第二语言习得ellis rod 要点 打印版
1.Introduction:describing and explaining L2 acquisition
a.What is Second language acquisition?
Its emergence is no accident. This has been a time of the global village and the World wide Web. As never before ,people have had to learn a second language ,not just as a pleasing pastime ,but often as a means of obtaining an education of securing employment.
Second can refer to any language that is learned subsequent to the mother tongue. It can refer to the third or fourth language.Also, second is not intended to contrast with foreign. so L2 acquisition can be defined as the way in which people learn a language other than their mother tongue ,inside or outside of a classroom.Second Language Acquisition is the study of L2 acquisition.
b.What are the goal of SLA?
Some approaches for you to set about finding how the learners acquire an L2:
1.ask the learners how they did it .This approach has provided some valuable insights but it is limited in that learners are not aware of the actual learning process they engaged in
2.collecting samples of learner language that learners produce and analyse them carefully .These samples provide evidence of what the learners know about the target language .If the samples are collected at different points in time ,It may be possible to find out how learners knowledge gradually develops. in other words , what we are trying to is describe how learner language change over time.
c.the focus of SLA
SLA has not focused on these communicative aspects of language development --- how learners‘ overall ability to communicate develops, how they become more fluent in their use of an L2 .but on the formal features of language that linguists have traditionally concentrated on .----- pronunciation (how learners‘accents change over time.) words---how learners build up their vocabulary；most of ten ,the focus has been on the grammar---{the focus has been the grammar of the L2}
d.the goals of SLA
One of the goal of SLA is the description of L2 acquisition.Another is explanation; identifying the external and internal factors that account for why learners acquire an L2 in the way they do. One of the goal of SLA are to describe how L2 acquisition proceeds and to explain this process and why some learners seem to be better as it than others.
e.What are the external and internal factors?
One of the external factors is the social milieu in which learning takes place. Social conditions influence the opportunities learners have to hear and speak the language and the attitudes that they develop towards it. Another external factor is the input that learners receive,that is,the sample of language to which a learner is exposed. Language learning can not occur without some input.
L2 acquisition can be explained in part by these external but internal factors also should be considered. Learner possess cognitive mechanisms which enable to extract informationabout L2 from the input.L2 learner bring an
enormous amount of knowledge to the task of learning an L2.First,they can draw on the mother tongue ,Second, learners possess general knowledge about which can help them understand L2 input .Finally ,learners possess communication strategies that help them make effective use of their L2 knowledge. Besides ,it has been suggested that people vary in their language aptitude
f.two case studies
A case study is a detailed study of a learner‘s acquisition of an L2,which is longitudinal, involving the collection of samples of the learner‘s speech or writing over a period of time. One is of an adult learner learning English in surroundings where it serves as a means of daily communication and the other of two children learning English in a classroom.
Research Schmidt says-----.Wes ,a naturalistic learner ---who learns English by learning to communicate in it; he was still far short for native –speaker accuracy, but he did develop in other ways, eg, his use of formula, he can identify the fixed phrases and practise them consciously. This help him develop fluency in English, In fact , we is a successful communicator, a skilled conversationalist.
Researcher Rod Ellis says----J and R .the instruction the two learners received involves both formal instruction and informal instruction. The focus is the request. because English is the medium of
communication ,there are numerous opportunities for them to hear and perform requests. the similarities between J and R ;1,both were capable of successfully performing simple requests.2,both manifested development in
their ability to perform requests.3.many of their requests seemed formulaic in nature.4,both progressed in much the same way despite the fact they had different native languages, however ,the ability is limited in a number of respects.5,in short ,despite ample opportunity to master requests, both were still far short of native –like competence at the end of the study.
P11.Methodological issues
1,what needs to be described
2,what it means to say that a learner has acquired a feature of the target language.
(Schmidt defines acquisition in terms of whether the learner manifests patterns of language use that are more or less the same as native speakers of the target language. However, this conflates what learners know with what they can do.
3, What determines whether learners have acquired a particular feature? 4,it concerns learner‘s overuse of linguisti c forms in trying to measure whether acquisition has taken place
P12,Issues in the description of learner language
1,What is the role that the formulas play ,not just in enhancing learner
?performance but in their acquisition of an L2
2,has the learners acquired the language systematically ?
P12,two findings
1,One finding is that learners make errors of different kinds. Not only in grammatical errors, but sociolinguistic errors
2,Another finding is that learners acquire a number of formulaic chunks,
which they use to perform communicative functions and which contribute to the fluency of their unplanned speech.
3,learners do acquire aspects of an L2 systematically and follow particular developmental routes.
P13,Issues in the explanation of L2 acquisition
An explanation of L2 acquisition must account for both item and system learning and how the two interrelate
1,one explanation is that learner follow a particular developmental pattern because their mental faculties are structured in such a way that this is the way they have to learn
2,other explanations emphasize the importance of external as opposed to internal factors.
2.The nature of learner language
The main way of investigating L2acquisition is by collecting and decribing samples of learner language .the description may focus on
errors and error analysis:
identifying errors,
The first step in analysing learners errors is to identify them. it is clear that identifying the exact errors that learners make is often difficult.
P15.good reasons for focusing on errors:
1st ,they are a conspicuous feature of learner language
2nd,it is useful to know what errors learners make
3rd,paradoxically,it is possible that making errors may actually help learners to learn when they self- correct errors they make.
P17,the definition of errors and mistakes
Errors reflects gaps in a learner‘s knowledge ; they occur because the learner does not know what is correct; mistakes reflect occasional lapses in performance; they occur because ,in a particular instance ,the learner is unable to perform what he or she knows
p17,how to distinguish errors and mistakes
one way might be to check the consistency of learners‘ performance another is to ask learners to try to correct their own deviant utterances describing errors,
most common grammatical category of error is how to distinguish errors and mistakes in an analysis of Jean‘s errors.
Most common general error type is ―misinformation‖
P18.ways of describing and classifying all the errors into types
1st,classify errors into grammatical categories
2nd,identify general way in which the learners‘ utterances differ from the reconstructed target-language utterances, which includes omission, misinformation , misordering
explaining errors,(P18)
The identification and description of errors are preliminaries to the task of trying to explain why they occur. Errors are systematic and predictable.
P19.How many sources can errors have?
some errors seem to be universal ,reflecting learners‘ attempts to make the task of learning and using the L2 simpler.
1st, learners commit errors of omission.
2nd,they overgeneralize forms that they find easy to learn and process; ie, overgeneralization
3rd,other errors reflect learners‘ attempts to make use of their L1 knowledge. These are known as transfer errors
error evaluation (19)
the purpose of the error analysis is to help learners learn an L2 ,there is a need to evaluate errors. some errors can be considered more serious than others because they are more likely to interfere with the intelligibility of what someone says. global errors are difficult to understand because their structure is wrong .local errors affect only a single constituent, less likely to create any processing problems
developmental patterns
The early stage of L2 acquisition
Learners make no attempts to say anything to begin with in a silent period. which may serve as a preparation for subsequent production .when L2 learners begin their speech ;their utterances have two characteristics; one is formulaic chunks which can give a mistakenimpression of competence the other is propositional simplification
P21.two developing questions:
1st. acquisition order-----Do Learners acquire the grammatical structures of an L2 in a definite order? Learners do seem to find some grammatical features easier than others ,so it is quite possible that acquisition follows a definite order.
2nd.sequence of acquisition----- Do learners learn such structures in a
single step or do they proceed through a number of interim stages before they master the target structure?
P21-p25 The order of acquisition .sequence of acquisition
U-shaped course of development------ initially learners may display a high level of accuracy only to apparently regress later before finally once again performing in accordance with target-language norms
Restructuring----- In order to accommodate new knowledge ,learners reorganize their existing knowledge ,which is believed to be prevalent is referred to as restructuring
It is clear that acquisition of a simple grammatical feature is a highly complex affair. not only are there general stages ,but there may be stages within stages. despite the complexity of learners‘ behaviour, it is clear that it is far from random. Follow
Some implications:
L2 acquisition is systematic and to a large extent, universal, reflecting ways in which internal cognitive mechanisms control acquisition; the work on developmental pattern tells us that some linguistic feature s are inherently easier to learn than others.
A existing question: is the orders and sequences of acquisition can be altered through formal instruction ?
P25-29 variability in learner language
learner language is systematic and variable. the variability is also systematic . there are some evidence of systematic variability. eg, learners choice of past tense marker depends ,in part, on whether the verb refers to
an event ,an activity, or a state .Broadly speaking ,it is determined by a variety of factors such as linguistic context, situational context and the availability of planning time
1st.learner s vary in their use of the L2 according to linguistic contexts. one linguistic form can trigger the use of another form.
2nd.learners vary the linguistic forms they use in accordance with the situational context. They are more likely to use the correct target-language forms in formal contexts and non-target forms in informal contexts.
3rd.Another factor that accounts for the systematic nature of variability is the psycholinguistic context. Which mainly refers to the availability of planning time
A characteristic of any natural language is that forms realize meanings in a systematic way. However, form-function mappings which learners make do not always conform to those found in the target language. The resulting systems are often very different from the target-language system. With time ,they becomemore target-like..
It is possible that free variation constitutes an essential stage in the acquisition of grammatical structures. Different kinds of variability may be evident at different stages of development .It is important to recognize that this general sequence of acquisition applies to specific grammatical features. Thus ,it is possible for individual learners to be at different stages in the sequence for different grammatical features. Not all learners reach the completion stage for every grammatical structure .Many will continue to show non-target language variability in at least some grammatical
features. it is for this reason that we can talk of fossilization. many learners stop developing while still short of target- language competence. Also, learners may succeed in reaching target-language norms in some types of language use but not in others.
Summary In this section ,we have examined a number of properties of learner language and in doing so ,traced the way inwhich SLA has evolved as a field of enquiry .Early on ,researchers focused on learners‘ errors, developing procedures for identifying ,describing, explaining ,and evaluating them. These studies revealed that learners‘ errors are systematic and that they reflect the stage of development that a learner has reached ,An important finding was that learner seem to go beyond the available
input ,producing errors that show they actively construct rules, which although non-target-like ,guide their performance in the L2 Subsequently, researchers focused on exploring the regularities of L2 acquisition by searching for ―orders ―and ?sequences‘ of acquisition .They found evidence to suggest that learners regularly master some grammatical features misrepresented what actually occurred .Increasingly ,descriptive research in SLA has focused on how learners acquire specific grammatical subsystems such as negatives, interrogatives, relative clauses and verb tenses like the past tense, It has been able to show that grammatical features manifest clear developmental sequences, involving stages that reflect unique rules not evident in the input to which learners are
exposed .Learners seem to be actively involved in shaping how they acquire an L2.
Research on variability has sought to show that , although allowance should perhaps be made for some free variation, variability in learner language is systematic .That is, learners use their linguistic sources in predictable ways. The use of specific grammatical forms has been shown to vary according to the linguistic context, situational context and the psycholinguistic context.
Furthermore , variability plays an integrative part in the overall pattern of development, with learners moving through a series of stages that reflect different kinds variability
3. Interlanguage
Behaviourist learning theory: the dominant psychological theory of the 1950s and 1960s was Behaviourist learning theory. According to this theory ,language learning involves habit formation .Habits are formed when learners respond to stimuli in the environment and subsequently have their responses reinforced .thus ,a habit is a stimulus –response connection. It is believed that all behaviour could be explained in terms of habits. learning took place when learners had the opportunity to practise making the correct response to a given stimulus. Behaviourist accounts of L2 acquisition emphasize only what can be directly observed and ignore what goes on in the black box of the learner‘s mind.
Mentalist theory: the 1960s witnessed a major shift in psychology and linguistics. From a preoccupation with the role of nurture ,researchers switched their attention to nature. This new paradigm was mentalist in orientation. in the 1960s and 1970s a mentalist theory of L1 acquisition
emerged. According to this theory;
1,only human being are capable of learning language
2,The human mind is equipped with a faculty for
learninglanguage ,referred to as a language acquisition device.
3.This faculty is the primary determinant of language acquisition
4. Input is needed but only to trigger the operation of the language acquisition device.
What is interlanguage ? Interlanguage was coined by American linguist Larry Selinker.
In recognition of the fact that L2 learners construct a linguistic system that draws ,in par t ,on the learners‘L1 but is different from it and also different the target language, A learner‘s interlanguage is a unique linguistic system. The concept of interlanguage involves the following premises about L2 acquisition:
1. The learner constructs a system of abstract linguistic rules which underlies comprehension and production .the system of rules is viewed as a ―mental grammar ? and is referred as as ?interlanguage‘
2. The learner ?s grammar is permeable. That is ,the grammar is open to influence from the outside and inside
3. The learner?s grammar is transitional.
4. some researchers have claimed that the systems learners construct contain variable rules. others see variability as an aspect of performance rather than competence.
5. learners employ various learning strategies to develop their
interlanguage.
6. The learner ?s grammar is likely to fossilize. Fossilization does not occur
I L1 acquisition and thus is unique to L2 grammars.
The concept of interlanguage incorporates elements from mentalist theories of linguistics and elements from cognitive psychology
A computational model of L2 acquisition The learner is exposed to
input ,which is processed in two stages.
First parts of it are attended to and taken into short –term memory .these are referred to as intake.
second ,some of the intake is stored in long –term memory as L2 knowledge.The process responsible for creating intake and L2 knowledge occur within the blck box of the learner‘s mind where the learner‘s interlanguage is constructed.Finally, L2 knowledge is used by the learner to produce spoken and written output.
4.social aspects of interlanguage
The prevailing perspective on interlanguage is psycholinguistic which researchers has been primarily concerned with identifying the internal mechanisms that are responsible for interlanguage development. However, SLA has also acknowledged the importance of social factors.
Three different approaches to incorporating a social angle can be identified .1st views interlanguage as consisting of different style s which learners call upon under different conditions of language use .The 2nd concerns how social factors determine the input that learners use to construct their interlanguage. The 3rd considers how the social identities
that learners negotiate in their interactions with native speakers shape their opportunities to speak and thereby ,to learn an L2.
Interlanguage as a stylistic continuum
Tarone‘s theory
Tarone proposed that learners develop a capacity, which constitutes an abstract linguistic system ,is comprised of a number of different styles which learners access in accordance with a variety of factors .At the end of the continuum is the careful style ,evident when learners consciously attending to their choice of linguistic forms ,as when they feel the need to be correct. At the end of the continuum is the vernacular style, evident when learners are making spontaneous choices of linguistic form ,as is likely in free conversation.
An interlanguage grammar is constructed according to the same principles although different from the native speaker‘s grammar.
Some problems about stylistic continuum :1st,learners are not always most accurate in their careful style and least accurate in their vernacular style.2nd,the role of social factors remain unclear. Tarone‘s theory seems to relate more to psycholinguistic rather than social factors in variation. Howard Giles‘s accommodationtheory.
This seeks to explain how a learner‘s social group influences the course of L2 acquisition. The key is social accommodation. When people interact with each other they either try to make their speech similar to that of their addressee in order to emphasize social cohesiveness( a process of convergence ) or to make it different in order to emphasize their social
distinctiveness( a process of divergence) .When social conditions are such that learners are motivated to converge on native- speakers norms,high level of profiency ensue.;but when the condition encourage learners to maintain their own social in group, less learning takes place .According to his theory ,social factors influence interlanguae development via the impact they have on the attitudes that determine the kinds of language use learners engage in.
The acculturation model of L2 acquisition John Schumann‘s acculturati on model:
He proposed that pidginization in L2 acquisition results when learners fail toacculturate to the target language group ;when they are unable to adapt to a new culture. The main reason for that is social distance ,This concerns the extent to which individual learners become members of a target –language group and therefore achieve contact with them .which is determined by a number of factors .Thus ,a good learning situation is one where there is little social distance because both view each other as socially equal, to wish the L2 group to assimilate the two share the same social facilities, the L2 group lacks cohesion,the L2 group is small ,both groups display positive attitudes towards each other and the L2 group is relatively permanent. . He also recognizes that social distance is sometimes indeterminate .In such cases ,psychological distance becomes important and identifies a further set of psychological factors ,such as language shock and motivation ,to account this.
Two problems with such a model: it fails to acknowledge the factors are
notfixed and static but potientially,variable and dynamic,fluctuating in accordance with the learner‘s changing social experiences.2nd, it fails to acknowledge learners are not just subject to social conditions but can also become the subject of them ;they can help to construct the social context of their own learning .
Social identity and investment inL2 learning
According to Pierce, a learner‘s social identity is multiple and contradictory .Learning is successful when learners are able to summon up or construct an identity that enables them impose their right to be heard and thus become the subject of the discourse ,which requires investment something learners will make if they believe their efforts will increase the value of their ―cultural capital‖. Learners are combatants who battle to assert themselves and investors who expect a good return on their efforts. dSuccessful learners are those who reflect critically on how they engage with native speakers and who are prepared to challenge the accepted social order by constructing and asserting social identities of their own choice.
5. Discourse aspects of interlanguage
Social factors do not impact directly on what goes on inside the black box. To consider what the nature of this communication is and how it affects L2 acquisition ,our attention must be focused on the discourse in which learners participate .The study of learner discourse has been informed by two rather different goals.1st,attempt to discover how L2 learners acquire the rules of discourse that inform native speaker language use.2nd ,seek to show how interaction shapes interlanguage development .
Acquiring discourse rules There are rules ,at least ,regularities in the ways in which native speakers hold conversation. Acquisition of discourse rules is systematic ,reflecting both distinct types of errors and developmental sequences. However, more work is needed to demonstrate which aspects are universal and which are specificas it is clear that many aspects of learner discourse are influenced by the rules of discourse in the learner‘s L1. The role of input and interaction in L2 acquisition
A behaviourist view treats language learning as environmentally determined, controlled from the outside by the stimuli learners are exposed to and the reinforcement they receive.
Mentalist theories emphasize the importance of the learner‘s black box.. They maintain that learners‘ brains are equipped to learn language and all that is needed is minimal exposure to input in order to trigger acquisition Interaction theories acknowledge the importance of both input and internal language processing .Learning takes place as a result of a complex interaction between the linguistic environment and the learner‘s internal mechanisms.
As we have already seen, the behavioutist view has been largely discredited. Ungrammatical foreigner talk is socially marked. It implies a lack of respect on the part of the native speaker and can be resented by the learners. It should be apparent that these features are the same as those commonly found in learner‘s interlanguage.
It is unlikely that learners who experience grammatical foreigner talk still manifest the same interlanguage errors as those that experience
ungrammatical foreigner talk. There is no convincing evidence that learner‘s errors derive from the language they are exposed to. grammatical foreigner talk is the norm .
various types of modification of baseline talk can be identified.
1st, grammatical foreigner talk is delivered at a slower pace.
2nd,the input is simplified.
3rd, grammatical foreigner talk is sometimes regularized
4th, foreigner talk sometimes consists of elaborated language use. Modified interaction of this kind is common in learner discourse. Krashen‘s input hypothesis that L2 acquisition takes place when a learner understands input that contains grammatical forms that are at ?I+I. He suggests the right level of input is attained automatically when interlocutors succeed in making themselves understood in communication. Success is achieved by using the situational context to make messages clear and through the kinds of input modifications found in foreigner
talk .According to Krashen ,then,,L2 acquisition depends on comprehensible input.
Michael Long‘s interaction hypothesis also emphasizes the importance of comprehensible input but it claims that it is most effective when it is modified through the negotiation of meaning .however, sometimes interaction can overload learners with input where acquisition may be impeded rather than facilitated. The relationship between modified interaction and L2 acquisition is clearly a complex one.
Evelyn Hatch emphasizes the collaborative endeavours of the learners and
their interlocutures in constructing discourse and suggests that syntactic structures can grow out of the process of building discourse. One way in which this can occur is through scaffolding.
Vygotsky explains how interaction serves as the bedrock of acquisition. The two key constructs in activity theory based on his ideas are Motive and Internalization. The first concerns the active way in which individuals defines the goals of an activity for themselves by deciding what to attend to and what not to attend to .The second concerns how a novice comes to solve a problem with the assistance of an expert, who provides scaffolding and then internalizes the solution .In this respect ,the notion of the zone of proximal development which are created through interaction with more knowledgeable others. subsequently, the child learns how to control a concept without the assistance .Seen this way ,development manifests itself first in social interaction and only later inside the learner. According to the theory , socially constructed L2 knowledge is a necessary condition for interlanguage development.
The role of output in L2 acquisition
Krashenargues that speaking is the result of acquisition not its cause. He claims the only way learners can learn from the output is by treating it as auto input. In effect ,he is refuting the cherished belief of many teachers that languages are learned by practicing them.
Swain has argued that comprehensible output also play a part in L2 acquisition. Output can serve a consciousness –raising function by helping learners to notice the gap in their interlaguages: 1st,by trying to speak or
write in the L2 they realize that they lack the grammatical knowledge of some feature that is important for what they want to say. 2nd,output helps learners to test hypothesis .They can try out a rule and see whether it leads to successful communication or whether it elicits negative feedback .
3rd,learners sometimes talk about their own output ,identifying problems with it and discussing ways in which they can be put right.
6. Psycholinguistic aspects of interlanguage
Psycholinguistic is the study of the mental structures and processes involved in the acquisition and the use of language. The study of Psycholinguistic aspects of L2 acquisition has been prominent in SLA and has given rise to many acquisition models.
L1 transfer—---- (cross –linguistic influence)
Negative transfer--interference ,positive transfer.avoidance,overuse, Comparison of the L1 and L2 were carried out using contrastive analysis for behavourist.In the heyday of behaviourism it was believed that errors were largely the result of interference.
In the early 1970s ,two developments were:1st mentalist accounts of L2 acquisition ,sought to play down the role of .2nd,was to reconceptualize transfer within a cognitive https://www.wendangku.net/doc/7f5720601.html,rry Selinker in his formulation of interlanguage theory he identified language transfer as one of the mental processes responsible for fossilization .The L1 can be viewed as a kind of input from the inside.transfer is not interference ,but a cognitive process. Differences between the target and native languages do not always result in learning difficulty.SLA has succeeded in identifying some of the cognitive
汉语作为第二语言教学概论
汉语作为第二语言教学概论(讲义) 暨南大学周健2007 夏 第一节基本概念 一、语言和言语 “语言”和“言语”这一对概念的区分首先是由瑞士语言学家索绪尔( Ferdinand de Saussure , 1857 -1913 )提出来的。语言是言语活动中社会性和系统的部分，是一种符号系统。语言和所有的符号一样，都可以分为“能指”和“所指”两部分，而且“能指”和“所指”之间的关系是约定俗成的。语言符号之所以能成为一个系统，在于语言符号之间存在“组合”和“聚合”关系。而“言语”是个人为了交际需要使用语言的结果，通俗地说，就是说话和所说出来的话。“语言”和“言语”之间有着双重关系：语言存在于言语，产生于言语；反过来，语言又制约着言语。区分语言和言语，为我们学习和研究语言找到了稳定的对象和最好的切入点，并且可以在语言规范之外，找到言语活动规律。 分清这对概念对于我们的汉语教学很有意义：我们重点教的是汉语的语言规律，而这些规律又是从一些典型的言语作品中归纳出来的。学生有了相当的汉语言语作品的积累才能认识和掌握汉语的规律，掌握了汉语的语言规律之后还要把它转化成汉语的言语技能，掌握了言语技能，才能运用汉语表达思想、与人交际。 二、母语和第一语言 母语( Native language ) ，也叫本族语，是指本民族的语言，与外国语或外族语相对应，它是依据亲属关系来确定的。 第一语言(First Ianguage)是指人们出生后首先学会的语言，是按照语言获得的顺序来确定的。母语跟第一语言不一致的情况；双语(多语)第一语言的情况。 三、外语和第二语言 外语( foreign Ianguage )和第二语言( second Ianguage )这两个术语在当今外语教学法文献中，一般都看作是可以相互替换的概念，在有必要的时候，我们也加以区分。 外语是母语以外的外国语言，是与本族语相对而言的。第二语言是跟第一语言相对的概念，有时还有一种含义，即指在目的语环境中习得和使用的第一语言以外的语言。 四、语言习得和语言学习 “习得” aequisition ，也有译作“获得”的。习得一般指幼儿在自然的语言环境中，通 过言语交际活动，不知不觉地获得第一语言（通常是母语）的过程。 “学习” （learning ），也有人译成“学得” ，在心理语言学中是指人在习得母语后有意识地学习第二语言的过程。
第二语言习得复习整理
一、名词解释 1、母语：“母语”通常是指学习者家庭或者所属种族、社团使用的语言，因而也称作“本族语”。一般情况下，母语通常是幼儿出生后最先接触、习得的语言。也被称作“第一语言”。 2、目标语：“目标语”，也称“目的语”，指学习者正在学习的语言。这种语言可能是他的第二语言、第三语言甚或第四语言。它强调的是学习者正在学习的任何一种语言，与学习者的语言习得环境无关。美国学生无论在美国学习汉语，还是在中国学习汉语，其目的语都是汉语。如果他们同时在学习法语，那么法语也是他们的目的语。对第二语言学习者而言，母语对其目的语的习得具有重要的影响。 3、第二语言：相对于第一语言而言，指在母语之后再学习另一种语言。第二语言习得可能发生在自然环境，也可能在正规的课堂环境中。在课堂环境下学习的第二语言被称为外语。Ellis (1994)“第二语言”是相对于学习者习得的第一语言之外的任何一种其他语言而言的。因此，“第二语言”自然包含第三、第四或更多的其他语言。 4、对比分析：对比分析是把两种语言进行对比，从而确定其中的相同点和不同点。对比分析的最终目的是为了预测母语对第二语言学习可能会造成的影响，即第二语言学习者受母语干扰可能会出现的错误，从而确定教学的重点和难点，采取相应的预防性措施。 5、第二语言习得：人们在自然的语言环境中或者课堂环境中潜意识地或者有意识地获得母语之外的另一种语言。 6、中介语：“中介语”（interlanguage）这一概念是由语言学家塞林克 （L.Selinker）于1969年提出来的。中介语是指在第二语言习得过程中，学习者通过一定的学习策略，在目的语输入的基础上所形成的一种既不同于其第一语言也不同于目的语、随着学习的进展向目的语逐渐过渡的动态的语言系统。 7、偏误：偏误是对正确语言的偏离，也就是离开了轨道。这种错误是系统的，有规律的，它反映说话者的语言能力。 8、偏误分析：系统分析学习者偏误，研究来源，揭示学习者中介语体系。对学生学习第二语言过程中所犯的偏误进行分析，从而发现第二语言学习者产生偏误的规律，包括偏误的类型，偏误产生的原因，某种偏误产生的阶段性，等等。偏误分析的最终目的是了解第二语言学习的过程，使第二语言教学更有针对性。 9、语言变异：指语言表达系统由于社会因素（社会等级、职业等）社会心理因素、心理语言因素而产生的语言形式变化。学习者用两种以上的语言形式表达目的语中一种形式表达的意义和功能。 10、文化适应：Brown (1980a)“文化适应”是指学习者逐渐适应新文化的过程。对于第二语言学习者来说，文化适应就是指对目的语文化及文化环境的适应过程。Shumann认为学习者学习一种语言与他所处的语言文化环境密切相关。文化适应被看作第二语言习得的一个重要方面。
汉语作为第二语言教学概论(讲义)
汉语作为第二语言教学概论（讲义） 暨南大学周健zhou5081@https://www.wendangku.net/doc/7f5720601.html,2007夏 第一节基本概念 一、语言和言语 “语言”和“言语”这一对概念的区分首先是由瑞士语言学家索绪尔(Ferdinand de Saussure,1857-1913) 提出来的。语言是言语活动中社会性和系统的部分，是一种符号系统。语言和所有的符号一样，都可以分为“能指”和“所指”两部分，而且“能指”和“所指”之间的关系是约定俗成的。语言符号之所以能成为一个系统，在于语言符号之间存在“组合”和“聚合”关系。而“言语”是个人为了交际需要使用语言的结果，通俗地说，就是说话和所说出来的话。“语言”和“言语”之间有着双重关系：语言存在于言语，产生于言语；反过来，语言又制约着言语。区分语言和言语，为我们学习和研究语言找到了稳定的对象和最好的切入点，并且可以在语言规范之外，找到言语活动规律。 分清这对概念对于我们的汉语教学很有意义：我们重点教的是汉语的语言规律，而这些规律又是从一些典型的言语作品中归纳出来的。学生有了相当的汉语言语作品的积累才能认识和掌握汉语的规律，掌握了汉语的语言规律之后还要把它转化成汉语的言语技能，掌握了言语技能，才能运用汉语表达思想、与人交际。 二、母语和第一语言 母语(Native language) ，也叫本族语，是指本民族的语言，与外国语或外族语相对应，它是依据亲属关系来确定的。 第一语言(First language) 是指人们出生后首先学会的语言，是按照语言获得的顺序来确定的。母语跟第一语言不一致的情况；双语（多语）第一语言的情况。 三、外语和第二语言 外语(foreign language) 和第二语言(second language) 这两个术语在当今外语教学法文献中，一般都看作是可以相互替换的概念，在有必要的时候，我们也加以区分。 外语是母语以外的外国语言，是与本族语相对而言的。 第二语言是跟第一语言相对的概念，有时还有一种含义，即指在目的语环境中习得和使用的第一语言以外的语言。 四、语言习得和语言学习 “习得” acquisition, 也有译作“获得”的。习得一般指幼儿在自然的语言环境中，通过言语交际活动，不知不觉地获得第一语言（通常是母语）的过程。 “学习”(learning),也有人译成“学得”，在心理语言学中是指人在习得母语后有意识地学习第二语言的过程。 母语习得二语学习 无意识有意识 无正规讲授有教师专门讲授 无计划有计划 无教材有教材 自然环境课堂环境为主 无序输入有序输入 应用语言学 语言教学 汉语教学外语教学 汉语作为母语教学汉语作为第二语言教学
第二语言教学流派简介
第二语言教学法流派简介 第二语教学法流派 ?第二语教学法流派很多，有几十种，这里重点介绍以下几种。 语法——翻译法 直接法 听说法 认知法 功能法（交际法） 1、语法翻译法 ⑴产生背景 ⑵基本特点 ⑶分析评价 ⑷应用提示 ⑴产生背景 发展线索 古代拉丁语的教学——中世纪的古典语言教学，16世纪开始现代语言取代拉丁语，到18世纪末，现代语言（英语、法语）已经进入教育主流。 代表人物 18世纪末19世纪初，德国语言学家，奥伦多夫（H.Ollendorff）对这种方法进行了理论上的阐述和总结，使之成为第二语言教学法体系。 普洛茨（1819－1881）推行语法翻译法教学的重要人物（教师） 相关理论: 历史比较语言学 心理学基础——18世纪德国的官能心理学 ?⑵基本特点 ?以理解书面语、培养阅读能力和写作能力为主要目标，不重视口语和听力； ?以系统的语法知识为主要内容，教学采用演绎的方法； ?词汇的选择由内容决定，对译生词表； ?用母语教学，翻译是主要教学手段； ?强调学习规范的书面语，注重原文，阅读名著。 ?⑶分析评价 ?积极方面： ?创建了翻译的教学形式； ?注重语法规则； ?注重阅读，注重语料的规范性。 ?局限： ?重语言知识而忽视语言运用； ?过分依赖母语； ?教学方式单一； ?忽视听说训练。 ?⑷应用提示 ?两个基本点： ?①以启发学生的目的语认知为出发点； ?②根据教学环境、对象、内容等选取合适的方式。
?在第二语言课堂上，教师容易陷入过多使用母语或媒介语的误区，而作为一个第二 语言教师，在课堂上说目的语，则永远不会多余！ ?2、直接法（自然法） ?⑴产生背景 ?⑵相关理论 ?⑶基本原则 ?⑷训练方法 ?⑸分析评价 ?直接法就是直接用外语教外语，不用学生的母语，不用翻译，也不重视形式语法。 ?⑴产生背景 ?语言教师进行第二语言教学的新尝试，法国语言教育家古安（F.Gouin）（或称戈恩） 创造“序列教学法”。 ?德国教育家贝力子（M.D.Berlitz）一生主要在美国，因创建贝力子外语学院采用直 接法而闻名。 ?⑵相关理论 ?语言学 ?当时发展起来的语音学为直接法的创立和发展提供了语言学的基础。1886年国际语 音协会成立，公布了国际音标提出了第二语言教学的新原则。 ?心理学——联想主义心理学 ?理念：在语言行为中起重要作用的是感觉而不是思维，注重联想，形象化的作用， 通过感觉学习。并认为最强的感觉是由声音引起的。 ?⑶基本原则 ?直接联系：客观事物与第二语言教学直接联系 ?以模仿为主：通过大量感性材料灌输感性认识，再归纳 ?以口语为基础：从听说入门，重视语音教学 ?以句子为基本的教学单位 ?教授当代通用语言 ?⑷训练方法 ?实物法（名词类） ?动作启发法（表演法） ?环境制造（情景再现） ?重复法：模仿、重复、领会 ?词语拓展法 ?⑸分析评价 ?积极方面： 重视活的语言，重视实用性； 尝试建立第二语言教学的直接联系； 教法生动活泼； 为母语不同的教学对象的教学提供了可行方式。 ?局限： 推广受到限制，成功与否取决于教师的技巧； 教学条件有要求；小班授课效果较好； 完全排斥母语，有时“舍近求远”甚至于完全误导；
第二语言教学概论
第二语言教学概论 第一章绪论 一、学科性质 1、学科定位 （1）对外汉语教学（Teaching Chinese to Foreigners ）：指教师将汉语交际技能及相关汉语知识传授给海外非母语者的过程。 （2）狭义应用语言学：主要指语言教学，尤其是指第二语言教学或外语教学。 （3）对外汉语教学是语言教学的一种，是应用语言学（applied linguistics ）的一个分支。 （4）汉语国际教育（Teaching Chinese to Speakers of Other Languages ）：应“汉语走出去”国家战略提出的新名词，是狭义的对外汉语。 2、对外汉语教学的3个含义 （1）教学：教师将知识、技能传授给学生的过程（1996《现代汉语词典》）。这个教学过程分为四部分：总体设计、教材编写、教学实施、测试。 （2）学科 A 、对外汉语的基础学科：语言学、心理学、教育学，对应学科理论基础包括语言学理论、心理学理论、教育学理论。 B 、对外汉语教学研究：一方面是理论研究，即对3门基础学科的理论进行研究，并结合对外汉语教学实践，建立本学科的理论范畴；另一方面要重点研究“教什么、如何学、怎么教”这三大问题，研究这三者之间的相互关系。 （3）事业 A 、加快孔子学院建设。（孔子学院是以教授汉语和传播中国文化为宗旨的非营利性公益机构。） B 、加强师资队伍建设。（一是建立师资培训全球网站，开发多媒体培训课件，提供在线培训辅导，通过网上网下、境外境内相结合的方式，大幅度提升师资培训规模和质量。二是将“对外汉语”提升为二级学科，支持高校建立汉语作为第二语言教学的专业硕士，并增加推荐免试招收硕士生名额，实行本科定向招生，将人才培养与使用直接挂钩。三是充分利用高校现有的对外汉语、外语、中文、教育等专业在校生和毕业生资源、坚持向社会公开招聘志愿者教师，积极从海外留学人员和华人华侨中招募志愿者教师。四是在海外推行汉语师资能力考试、培训和认定，与国外相关机构联合培养海外教师，支持各国开设培养汉语师资的相关专业或课程，增强海外师资队伍自身发展后劲。五是重点建设若干个“国家汉语国际推广基地”，并选择一批中学和社会机构，建立“汉语国际推广中小学师资教什么（教学内 容— 语言学） 如何学（习得理论和认知心理—心理学） 怎么教（教学理论 和方法— 教育学）
第二语言习得概上课讲义
一、名词解释 1、语言能力是一种反映交际双方语言知识的心里语法，这种语法是一种“隐形的”而不是一种“显性的”语言知识。 2、语言表达指的是交际双方在语言的理解与生成过程中对其内在语法的运用。 3、前系统偏误：学习者还没有意识到目的语的特点的规则时发生的偏误，是凌乱无序的，学习者也不知道为什么选择了这种特定的规则形式。 4、系统偏误：学习者能够发现一些特定的规则，但这些规则往往是错误的，而且也不能纠正错的规则。 5、后系统偏误：学习者了解正确的规则，但在运用时出现了偏误。 6、僵化：是存在于“潜在的心理结构”中的一种机制，表现为某种母语背景的第二语言学习者会在目的语习得的某个阶段上停滞不前，无论学习者年龄大小，也无论其是否继续学习。僵化的一个典型表现就是所谓的“回退”现象。 7、习得的知识：指学习者运用第二语言进行自然的交际，通过有意义的交际，学习者接触的是“可理解输入”。 8、学习的知识：指学习者把注意力集中在第二语言的形式特征上，通过有意识的学习方式获得第二语言规则的知识。 9、沉默期：主要指习得者没有足够能力讲话的那段时间，短至几小时，长达几个月。在此期间，幼儿通过听对可理解性语言输入进行加工和整理。经过这段沉默期后，幼儿似乎下意识地习得了输入的语言。 10、社会距离：指学习者与目的文化群体相互接触的程度而言的 11、“融入策略”：指第二语言习得群体面对目的语群体文化时可能采取的态度和做法，包括“同化策略”、“保留策略”、“适应策略”三种。 12、“同化策略”：指第二语言习得群体面对目的语群体时放弃了自己原有的生活方式和价值观，接受了目的语群体的生活方式和价值观。 13、“适应策略”：指第二语言习得群体一方面保留了自己的生活方式和价值观，另一方面也接受了目的语群体的生活方式和价值观。 14、“文化休克”：学习者由于两种文化的差异而产生的精神紊乱、压抑、恐惧等。 15、“刺激贫乏论”：语言输入是贫乏的，学习者不可能通过外在的语言输入获得完整的语言能力。 18、歧义容忍度：学习者对具有歧义性、陌生性、异质性的学习材料或对象所持有的态度。 19、场依存型：倾向于以整体方式看待事物；受环境和他人影响较大，易接受暗示；具有较强的综合能力；喜欢集体学习，需要得到及时反馈，情绪波动较大； 20、场独立型：倾向以分析方式看待事物；很少受环境和他人的影响；有较强的分析能力，喜欢发现式学习；固执，不容易接受别人的意见。 21、移情：移情就是能够体会他人的情感。移情首先是一个理解的心理过程，消除隔阂，在情感上充分理解他人的精力和感受，从而接受他人的思想以达到对他人情感的理解和认同。 22、融合型动机：指学习者对目的语社团能有所了解或有特殊兴趣，希望与之交往或亲近，或期望参与、融入该社团的社会生活。23、工具型动机：指学习者的目的在于获得经济实惠或其他好处。（如通过一次考试、获得奖学金、胜任一份工作、提职晋升、出国、在学业上进一步深造等。） 二、填空选择 1、来华留学生汉语偏误分析成为汉语习得研究的第一个研究领域。
汉语国际教育概论之第二语言教学法流派--北语听课整理-完整
第二语言教学法流派 一、教学法流派的研究 1.什么是教学法流派 教学法体系：由教学理论指导；在教学实践中形成、具有自身的特点。包括： （1）理论基础（语言观、学习观、教学观） （2）教学目标 （3）教学原则 （4）教学内容 （5）教学过程 （6）教学方法和技巧 （7）教学手段 （8）教师与学生的作用 （9）评估方法 1.1教学途径类 较侧重于提供教学理念和原则，对具体教学方法、程序未明确规定。 1.2教学方法类 同时规定了教学步骤和教学技巧 2.三大教学法流派 2.1传统教学法（强调语言形式） （1）认知派（语法翻译法、认知法） （2）经验派（直接法、听说法） 2.2交际性教学法（强调语言功能和语言运用）
（1）语言派（功能—意念教学法、任务型教学法） （2）内容派（内容型教学法） 2.3人本主义教学法（强调学生为中心） 团体语言学习法、暗示法 3.西方学者对教学法流派的分析模式 （1）教学理念、原则（语言观、学习观、教学观） （2）教学方法、设计（目的、活动、教师、大纲、教材、学生）（3）教学实践、步骤（步骤、活动、技巧） 4.对教学法研究的主要方面 （1）时代背景、地点、代表人物 （2）理论基础：语言学、心理学 （3）教学步骤 （4）主要特点（教学原则） （5）成就和不足 二、主要教学法流派分析 现代语言（英语、法语、意大利语）
1.传统教学法 1.1语法翻译法（又称古典法） 以系统的语法知识教学为刚，依靠母语。通过翻译手段，主要培养第二语言读写能力的一种教学法。 （1）时代背景 18世纪德国语言家奥伦多夫吧语法讲解与翻译练习结合起来，成为当时一种标准的课堂教学方法。 19世纪中叶，逐渐成为教现代语言的主要方法。 （2）理论基础 历史比较语言学（语言同源）、官能心理学（思维训练） （3）教学步骤 讲解语法词汇→翻译练习 →介绍课文（母语介绍课文、逐句翻译课文、朗读课文） →巩固课文（胡毅巩固课文、回答理解题） →测试检查（通过双语翻译测验检查） （4）主要特点 A. 以系统的语法知识教学为纲，用演绎法； B. 依靠母语，用母语教目的语，以翻译为主要教学手段和练习手段； C. 以理解书面语，培养阅读和写作能力为目标； D. 重视课文教学，以文学名著典范语言为教学； E. 教师是课堂的权威，学生是知识的接受者。 （5）成就 A. 第一个完整的教学法体系；
第二语言习得复习提纲
第二语言习得复习提纲 第一章 1、第一语言和第二语言的概念P 1 第一语言：指人出生以后首先接触并获得的语言。称“一语”，也叫“母语。” 第二语言：指人们在获得第一语言以后再学习和使用的另一种语言。 2、了解两种环境：课堂环境、自然环境P2 第二语言可以在不同的环境中获得。以汉语为例，如果一个人是在课堂上学习，他的环境就是“课堂环境”，也称“正式环境”；如果他不参加正式的课堂学习，而是在工作或生活中，在与中国人的交往中学习汉语，他的环境就是“自然环境”。 3什么是对外汉语教学，怎么理解“外”字P8 对外汉语教学时对非母语者进行的汉语教学，是第二语言教学的一种。 “外”不是指国籍，而是语言 4（名词解释）什么是母语者？什么是非母语者？P13 把某种语言作为第一语言来使用的是“母语者”，把这一语言作为第二语言或者外语来使用的人是“非母语者” 5理解乔姆斯基的普遍语法，理解直接消极证据、间接消极证据？儿童习得母语的特点P33. 消极证据：a直接消极证据：从他人纠错中获得的信息 b间接消极证据：某一语言当中从来不出现某种形式 积极证据：从环境中听到的话语 儿童习得母语的特点：条件不利、结果完美、速度惊人、潜能相同、过程相同 6 为什么儿童运用到积极证据？P36 儿童的母语习得，是在外界刺激的激发下实现原有生物潜能的过程。儿童所需的，仅仅是能够听到这种语言而已。儿童在习得语言时，只能把希望寄托在积极证据上。 7 年龄和关键期，哪个最先提出来？列尼博格提出的语言习得关键期P49 ?从生物学的角度来研究语言 ?儿童开始说话是生理成熟的结果 ?大脑的发育 ?（2岁——60%，6岁——90%，13岁——100%） ?大脑功能“侧化” ?左半球偏于智力、逻辑、分析能力。 ?右半球偏于感情、社会需要、综合能力等方面的事情。 ?孩子出生后两侧大脑半球均参与语言活动。大脑的语言功能是随着孩子的发育，逐 渐定位于大脑的左半球。孩子一般是6—12岁完成侧化的过程。 2-13岁这段时期，列尼博格称为“语言习得的关键期” 8 很好地理解“终极状态”和“年龄效应”的概念P54 ?终极状态：目的语学习达到的最高水平 ?年龄效应：年龄对语言学习的影响。这里的年龄指的是到达年龄，也称“习得年龄” 既学习者到达目的语国家或社区时的年龄。
对外汉语教学概论-汉语作为第二语言教学难点
汉语作为第二语言教学的难点 11外汉1 汪甜甜随着社会的发展和时代的进步，越来越多的人开始学习汉语。毋庸置疑，任何语言作为第一语言或母语进行学习都不会存在太大的困难，然而作为第二语言，尤其是汉语这一普遍被认为较为难学的语言作为第二语言，总会存在许多的问题。因此汉语作为第二语言教学也就存在着许多难点。 当然，意识的能动作用是巨大的。老师们可能经常会告诉那些学习汉语的学生：不要认为汉语很难。任何事情一旦你觉得它很难，那么即使它很容易你也会存在心理障碍。当然，我承认从某些方面来讲这是一个客观的事实，你可以告诉学生汉语没有法语中那么多的动词变位需要记，也没有德语那么多的阴、阳、中性单词需要区分，但是对于大部分汉语作为第二语言的学习者来说，他们在听过无数人陈述汉语是最难学的语言以后，已经形成了这一条件反射，这时候再让他们相信汉语不难学几乎是不可能的，尤其是当他们已经开始了一段时间的汉语学习以后。 所以我们不能单单依靠学生自身的心里调节来解决问题，更要通过对于难点的梳理和讲解使学生彻底了解和掌握这些难点。接下来，我将就语音、字词和语法三个方面来分析其中的教学难点并就其中的部分难点简单讲一下个人解决方案。 一．语音方面的教学难点主要包括声调、拼音和音变三个方面。声调方面的第一个问题是难以发出四声。汉语声调分为阴平、阳平、
上声、去声四个调。而许多其他的语言，如英语、法语等语言来说，只有整个句子的句调，例如问句尾音上扬等，而不存在单个字词的声调。这就给许多母语没有声调的学习者带来巨大的困难，他们很难准确地发出四声调值。对于初学者的这种情况，可以用四声手势在上课进行声调练习的时候多加提醒。然而第二个问题就随之而来了，许多学习者在学习了一段时间以后仍然会发不出调，当然，通常来说一、三、四声没有太大的问题，问题最明显的是二声声调找不准基调，因为二声要求上扬，许多学习者容易感到困惑的是从哪里开始上扬。我对于这些学者采取的一个方法是用一声做比较，比如你想说“十”，你现在心里念一个一声的字，如“一”，然后再接上自己想说的，让他们连城“一十”，有了“一”做基调，就容易发出二声了。 拼音方面的第一个问题是送气音和不送气音的区别。汉语里面的p、t、k、c、ch、q都是送气的，b、d、g、j、z、zh是不送气的。但是许多语言的送气与不送气规则存在略微差异，如果仅是这样还是比较容易解决的，例如对于母语是英语的学习者讲到送气，可以用英语中的字母s举例。但是对于许多语言，就单个字母来说，根本就不存在送气这一说，例如法语中，p、t、k、c、q都是不送气的，所以对于法语为母语的学者，单讲一个字母送气就会比较困难，这也是许多法语为母语的汉语学习者经常把te发成de的原因。但是法语中一些字母组合是有送气音的，例如ch就与汉语拼音中的sh相当接近，可以通过举一些字母组合的送气音来引入到汉语单个字母的送气音。对于其他的语言，也可以通过这个方法进行尝试。第二个问题是前鼻
第二语言习得复习题
第二语言习得复习题 一、名词解释 1.第二语言：指相对于第一语言来说，除儿童幼年最先接触和习得的语言，在此后习得的语言就是第二语言。 2. 第一语言：指儿童幼年最先接触和习得的语言。 3. 母语：指学习者所属种族、社团使用的语言，也称作“本族语”。 4，目的语：也叫目标语，一般指学习者正在学习的语言。 5，第二语言习得：简称SLA，是指人们在获得母语(第一语言)的基础上习得另一种或几种语言的过程。也叫“二语习得” 6，语言习得机制：乔姆斯基提出人脑中存在一个“语言习得机制”（LAD），它有以下一些特点：1.具有遗传性，为人类独有。2.能使儿童加工语言材料，判断语言体系的发展，建立抽象规则。3.可能已经具备一些普遍的语言特征，这些特征可以在所有人类语言中找到，因此，许多语法属性可能是先天存在于人类的大脑中，无需学习。7，工具型动机：学习者对目的语群体没有兴趣，学习目的语只是为了掌握一个工具，用来提高自己的知识水平、改善社会地位。 8，习得与学习：克拉申认为“习得”通常指在自然状态下“下意识”的语言获得，而“学习”一般是指“有意识”的语言获得。前者称为“内隐学习”，后者称为“外显学习” 9，中介语：语言学习者在学习第二语言时所拥有的一种独立的语言系统,这种语言系统在结构上既不是学习者的母语也不是目的语,而是介于两者之间。中介语系统在语音、词汇、语法、文化等方面都有表现。但它又不是固定不变的，而是随着学习的发展，逐渐向目的语的正确形式靠拢。 10，普遍语法：乔姆斯基认为普遍语法是由一些原则条件和规则构成的系统，这些所有人类语言共有的因素是或特性是必然的而不是偶然的，原则系统和规则系统。 11，僵化：僵化（fossilization），也叫化石化或石化，是由Selinker于1972年在其中介语理论中提出的。僵化是存在于“潜在的心理结构”中的一种机制，表现为某种母语背景的第二语言学习者会在目的语习得的某个阶段上停滞不前，无论学习者年龄大小，也无论其是否继续学习 12，外国人话语：所谓“外国人话语”并不是指外国人的话语，而是指对外国人说的话语。 这种话语，按照Ferguson（1971）的定义，是指“说某语言的人对该语言能力有限者或者根本没有该语言能力者所使用的一种简化的语体”。在语音方面，具有放慢语速、发音清楚、停顿、重音以及夸张等特点；在词汇方面，偶尔使用来自其他语言的词汇、近义词替换、释义等方式；在句法方面，有三种不同的调整方式，即省略、扩展、替换或重置等。 13，偏误：系统性的，有规律的系统性偏误。是学习者现时心里规则系统的外在表现，“我把杯子碰”，语言能力的不足。 14，失误：口误、笔误等语言运用上偶然的错误，与语言能力无关。不能反映学习者现时的“过渡能力”。 15，语言变异：说话者的语言表达系统由于社会因素，如社会等级、职业等，社会心理因素、心理语言因素而产生的语言形式变化。
第二语言习得概论学习资料
一、第二语言习得三大研究方法有什么不同？ 1.主张通过不断地刺激——反应规则掌握学习第二语言；心理学上主张行为主义心理学，强调刺激、反应、强化在心理学上的作用；语言学上主张结构主义，强调语言的结构；语言教学上多采用听说法，希望通过不断地操练结构让学生掌握第二语言。 2.强调学习者的内在因素，支持乔姆斯基的语言习得机制，认为人类有一个天生的语言习得机制，须通过激发这种机制来学习语言；心理学上主张心灵学派；语言学上主张形式主义；认为教学的作用是间接的，需要通过大量的语言输入，激发语言习得机制，并对学习者的语言习得机制重设参数； Eg：母语——桌子，参数重设为table 3.认为习得是学习者和外部因素共同作用的结果；在心理学和语言学上倾向于认知派；在语言教学上提倡多元互动 二、学习和习得有哪些方面不同？ 1.获得方式：习得是在自然语境中进行非正式语言交际得到语言知识；学习是经过正式的 讲解、模仿、操练、记忆而得到语言知识。 2.心理过程：习得是潜意识地自然获得；学习是有意识地掌握规律。 3.获得的知识类型：习得是隐性知识；学习是显性知识。 4.环境不同：习得一般是在目的语的社会环境下自然获得；学习主要在课堂环境下进行， 可能有目的语环境，也可能没有； 5.学习效果：习得需要大量的时间，习得效果一般都较好；学习花费时间一般较少，但学 习效果通常不佳； 6.对语言意义的重视度：习得时注意力主要集中在语言的功能和意义上；学习的主要注意 点在语言形式上,有意识的系统的掌握语音词汇语法，经常忽略了语言的意义。 三、自然的第二语言习得与有指导的第二语言习得有什么不同？ （一）Ellis主张社会语言学，认为区别在于方式和社会环境： 自然的SLA以交际的方式获得，在自然的社会环境下发生； 有指导的SLA以教学指导的方式获得，通常在课堂环境中发生。 （二）Klein主张心理语言学，认为区别在于学习者的注意和动机： 自然的SLA的动机是本能要求，潜意识的，获得语言功能、意义、内容； 有指导的SLA的动机是目标明确的、有意识、计划、系统的，注意掌握语言形式规则。 四、母语与第一语言的联系与区别是什么？ 联系：通常情况下，母语=第一语言 区别：非典型情况下，母语不是第一语言。 Eg： （1）父母皆华侨，孩子的母语为汉语，因父母想让孩子尽快融入当地环境，首先会接触当地语言，则孩子的第一语言为当地语言。 （2）父母来自不同的种族和国家，则孩子的母语为父母语，第一语言可能是父母语的任意一方。
第二语言教学概论
第二语言教学概论 第一章绪论 一、学科性质 1、学科定位 （1）对外汉语教学（Teaching Chinese to Foreigners）：指教师将汉语交际技能及相关汉语知识传授给海外非母语者的过程。 （2）狭义应用语言学：主要指语言教学，尤其是指第二语言教学或外语教学。（3）对外汉语教学是语言教学的一种，是应用语言学（applied linguistics）的一个分支。 （4）汉语国际教育（Teaching Chinese to Speakers of Other Languages）：应“汉语走出去”国家战略提出的新名词，是狭义的对外汉语。 2、对外汉语教学的3个含义 （1）教学：教师将知识、技能传授给学生的过程（1996《现代汉语词典》）。这个教学过程分为四部分：总体设计、教材编写、教学实施、测试。 （2）学科 A、对外汉语的基础学科：语言学、心理学、教育学，对应学科理论基础包括语言学理论、心理学理论、教育学理论。 B、对外汉语教学研究：一方面是理论研究，即对3门基础学科的理论进行研究，并结合对外汉语教学实践，建立本学科的理论范畴；另一方面要重点研究“教什么、如何学、怎么教”这三大问题，研究这三者之间的相互关系。 （3）事业 A、加快孔子学院建设。（孔子学院是以教授汉语和传播中国文化为宗旨的非营利性公益机构。） B、加强师资队伍建设。（一是建立师资培训全球网站，开发多媒体培训课件，提供在线培训辅导，通过网上网下、境外境内相结合的方式，大幅度提升师资培训规模和质量。二是将“对外汉语”提升为二级学科，支持高校建立汉语作为第二语言教学的专业硕士，并增加推荐免试招收硕士生名额，实行本科定向招生，将人才培养与使用直接挂钩。三是充分利用高校现有的对外汉语、外语、中文、教育等专业在校生和毕业生资源、坚持向社会公开招聘志愿者教师，积极从海外留学人员和华人华侨中招募志愿者教师。四是在海外推行汉语师资能力考试、培训和认定，与国外相关机构联合培养海外教师，支持各国开设培养汉语师资的相关专业或课程，增强海外师资队伍自身发展后劲。五是重点建设若干个“国家汉语国际推广基地”，并选择一批中学和社会机构，建立“汉语国际推广中小学师资
第五讲 第二语言教学法主要流派
第五讲：第二语言教学法主要流派 一、语法翻译法 时间：18世纪末 代表人物：[德]奥伦多夫 理论基础：机械语言学或历史比较语言学官能心理学或联想心理学。 ?官能心理学：认为心理的各种官能可分别加以训练例如：记忆、思考、概括…… ?联想心理学：把一切心理活动看成是各种感觉或观念的集合。心理活动主要依靠联想的力量来实现。如：记单词依靠和母语的联系。 一、语法翻译法 主要特点： A．以语法为纲，教授系统的语法知识。 B．课堂教学使用学生的母语，教学法以翻译为主。 C．注重书面语的教学，轻视口语。 D．教授所谓的“规范”语言，重视使用所谓经典的“名著”、“原著”。 一、语法翻译法 成就： A．强调母语教学的理论。 B．强调发展学生的智力，学生语法知识扎实。 C．由于注重书面语教学，学生的阅读水平和能力比较高。 D．对教师本身的口语要求不高，该教学法使用方便。 一、语法翻译法 缺点： A．忽视言语交际技能，尤其是听说能力的培养。 B．过分依赖学生的母语和翻译的手段，无法养用目的语思维的习惯和能力。C．过分强调语法的重要性，教学内容枯燥乏味或深奥难懂。
二、直接法（改革法、自然法） 针对“语法——翻译法” “直接”：用目的语教授目的语。 又称“自然法”，主张仿照幼儿学习母语的自然过程来设计第二语言教学过程。 直接法是作为“语法——翻译法”的对立物在西欧出现的，代表人物是贝立兹。时间：19世纪后半叶西欧 代表人物： [德]贝立兹[法]古安[英]帕莫·艾盖尔特 理论基础： 联结主义心理学，强调语言与客体的直接连接。 特点： A．在语言和外界事物或经验之间建立起直接的联系，在教学过程中不使用学生的母语。 B、以口语为基础（与“语法—翻译法”针锋相对） C．句本位，以句子为基本的教学单位。 D．以模仿为主。 E．用归纳法教授语法规则先操练，后归纳。 优点： A．打破语法—翻译法一统天下的局面，开创了新路子。 B．利用直观手段（实物、图片等）进行教学，有利于调动学生积极性。 C．注重口语教学，有利于培养学生的言语能力 D．不使用学生母语，有利于培养学生用目的语思维的能力。 缺点： A．把幼儿习得母语和成人学习第二语言混为一谈。 B．完全摒弃学生母语，忽视其积极意义，有时反而影响学生对目的语的理解。C．过分强调模仿、重复，不符合成年人需要适当给出规则的学习方式。 D．对读写能力的培养不够重视。
《第二语言习得理论》复习纲要附参考答案
《第二语习得理论》复习纲要 第一章引言 1、二语习得研究者的研究对象一般是群体，而不是个体，你如何看待这个问题？10 二语习得研究中，研究者的研究对象一般是群体，研究结论也是对某个群体而言。但作为二语教学的老师，他更加关注一个个的个体，他关心的是如何让每一个学生很好的掌握第二语言。这种情况下，二语习得研究者得到的结论，很可能对进行教学的老师的指导意义不是很大。因此，二语习得研究者有必要加强对个体的研究，而不是局限于群体。 2、你认为什么是学外语的最好方式？9 第二章人 1、什么是一语习得的行为主义模型？提出者是？16-17 一语习得的天生论模型的理论基础是乔姆斯基的转换生成语法，天生论认为人的大脑中有一个语言习得的机制，小孩出生后在任何一个语言环境中，都能利用这个语言习得机制学会所在环境的语言。这种观点与观察到的现象是一致的，所以有较强的解释力。 2、什么是一语习得的天生论模型？18-19 3、什么是一语习得的社会互动模型，提出者是？20-21 4、什么是文化适应模型？如何评价？24-25 5、什么是perceived social distance？（另一个是social distance，在文化适应模式节）26 perceived social distance是与social distance相关的一个概念。Social distance通常指人们在社会经济地位方面的差别，而perceived social distance则指学习者部因素的差别（比如对讲所学语言的人的态度，对讲这种语言的社会的态度，对讲这种语言的人的文化价值观念的态度等）。Acton研究了perceived social distance与学习成绩之间的关系，研究结果表明，态度介于两种语言文化价值观的学生，学习成绩最理想。 6、文化适应分哪几个阶段？29-30 7、什么是言语适应模型？是谁提出来的？30-31 二语学习者对所学语言文化的态度影响学习过程，言语适应模型认为人们之间的交谈包含三个不同的过程，即交谈双方保持他们各自的说话方式，让各自的说话方式与对方显得越发不
第二语言习得PPT
I. Introduction II. Individual differences in SLA III. Input and inter-language IV. Contrastive analysis and error analysis V. Foreign language teaching approaches I. Introduction The term Applied Linguistics (AL) is an Anglo-American coinage. AL in the past based itself mainly on the findings of theoretical linguistics especially in language teaching. 1.1 Definition of Applied Linguistics Corder 1974---Crystal 1985---Richards 1985---Steven 1992 Corder 1974:AL is the utilization of the knowledge about the nature of language achieved by linguistic research for the improvement of the efficiency of some practical task in which language is a central component. Crystal 1985: AL is a branch of linguistics where the primary concern is the application of linguistic theories, methods and findings to the elucidation of language problems which have arisen in other areas of experience. Richards et al. 1985: AL covers two main points: 1.The study of second and foreign language learning and teaching. 2.The study of language and linguistics in relation to practical problems.
第二语言教学法主要流派
第二语言教学法主要流派 1、语法－翻译法：又称“传统法。是使用学生的母语来教授第二语言并以系统地教授语法知识为教学基础的一种第二语言教学法。主张母语与目的语并用，通过翻译和系统的语法教授学习。” 最古老的教学法，盛行于18世纪末，代表人物是德国语言学家奥伦多夫。 语言学理论基础：机械语言或历史比较语言学 心理学理论基础：联想心理学 基本原则和特点： A、语法是教授第二语言的基础。学习二语首先要背熟语法规则和例句。 B、课堂教学使用学生的母语。翻译是主要的教学手段 C、注重书面语教学，注重读写，轻视听说 D、教授所谓“规范”语言，重视经典名著 教学过程：字母发音和书写――语法――阅读原文 语法教学的步骤：A、先讲词法，后讲语法。B、用演绎法教授语法规则，并翻译。C、练习 课文教学的步骤：A、介绍课文B、逐字逐句翻译C、朗读D、互译来巩固 主要成就： A、创建了在二语教学中利用母语的理论。翻译即是教学目的，也是手段 B、主张语法知识，重理性和演绎。 C、使用母语，初学阶段不会觉得困难 D、注重书面语和名著，阅读能力高 E、使用方便，无需复杂的设备和教具，对教师本身的口语要求也不高 主要缺点： A、忽视言语交际技能，听说能力。 B、过分依赖母语和翻译，无法培养用目的语思维的习惯和能力 C、过分强调语法，死记硬背语法规则和例句，教学内容乏味。
2、直接法：又称“改革法”、“自然法”。用目的语，不用母语不翻译，不注重语法形式。 19世纪后半页的西欧，代表人物：德国的贝立兹、法国的古安、英国的帕默、艾盖尔特 主张仿照“幼儿学语”的方式和自然过程来设计二语教学过程，以顺乎人类学语言的自然规律。建立语言和外界实物的直接联系和模仿大人说话是幼儿习得母语的基本策略。 心理学基础：联结主义心理学。受其影响，强调词语与客观事物的直接联系，而不通过母语。 教学原则和特点： A、直接联系。在语言和外界事物间建立直接联系，不用母语。 B、以口语为基础。教学目标是口语。 C、句本位。以句子为最基本的教学单位。 D、以模仿为主。是主要练习方式 E、先用直接感知语言材料，而后靠归纳的方式教授语法规则。 教学过程：教师口头展示句子or课文－学生模仿跟读－教师纠正错误－学生继续模仿－教师提问，学生回答；然后也可学生提问，教师回答。 主要优点： A、打破语法－翻译一统天下，开创了一个二语教学的新局面、新路子，重视口语。 B、利用直观手段教学，有利于调动学生积极性 C、注重口语，有利于培养学生的言语能力。 D、不使用母语，有利于培养目的语思维的能力。 E、制定出一套言语训练的方式方法。 主要缺点： A、忽视幼儿习得母语和大人学习二语的差异 B、排斥母语，只见消极面，不见积极面 C、注重建立目的语和事物的关系，教师解释不多，不用母语，易造成误解 D、重视感性认识，偏重经验，过分强调模仿、重复，对学生主动性认识不足 E、对复杂语言现象的理解易出问题，读写能力弱。
第二语言习得概论-考研复习
★1. SLA (Second language acquisition)is the process by which a language other than the mother tongue is learnt in a natural setting or in a classroom. ★2. Acquisition vs. Learning (Krashen1982) Acquisition refers to the learning of a language unconsciously under natural settings where learners pay attention only to the meanings or contents rather than forms or grammars. Learning refers to the learning of a language consciously under educational settings where learners mainly pay attention to forms or grammars. 3. Factors affecting SLA Social factors (external factors) Learner factors (internal factors) Social factors (external factors) Social context Language policy and the attitude of the public sector; Social demand With the trend of globalization of the world economy , it is widely accepted among educators and national leaders that proficiency in another language is an indispensable quality of educated people Learner factors (internal factors)