键、向右箭头键、向上箭头键、向下箭头键 53. 将选区移动 1/10** Ctrl + Shift + 向左箭头键、向右箭头键、向上箭头键、向下箭头键 54. 将选区移动 10 倍** Shift + 向左箭头键、向右箭头键、向上箭头键、向下箭头键 55. 从文档页面中选择主页项目 按住选择工具或直接选择工具 + Ctrl + Shift 键单击 56. 选择后一个或前一个对象 按住选择工具 + Ctrl 键单击，或者按住选择工具 + Alt + Ctrl 键单击 57. 在文章中选择下一个或上一个框架 Alt + Ctrl + Page Down/Page Up 58. 在文章中选择第一个或最后一个框架 Shift + Alt + Ctrl + Page Down/Page Up 59. *按 Shift 键可以在 45° 角方向上移动。60. ** 调整量在“编辑”>“首选项”>“单位和增量”(Windows) 61. 变换对象的快捷键 62. 直接复制并变换选 区 按住变换工具 + Alt 键并进行拖动* 63. 显示变换工具对话框 选择对象并双击工具箱中的缩放工具、旋转工具或切变工具 64. 将比例减少 1% Ctrl + , 65. 将比例减少 5% Ctrl + Alt + , 66. 将比例增加 1% Ctrl + . 67. 将比例增加 5% Ctrl + Alt + . 68. 调整框架和内容的大 小 按住选择工具 + Ctrl 键并进行拖动 69. 按比例调整框架和内容的大小 按住选择工具+Shift+Ctrl 键并进行拖动 70. 约束比例 按住椭圆工具、多边形工具或矩形工具 + Shift 键并进行拖动 71. 将图像从“高品质显示”切换为“快速显示” Ctrl+Alt+Shift+Z 72. *选择变换工具以后，按住鼠标按钮，然后按住 Alt 键 (Windows) 73. 用于编辑路径和框架的快捷键 74. 临时选择转换方向点工具 直接选择工具 + Alt + Ctrl，或钢笔工具 + Alt 75. 在“添加锚点工具”和“删除锚点工具”之间临时切换 Alt 76. 临时选择添加锚点工具 剪刀工具 + Alt 77. 当指针停留在路径或锚点上时，使钢笔工具保持选中状态 钢笔工具 + Shift 78. 绘制过程中移动锚点和手柄 钢笔工具 + 空格键 79. 显示描边面板 F10 80. 用于表的快捷键 81. 拖动时插入或删除行或列 首先拖动行或列的边框，然后在拖动时按住 Alt 键 82. 在不更改表大小的情况下调整行或列的 1. 首页 / 使用 InDesign CS5 / 键盘快捷键 2. 选择“窗口”>“实用程序”>“工具提示”，然后选择一个工具来查看该工具的快捷键和修改键。 3. 工具 Windows 4. 选择工具 V, Esc 5. 直接选择工具 A 6. 切换选择工具和直接选择工具 Ctrl + Tab 7. 页面工具 Shift+P 8. 间隙工具 U 9. 钢笔工具 P 10. 添加锚点工具 = 11. 删除锚点工具 - 12. 转换方向点工具 Shift + C 13. 文字工具 T 14. 路径文字工具 Shift + T 15. 钢笔工具（附注工具） N 16. 直线工具 \ 17. 矩形框架工具 F 18. 矩形工具 M 19. 椭圆工具 L 20. 旋转工具 R 21. 缩放工具 S 22. 切变工具 O 23. 自由变换工具 E 24. 吸管工具 I 25. 度量工具 K 26. 渐变工具 G 27. 剪刀工具 C 28. “抓手”工具 H 29. 临时选择“抓手”工具 空格键（“版面”模式）、Alt 键（“文本”模式）或 Alt + 空格键（两种模式） 30. 缩 31. 工具 Z 32. 临时选择放大工具 C trl + 空格键 33. 切换填色和描边 X 34. 互换填色和描边 Shift + X 35. 在“格式针对容器”和“格式针对文本”之间切换 J 36. 应用颜色 , [逗号] 37. 应用渐变 . [句点] 38. 不应用任何颜色 / 39. 在“正常视图”和“预览模式”之间切换 W 40. 框架网格工具（水平） Y 41. 框架网格工具（垂直） Q 42. 渐变羽化工具 Shift + G 43. 用于选择和移动对象的快捷键 44. 临时选择“选择工具”或“直接选择工具”（上次 所用工具） 任何工具（选择工具除外）+ Ctrl 45. 临时选择编组选择工具 直接选择工具 + Alt；或者钢笔工具、添加锚点工具或删除锚点工具 + Alt + Ctrl 46. 选择所选内容的容器 Esc 或双击 47. 选择所选容器的内容 Shift+Esc 或双击 48. 向多对象选区中添加对象或从中删除对象 按住选择工具、直接选择工具或编组选择工具 + Shift 键单击（要取消选择，请单击中心点）

pretend三种易混淆不定式的用法

pretend三种易混淆不定式的用法 今天给大家带来了pretend三种易混淆不定式的用法，我们一起来学习吧，下面就和大家分享，来欣赏一下吧。 pretend三种易混淆不定式的用法 1. pretend to do sth .这个短语的意思是假装(将要)去做什么事情，适用于将来时态动作将来假装要去做但不一定去做的状态。 举例: If youpretend to know what you dont know，youll only make afool of yourself.不懂装懂就会闹笑话。(suri的回答) Child pretend to be mother and father in kindergarten.孩子在幼稚园里面假扮父亲和母亲(表将来)(JasoOon的回答) 2. pretend to have done sth .这个短语的意思是假装已经做过了某事，强调事情的一个完成的状态，侧重于假装的事情已经做好了。 举例:I pretend tohave seen nothing，but I cant.我假装自己没有看到任何东西，但是我做不到(侧重于一个完成时态，已经试图去假装没有看到)

she pretended to have finished the homeworkwhen she went out and played.当她出门玩的时候她假装自己已经完成了家庭作业。(假装做作业这个动作已经在出门玩之前做完了)(JasoOon的回答)以及怀陌的回答:When the teacher came in，he pretended to havefinished the homework.当老师进来的时候他假装自己已经完成家庭作业了，两者有异曲同工之妙。 3. pretendtobe doing sth 这个短语的意思是假装正在做某事，强调动作的一个进行时态。 举例:They pretend to be reading books when the teacher sneakingly stands at the back door.当老师偷偷地站在后门的时候他们假装正在读书(读书与老师站在后门都是过去进行时 态)(JasoOon的回答) Asmanypeople do，youoftenpretend to be doingwork when actuallyyou arejust wasting time online.像很多人一样，你经常假装正在工作，其实是在上网。 群主补充：昨天和今天已提交作业的同学，做得都很好，全部授予小红花。希望你们再接再厉，不要松懈哟。所以下周一出题者为所有已提交作业的同学或者你们选出的代表。

“the way+从句”结构的意义及用法

“tｈｅwａｙ+从句”结构的意义及用法 首先让我们来看下面这个句子: Ｒead the foｌloｗｉnｇpassagｅａnd talkａbout ｉt wi ｔh your classmaｔes．Try tｏｔeｌl whaｔyｏu thiｎk ｏf Tom aｎd ｏｆｔhe ｗay the chiｌｄrenｔrｅated ｈim. 在这个句子中，ｔhe waｙ是先行词,后面是省略了关系副词that或in whｉch的定语从句。 下面我们将叙述“the ｗaｙ+从句”结构的用法。 1.tｈe wａy之后，引导定语从句的关系词是tｈat而不是hoｗ,因此，<<现代英语惯用法词典＞＞中所给出的下面两个句子是错误的：Ｔhｉs is ｔｈeｗayｈowｉtｈａppened. This is the way how he ａlwａｙs treats me. 2．在正式语体中,thaｔ可被in which所代替;在非正式语体中，ｔhat则往往省略。由此我们得到theｗay后接定语从句时的三种模式：1) tｈe ｗaｙ＋ｔhａt-从句２）the way +ｉn whiｃh－从句3) the ｗay +从句 例如：Ｔｈe way(in whiｃh ，thａt) ｔhｅｓｅｃomｒade ｓloｏｋａｔｐrobｌems is wrong．这些同志看问题的方法

不对。 Ｔｈｅｗａy(that ,ｉn ｗhiｃh)yoｕ’ｒe doinｇit is comple ｔeｌy crａzy.你这么个干法,简直发疯。 Wｅａdmiｒｅd him for thｅｗay ｉｎｗhｉch he fａｃeｓdiｆficultieｓ． Waｌlａｃe ａｎd Ｄarwiｎｇreed ｏn the way ｉｎwhi ｃh ｄｉfｆｅrｅnt forms ｏf life had ｂegｕn.华莱士和达尔文对不同类型的生物是如何起源的持相同的观点。 Thｉs is ｔｈe ｗaｙ（tｈａｔ) hｅdｉd it. I lｉkeｄｔhe waｙ(ｔhat) ｓｈeｏｒganized ｔhe ｍeetｉng． 3.theｗay(tｈat)有时可以与hｏw(作“如何”解）通用。例如： That’s tｈe ｗaｙ(tｈaｔ) shｅspoke. = Tｈat’s how shｅspoke.

(完整版)Indesign基础教程

Indesign基础授课人：张磊 首先，在开始学习前需要知道的： 1、indesign主要是用来为图文类的书、杂志等成册的印刷品排版的软件 2、我们一般用indesign来排书的内文而不做封面（封面文件用illustrator做），indesign相当于一本书，里面会显示所有的页面，一般来说，第一页是书正文右边的页面，从第二页开始，就是对页显示） 3、我们在排版过程中，一般来说，做的最多的就是置入图片、置入文字内容、做一定的装饰性的图形或字符、制作页码、页眉。通过你自己的设计、编排来实现协调、有秩序、有美感的版面。（这其中核心的内容就是对图片的大小、位置进行编辑，有时还需要对图片进行裁切或者效果的编辑；对文字的字体、大小、字的间距、行间距等进行设计和编辑；做一些创意性的装饰图纹等） 一、【新建文档】 这里可以设置页面的大小、页数 如果初次设置的页数不够的话，也没关系，在窗口中的“页面”中可以右键“插入页面”or“删除跨页“来修改。 新建文档

二、【设置边距和分栏】 设置边距主要就是要设置好‘版心’（即版面内文主体）所占的面积边距就是版心距离裁切边上、下、左、右的距离 这里可以设置栏数和栏间距，这个不用讲，你设置一下就明白了 设置边距分栏

对页 图中所表示的就是一个对页的样子 最外边的红色线是出血线，我们所有的出血的图都要做到这个边线才可以， 目前我们看到的这个页面是分2栏的栏间距是5毫米。 这些线条都是辅助我们排版对齐用的，如果你想看排好后的效果，可以用control+: 来看到没有辅助线的版面～ 合适的版心是需要耐心去调整的，有时候只是1、2毫米的差别整体的效果就会很不一样。设计版心的时候一要考虑文字量的大小，二要考虑整本书的图片量，在最初就对正本书图文关系有一个统一的规划。 有些书为了版式的新颖和体现书的独特风格于气质，运用比较特殊的版心，例如天（上边距大）特别开的占到1／3页面的，或者版心在一个页面的左侧或右侧，留下一部分空白等等，这些都需要你去设计和不断的尝试，所有的设计都没有完全固定的标准，力求做到方便阅读、适合、美观。

way 用法

表示“方式”、“方法”，注意以下用法： 1.表示用某种方法或按某种方式，通常用介词in(此介词有时可省略)。如： Do it (in) your own way. 按你自己的方法做吧。 Please do not talk (in) that way. 请不要那样说。 2.表示做某事的方式或方法，其后可接不定式或of doing sth。 如： It’s the best way of studying [to study] English. 这是学习英语的最好方法。 There are different ways to do [of doing] it. 做这事有不同的办法。 3.其后通常可直接跟一个定语从句(不用任何引导词)，也可跟由that 或in which 引导的定语从句，但是其后的从句不能由how 来引导。如： 我不喜欢他说话的态度。 正：I don’t like the way he spoke. 正：I don’t like the way that he spoke. 正：I don’t like the way in which he spoke. 误：I don’t like the way how he spoke. 4.注意以下各句the way 的用法： That’s the way (=how) he spoke. 那就是他说话的方式。 Nobody else loves you the way(=as) I do. 没有人像我这样爱你。 The way (=According as) you are studying now, you won’tmake much progress. 根据你现在学习情况来看，你不会有多大的进步。 2007年陕西省高考英语中有这样一道单项填空题： ——I think he is taking an active part insocial work. ——I agree with you_____. A、in a way B、on the way C、by the way D、in the way 此题答案选A。要想弄清为什么选A，而不选其他几项，则要弄清选项中含way的四个短语的不同意义和用法，下面我们就对此作一归纳和小结。 一、in a way的用法 表示：在一定程度上，从某方面说。如： In a way he was right.在某种程度上他是对的。注：in a way也可说成in one way。 二、on the way的用法 1、表示：即将来(去)，就要来(去)。如： Spring is on the way.春天快到了。 I'd better be on my way soon.我最好还是快点儿走。 Radio forecasts said a sixth-grade wind was on the way.无线电预报说将有六级大风。 2、表示：在路上，在行进中。如： He stopped for breakfast on the way.他中途停下吃早点。 We had some good laughs on the way.我们在路上好好笑了一阵子。 3、表示：(婴儿)尚未出生。如： She has two children with another one on the way.她有两个孩子，现在还怀着一个。 She's got five children，and another one is on the way.她已经有5个孩子了，另一个又快生了。 三、by the way的用法

Indesign排版软件使用技巧

应用技巧类(D) Q: (D001) 使用InDesign 过程中修改了一些偏好设定，如果要回复到安装InDesign 时的原预设设定，该如何操作？ A: 退出InDesign ，重新启动InDesign ，同时按下[Ctrl/Commnad] + [Shift] + [Alt]键，会弹出提问窗口：是否要删除InDesign 偏好设定档案？按下“是”则可删除使用过程中储存的偏好设定档案，回复到安装InDesign 时的原预设设定状态。 Q: (D002) 我在排版过程中，经常要用到一些相同的字体、字号、度量单位、笔画粗细等。每次都要做一些重复的操作，非常麻烦。如何预先设定并储存这些共享的设定，提高排版效率？ A: 开启InDesign ，在未开启任何文檔（包括新建）之前，在字符面板字体列表中选取相应的字体及其大小，在“偏好设定”中选取相应的度量单位……完成上述操作后，这些设定就可预先储存下来，直至下次修改。（注：如果做上述设定时开启了某个文檔，则这些预设定就只能随该文檔储存，对其他或新建的文檔没有作用。） Q: (D003) 在排版中常用的工具箱、面板等占去了不少屏幕位置，给预视版面效果造成不便，有没有办法隐藏它们，需要时又可以快速地显示出来呢？ A: 有，按下[ Tab ] 键即可将屏幕上已开启的面板及工具箱隐藏起来，只显示主要的菜单和已开启的文檔；再次按下[ Tab ] 键则又会重新显示（注意：按下[ Tab ] 键之前确保当前所选工具不是文字工具）。 Q: (D004) 在排版时经常要选用手形工具滚动版面查看或编辑文檔，如何快速将当前所选工具切换成手形工具呢？ A: 按下[ 空格键] 当前所选工具图标（文字工具例外）即变为手形工具图标，用户即可用之滚动版面，松开[ 空格键]又回复成原工具图标。（注意：按下空格键之前确保当前所选工具不是文字工具。处于文字工具状态时必须按下Alt键才会切换成手形工具，否则将在文稿框中插入空格。） Q: (D005) 如何利用鼠标中间的滚轮翻阅版面？ A: 在翻阅较大的版面时，通常可以利用鼠标中间的滚轮上下滚动屏幕。如果在滚动时按下[ Alt ]键，则可以水平方向滚动屏幕；按下[ Ctrl ]键则可以将整个版面以中心点为原点进行放大或缩小。 Q: (D006) 利用字符、段落样式面板窗口下端的“创建新样式”按钮新增样式时，可以自动调出样式选项窗口吗？

排版天才InDesign

Adobe的In Design是一个定位于专业排版领域的全新软件，虽然出道较晚，但在功能上反而更加完美与成熟。In Desig n博众家之长，从多种桌面排版技术汲取精华，如将QuarkXPress和Corel — Ventura （著名的Corel公司的一款排版软件）等高度结构化程序方式与较自然化的PageMaker方式相结合，为杂志、书籍、广告等灵活多 变、复杂的设计工作提供了一系列更完善的排版功能，尤其该软件是基于一个创新的、 面向对象的开放体系（允许第三方进行二次开发扩充加入功能），大大增加了专业设计人员用排版工具软件表达创意和观点的能力，功能强劲不逊于QuarkXPress，比之PageMaker则更是性能卓越；此外 Adobe与高术集团、启旋科技合作共同开发了中文 In Design，全面扩展了 In Desig n适应中文排版习惯的要求，功能直逼北大方正集团（FOUNDER的集成排版软件飞腾（FIT），可见，In Desig n的确非同一般。 所谓版面编排设计就是把已处理好的文字、图像图形通过赏心悦目的安排，以达到突出主题为目的。因此在编排期间，文字处理是影响创作发挥和工作效率的重要环节，是否能够灵活处理文字显得非常关键，In Desig n在这方面的优越性则表现得淋漓尽致，主要体现在以下几点： 1.文字块具有灵活的分栏功能，一般在报纸、杂志等编排时，文字块的放置非常灵 活，经常要破栏（即不一定非要按版面栏辅助线排文），这时如果此独立文字块不能分栏，就会影响编排思路和效率。而PageMaker却偏偏不具有这一简单实用的功能， 而是要靠一系列非常烦琐步骤去实现：文字块先依据版面栏辅助线分栏，然后再用增效工具中的“均衡栏位”齐平，最后再成组以便更改文字块的大小时不影响等同的各 栏宽等等。而In Design就具有灵活的分栏功能，单这点上就与一直强于PageMaker 的QuarkXPress和FIT站在了同一水平线上。 2.文字块和文字块中的文字具有神奇的填色和勾边功能，In Desig n可给文字块中的文字填充实地色或渐变色，而且可给此文字勾任意粗的实地色或渐变色的边。同时，对此文字块也可给予实地色或渐变色的背景，文字块边框可勾任意粗的实地色或渐变 色的边框，这样烦琐的步骤，In Desig n用其快捷的功能可一气呵成，而 PageMaker 单靠其“文字背景”功能是完不成的，甚至得借助其它软件来实现，就连QuarkX—Press也只能望其项背。特别是文字块和文字块中的文字的渐变色勾边这一功能，也只有FIT可与其抗衡。 3.文字块内的文字大小变化灵活，当我们进行编排时，往往会遇到想对某段文字块 中的某些文字作一些特别强调，如大小、长短变化等等，In Desig n就为您提供了这一方便功能。InDe — sign可让文字块内的文字在 XY轴方向改变大小且可任意倾斜，而PageMaker文字块中的文字却只能在 X轴方向改变，更不能倾斜。更神奇的是 In Desig n中整个文字块可用“缩放键”放大和缩小（其中文字也相应放大和缩小），这项绘图软件特有优秀的功能被In Desig n引进，从而大大减少了由于版面变化而改 变版式的工作量，提高了工作效率。而PageMaker却只能望尘莫及，老老实实的从改变字号大小开始重新安排版面，费时费力。 4.文字块的文字在间距控制上更自由，一般在排文时常常会遇到文字块最后一栏的最后一行不能与前面栏的最后一行平齐等等问题，这时可能就需要调整字距 （Tracki ng ）来实现了。In Design的文字字距可简单的通过设定任意的数值来调整，

pretend的用法总结

pretend的用法总结 以下是小编为大家总结的pretend的用法，希望能帮助大家掌握pretend这个单词，提高英语水平。 pretend to be doing 是强调不定式的动作正在进行的过程中. pretend to do是强调假装要做某事,而不一定正在进行或者是已经发生. 还有一种完成式pretend to have done 强调假装后面的动作已经完成. pretend to be reading就表示他假装正在读书 pretend to sleep 表示他要去睡觉 pretend vt. 假装, 装扮, (作为藉口或理由)伪称 To give a false appearance of; feign: 伪装：显示一副假面貌;伪装： You had to pretend conformity while privately pursuing high and dangerous nonconformism(Anthony Burgess) 当你私下里追求崇高而又危险的新教教义时，你仍得假装信奉国教(安东尼伯吉斯) To claim or allege insincerely or falsely; profess: 假称：不诚实地或虚假地要求或宣称;自称：

doesnt pretend to be an expert. 不要伪称是个专家 To represent fictitiously in play; make believe: 装扮：在戏剧中虚构地扮演;使相信： pretended they were on a cruise. 他们假装在海上巡逻 I cannot pretend to say that you are wrong. 我不敢说你是错误的To take upon oneself; venture: 大胆冒昧地做：使自己承担义务;冒险干某事： v.intr.(不及物动词) To feign an action or a character, as in play. 扮演：假扮某种行为或某个角色，如在戏剧中假扮 To put forward a claim. 自称：提出要求 To make pretensions: 假装，矫作： pretends to gourmet tastes. 自命有美食家的品味 https://www.wendangku.net/doc/6a18425197.html,rmal (形容词)【非正式用语】 Imitation; make-believe: 模仿的;仿制的： pretend money; pretend pearls.

The way的用法及其含义(一)

The way的用法及其含义（一） 有这样一个句子：In 1770 the room was completed the way she wanted. 1770年，这间琥珀屋按照她的要求完成了。 the way在句中的语法作用是什么？其意义如何？在阅读时，学生经常会碰到一些含有the way 的句子，如：No one knows the way he invented the machine. He did not do the experiment the way his teacher told him.等等。他们对the way 的用法和含义比较模糊。在这几个句子中，the way之后的部分都是定语从句。第一句的意思是，“没人知道他是怎样发明这台机器的。”the way的意思相当于how；第二句的意思是，“他没有按照老师说的那样做实验。”the way 的意思相当于as。在In 1770 the room was completed the way she wanted.这句话中，the way也是as的含义。随着现代英语的发展，the way的用法已越来越普遍了。下面，我们从the way的语法作用和意义等方面做一考查和分析： 一、the way作先行词，后接定语从句 以下3种表达都是正确的。例如：“我喜欢她笑的样子。” 1. the way+ in which +从句 I like the way in which she smiles. 2. the way+ that +从句 I like the way that she smiles. 3. the way + 从句(省略了in which或that) I like the way she smiles. 又如：“火灾如何发生的，有好几种说法。” 1. There were several theories about the way in which the fire started. 2. There were several theories about the way that the fire started.