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语言学期末(这份是正确的)

一. What is language?

1. Language can be generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Systematic---- rule-governed, elements in it are arranged according to certain rules; can’t be combined at will. e.g. *bkli, *I apple eat.

Arbitrary---- no intrinsic connection between the word and the thing it denotes, e.g. “pen”by any other name is the thing we use to write with.

Symbolic---- words are associated with objects, actions ideas by convention. “A rose by any other name would smell as sweet”----Shakespeare

Vocal---- the primary medium is sound for all languages; writing system came much later than spoken form.

Human-specific---- different from the communication systems other forms of life possess, e.g. bird songs, bee dance, animal cries.

The design/defining /distinctive features of human language:

Arbitrariness (任意性）

Productivity/Creativity(创造性）

Duality （二元性、二层性）

Displacement （移位性）

Cultural transmission（文化传递性）

2.语言&言语

Langue--- the language system shared by a community of speakers

Parole--- the concrete act of speaking in actual situations by an individual speaker.

3. Synchronic vs. diachronic

Synchronic (linguistics)---languages are studied at a theoretic point in time: one describes a ‘state’of language, disregarding whatever changes might be taking place.

Diachronic----languages are studied from point of view of their historical development –for example, the changes which have taken place between Old and Modern English could be described in phonological, grammatical and semantic terms.

二．语音学（选择题）

三．音位学Phonology

1.音位变体

Allophones ---- the phones that can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments.

同一音位在不同环境中表现出来的两个或多个语音上不同的音段. 例如，在英语里，音位/t/在tin里是送气的[th], 在stand里是不送气的[t]，在eighth里是齿化的[t],在cotton里是鼻除阻的[tn]，在bottle里是边除阻的[tl],在hit里则表现为声门化的[t]. 此外，随着说话人口音的不同，可能还会有其他的语音形式. 这样一套在说话人话语中的语音形式就是音位/t/的音位变体. 把两个音素划归成同一音位的两个音位变体必须满足

语音相似性原则，而且它们不能处于对比分布.

[p, ph] are two different phones 音子and are variants of the phoneme /p/. Such variants of a phoneme are called allophones of the same phoneme.

In this case the allophones are said to be in complementary distribution 互补分布because they never occur in the same context:

[p] occurs after [s] while [ph] occurs in other places.

/p/ [p] / [s] _____

[ph] elsewhere

2.互补分布Complementary distribution----allophones of the same phoneme are in complementary distribution. They do not distinguish meaning. They occur in different phonetic contexts, e.g.

dark [l] & clear [l], aspirated [p] & unaspirated [p].

四．形态学

**Morphemes: Technically, a morpheme is defined as a minimal meaningful unit in the grammatical

system of a language.The components of a word are known as morphemes. They themselves cannot be further analyzed:

chairman: chair, man

townhall: town, hall

boys: boy, -s

checking: check, -ing

disappointment: dis-, appoint, -ment

Free morpheme & bound morpheme自由语素和粘着语素

Free morpheme----is one that may constitute a word (free form) by itself, such as bed, tree, sing, dance, etc.

Bound morpheme----is one that may appear with at least one other morpheme. They can not stand by themselves, such as “-s”in “dogs”, “al”in “national”, “dis-”in “disclose”, “ed”in “recorded”, etc.

**Derivational morpheme & inflectional morpheme派生语素和屈折性语素

Derivational morphemes---- the morphemes which change the category, or grammatical class of words, e.g. correct---incorrect, edit---co-edit, modern---modernize, length---lengthen, fool---foolish, etc.

Inflectional morphemes---- the morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers, signifying such concepts as tense, number, case and so on; they never change their syntactic category, never add any lexical meaning, e.g.

a) number: tables matches factories

b) person, finiteness and aspect: talk/talks/talking/talked

c) case: John/John’s

d) comparison: tall/taller/tallest

1.构词法word formation

Compound：smartphone, cutting-edge, domain name, cloakroom 衣帽间, state-of-the-art顶尖的, nursing home, self-control, armchair

Derivation派生法：un + conscious →unconscious,

nation + al →national,

national + ize →nationalize

nationalize + ation →nationalization

Invention(新创词语): Facebook, Twitter, drones, microblog, e-tailer, smartphone, tsunami

Blending(混成法):

smoke + fog> smog

motorist + hotel> motel

breakfast + lunch> brunch

modulator + demodulator> modem

smoking + flirting> smirting 边吸烟边跟异性搭讪

advertisement + editorial> advertorial

education + entertainment> edutainment

information + commercial> infomercial

information + entertainment> Infortainment 新闻娱乐化

in + love + individual> inlovidual 独立爱人

Abbreviation(缩写词): advertisement--ad; helicopter--copter; influenza--flu

Acronym (缩写词):

WB--- World Bank CIA --- Central Intelligence Agency WTO--

CPI ---Consumer Price Index 消费者物价指数

UNESCO---联合国教科文组织

NEET---Not in Education, Employment or Training 啃老族

Clipping(截断法):

Back-clippings: ad(vertisement), chimp(anzee),

deli(catessen), hippo(potamus), piano(forte),

reg(ulation)s, app(lication) program (应用软件)

Fore-clippings: (ham)burger, (omni)bus, (violin)cello, (heli)copter, (alli)gator,

(tele)phone, (earth)quake.

Fore-and-aft clippings: (in)flu(enza), (de)tec(tive).

Back-formation (逆构词法)：

gangling →gangle editor →edit

peddler →peddle hawker →hawk

enthusiasm →enthuse laser →lase

calmative →calm free association →free-associate

Analogical creation (类推构词)：

work: wrought > worked；beseech:besought > beseeched；

slay: slew > slayed?

Borrowing (借词): Borrow from other languages.

Chinese: kung fu, tea, tofu, typhoon ; Japanese: Tsunami

Indian: bungalow, jungle, yoga

五．句法学

1.画树形图

2. Chomsky提出：形式主义的转换生成语法Transformational Generative Grammar、Universal Grammar、 LAD语言习得机制 language acquisition

3. 表层结构和深层结构Deep structure & surface structure

Consider the following pair of sentences:

John is easy to please.

John is eager to please.

Structurally similar sentences might be very different in their meanings, for they have quite different deep structures.

Consider one more sentence: Flying planes can be dangerous.

It can mean either that: if you fly planes you are engaged in a dangerous activity or Planes that are flying are dangerous.

Deep structure----formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s sub-categorization properties; it contains all the units and relationships that are necessary for interpreting the meaning of the sentence.

Surface structure----corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations; it is that of the sentence as it is pronounced or written.

六．语义学Semantics

1.Semantics is traditionally defined as the study of meaning in language.

Types of meaning:

Grammatical meaning

Lexical meaning

①Conceptual meaning 概念意义

②Association meaning 联想意义

a.Connotative meaning 内涵意义

b.Social meaning 社会意义

c.Affective meaning 情感意义

d.Reflected meaning 反射意义

e.Collocatinve meaning搭配意义

③Thematic meaning 主位意义

(1) Conceptual meaning概念意义

Also called ‘denotative’(外延的) or ‘cognitive’meaning.

Refers to logical, cognitive or denotative content.

—

Concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it denotes, or refers to.

(2) Connotative meaning(内涵意义)

The communicative value an expression has by virtue of what it refers to, over and above its purely conceptual content.

(3)Social meaning

What a piece of language conveys about the social circumstances of its use.

(4)Affective meaning(情感意义)

Reflecting the personal feelings of the speaker, including his attitude to the listener, or his attitude to something he is talking about.

(5) Reflected meaning

Arises in cases of multiple conceptual meaning, when one sense of a word forms part of our response to another sense.反映意义指的是一个语词或语句除了自身的意义以外还顺带隐射或隐含了其他意义，或

联想意义即引起读者联想的意义。

When you hear ‘click the mouse twice’, you think of Gerry being hit twice by Tom so you feel excited.

Many taboo terms are result of this.

(6)Collocative meaning

The associations a word acquires on account of the meanings of words which tend to occur in its environment.

pretty: girl, boy, woman, flower, garden, color, village, etc.

handsome: boy, man, car, vessel, overcoat, airliner, typewriter, etc.

(7)Thematic meaning

What is communicated by the way in which a speaker or writer organizes the message, in terms of ordering,

focus, and emphasis.

Mrs. Bessie Smith donated the first prize.

The first prize was donated by Mrs. Bessie Smith.

They stopped at the end of the corridor.

At the end of the corridor, they stopped.

2.Sense relations

Major sense relations: Synonymy同义关系, Antonymy反义关系, Polysemy一词多义关系, Homonymy

同音/同形异义关系, Hyponymy上下意义关系

Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.

1)Dialectal synonyms方言/地域同义词---- synonyms used in different regional dialects, e.g. autumn -

fall, biscuit - cracker, petrol–gasoline, lift--elevator;

2)Stylistic synonyms文体/风格同义词----synonyms differing in style, e.g. kid, child, offspring; start,

begin, commence;…

3)Synonyms that differ in connotation 感情同义词----these are words that bear the same meaning but

express different emotions of the user, including the attitude or bias of the user toward what he is talking

about, e.g. The two words collaborator and accomplice synonymous in that they share the meaning of

“a person who helps another”, but they differ in that a collaborator helps another in doing sth good, while an accomplice helps another in a criminal act.

—

Antonymy: The term is used for oppositeness of meaning; words that are opposite in meaning are antonyms.

1)Gradable antonyms等级反义关系----there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a

pair, e.g. old-young, hot-cold, tall-short, …

2)Complementary antonyms互补反义关系----the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion

of the other, e.g. alive-dead, male-female, …

3)Relational opposites关系反义关系----exhibits the reversal of the relationship between the two items,

e.g. husband-wife, father-son, doctor-patient, buy-sell, let-rent, employer-employee, give-receive,

above-below, …

Hyponymy----the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. Hyponymy is a relation of inclusion.

1)Superordinate上义词: the word which is more general in meaning.

2)Hyponyms下义词: the word which is more specific in meaning.

3)Co-hyponyms同下义词: hyponyms of the same superordinate.

For example: Superordinate: flower

Hyponyms: rose, tulip, lily, chrysanthemum, peony, narcissus, …

Polysemy can be defined as one form (written or spoken) having multiple meanings that are all related by extension, that is, the same one word may have more than one meaning, e.g. ‘able’ may mean:

A piece of furniture

All the people seated at a table

The food that is put on a table

A thin flat piece of stone, metal wood, etc.

Orderly arrangement of facts, figures, time, etc.

Homonymy---- the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, e.g. different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both. When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones(同音异形异义词). When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs(同形异义

词. When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are complete homonyms(完全同音同形

异义词).

E.g. Homophones: rain/ reign; knight/night; piece/peace; leak/leek

Homographs: bow(v.)/bow(n.); tear(v.)/tear(n.); lead(v.)/lead(n.)

Complete homonyms: fast (adj快速的)./ fast (v.斋戒); scale (n.)/ scale (v.)

Semantic field语义场

The basic assumption underlying the theory of semantic field is that word do not exist in isolation; rather,

they form different semantic fields, such as the animal field which contains all kinds of words that denote

animals, or the cooking which includes various words related to cooking. Words that belong to the same semantic class in the same semantic field.

七．Pragmatics 语用学

1. Definition: the study of language in use or language communication; the study of meaning in context.

Sentence m eaning:句子意义 a grammatical concept. It is an abstract, self-contained unit in isolation

from context. (what X means. )

Utterance meaning:话语意义something a speaker utters in a certain situation with a certain purpose. (What you mean by X)

Utterance meaning may be seen as the sum total of sentence meaning and context.

2.Context语境: linguistic knowledge & extra-linguistic knowledge语言知识和超语言知识

1)Linguistic knowledge: knowledge of language; knowledge of what has been said

2)Extra-linguistic knowledge: knowledge about the specific situation; knowledge of the world; knowledge

about each other.

3)Background knowledge: common sense, social norms and conversation rules

4)Knowledge about the situation: usually referred to as situational knowledge or situational context,

including time, place, topic formality and relation between the speaker and hearer.

Context & language use:Context determines the hearer’s interpretation of what is said to him as well as governing the speaker’s use of language.

3. Speech act theory 言语行为理论

The Speech Act theory was first put forward by John Austin, an Oxford professor, in How to Do Things with Words (1962). The theory was later developed by An American philosopher, John Searle, in Speech Act: An Essay in the Philosophy of Language (1975). By speech acts, we refer to actions performed by means of utterance.

Austin discovered that the sentences we use fall into two different types: constatives表述句and performatives施为句.

The term constatives is used to refer to sentences that describe what the speaker is doing at the time of speaking. (I pour some liquid into the tube. ) Constatives are verifiable. They can either be true or false.

Performatives do not describe things. They cannot be said to be true or false. The utterance of these sentences, instead, is, or is a part of, the doing of an action. (I declare the meeting open.)

**Felicity conditions恰当条件:

Austin suggested the following felicity conditions:

(i) There must be a relevant conventional procedure, and

(ii) the relevant participants and circumstances must be appropriate.

The procedure must be executed (i) correctly and (ii) completely.

Very often, (i) the relevant people must have the requisite(必要的)thoughts, feelings and intentions, and (ii) must follow it up with actions as specified.

**Grammatical and lexical features of performatives

As for the grammatical and lexical features of performative sentences, Austin notices that typical performatives use first person singular subject, simple present tense, indicative mood, active voice and performative verbs. But these are not absolute criteria and there are always exceptions.

Austin’s new model of speech acts:

?Locutionary act 言内行为: t he utterance of a sentence with specific sense and reference;

(It’s cold in here.) The locutionary act is the saying of it with its literary meaning “it’s cold in here.”Its illocutionary act can be a request of the hearer to shut the window. Its perlocutionary act can be the hearer’s shutting the window or his refusal to comply with the request.

?Illocutionary act言外行为: the making of a statement, offer, promise, etc. in uttering a sentence, by virtue of the conventional force associated with it;

What speech act theory is most concerned with is the illocutionary acts. It attempts to account for the ways by which speakers can mean more than what they say. It is also designed to show coherence in seemingly incoherent conversations.

Types of illocutionary acts:

Austin classified illocutionary acts into 5 types. Searle made improvements on the basis of Austin’s

classification.

Assertives 陈述型: sentences that commit the speaker to the truth of something.

The degree of commitment varies from statement to statement. The commitment is small in “I guess he had got it” but very strong in “I solemnly swear that he had got it.”

Verbs included in this function are: guess, affirm, allege, assist, announce, forecast, insist, predict...

Directives 指令型: sentences by which the speaker tries to get the hearer to do something.

(I beg you to give me some advice.)

Verbs that can denote this group are: ask, request, plead, entreat, command, advise, etc.

Commissives 承诺型: sentences that commit the speaker to some future action. Promises and

offers are characteristic of this group. (I promise to come tomorrow. )

Warning is also a commissive, as “If you do that again I’ll beat you to death”, because it also commits the speaker to doing something.

Verbs that can denote this group include: offer, pledge, swear, vow, volunteer, etc.

Expressives表情型: sentences that express the speaker’s psychological state about something. (I

apologize for stepping on your toe. )

Verbs typically used for this category include: thank, congratulate, apologize, welcome, deplore, etc.

Declarations宣告型: sentences that bring about immediate change in the existing state of affairs.

(You are fired.)

Verbs that can be used for this group include: declare, appoint, nominate, resign, name, fire, etc.

?Perlocutionary act言后行为:the bringing about of effects on the audience by means of uttering the sentence, such effects being special to the circumstances of utterance.

**Indirect speech acts

A major contribution Searle made to the development of speech act theory is his theory of indirect speech acts. Indirect speech acts refer to those sentences that perform one illocutionary act indirectly by performing another. For example, “Can you pass the salt, please?”is both a question about the hearer’s ability to pass the salt and a request of him to pass the salt. The problem here is how it is possible for the speaker to say one thing and mean another and how it is possible for the hearer to understand the indirect speech act.

Types of indirect requests:

Group 1: Sentences concerning the hearer’s ability to do something: Can you reach the book over there?

Group 2: Sentences concerning the speaker’s wish or want that the hearer will do something: ( I would

like you to write this down.)

Group 3: Sentences concerning the hearer’s doing something: Would you kindly get off my foot? Group 4: Sentences concerning the hearer’s desire or willingness to do something: (Do you want to

type this letter for me now?)

Group 5: Sentences concerning reasons for doing something: ( You should write to them every now

and

Then.）

4.The cooperative principles 合作原则

Our talk exchanges are to some degree cooperative efforts, and each participant recognizes in them a common purpose or set of purposes. In other words, we seem to follow some principles when we talk, and we call the principles “The Cooperative Principles”, or CP in short.（在所有的言语交际活动中，说话人和听话人之间为了

达到某一个共同的交际目标，都有一种默契，一种双方都应遵守的原则，即合作原则。）

?Four Categories of Maxims (四个准则)

To specify the CP further, Grice introduced four categories of maxims as follows:

Quality Maxim(质量准则)：Try to make your contribution one that is true.

1. Do not say what you believe to be false.

2. Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.

Quantity Maxim（数量准则）：

1. Make your contribution as informative as is required (for the current purposes of the exchange).

2. Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.

（Jane: Where were you this morning? Tom: I was out. Here, Tom is uninformative because J ane surely knows he was out this morning when she raised the question, but what she wanted was the specific place Tom was in.）

Relation Maxim (关系准则)：

It requires the speaker to relevant: Be relevant.

John: Let’s go and watch a movie tonight. Nancy: I have a lot of work to do.

Nancy’s response obviously has no connection with John’s request. However, the lack of relevance is only at the literal level. At the interactional level, Nancy does give John a sufficient reply

Manner Maxim(方式准则)：

Be perspicuous.(明晰的)

1. Avoid obscurity of expression.

2. Avoid ambiguity.

3. Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity).

4. Be orderly. Consider the example:

a. Pass me the salt.

b. Go to the kitchen, open the cupboard, and take out the salt bottle and pass it to me.

Compared with (a), (b) is surely a lengthy, unusual way of giving the command, and used only in some special contexts.

5. The theory of Conversational Implicature 会话含义理论（proposed by Herbert Paul Grice, Oxford philosopher）

In real communication, however, speakers do not always observe these maxims strictly. These maxims can be violated for various reasons. When any of the maxims is blatantly violated, i.e. both the speaker and the hearer are aware of the violation, our language becomes indirect, then conversational implicature arises.

Violation of the maxims: The following four conversation exchanges illustrate the violation of the four maxims respectively:

A: Would you like to come to our party tonight?

B: I’m afraid I’m not feeling so well today.

This is said when it is known to both A and B that is not having any health problem that will prevent him from

going to a party. Thus B is saying something that he himself knows to be false and is flouting the maxim of quality. The implicature produced is “I do not want to go to your party tonight.”

A: Do you know where Mr. X lives?

B: Somewhere in the southern suburbs of the city.

This is said when it is known to both A and B that B does know Mr. X’s address. Thus B is withholding some of the information required and is flouting the maxim of quantity. The implicature produced is “I do not wish to tell you where Mr. X lives.”

语言学概论期末考试试卷2

语言学概论期末考试试卷2 一、填空题（每空1分，共15分） 1、人与人的口头交际过程是非常复杂的，从通信理论的角度可以将之理解为和的过程。 2、符号包含的两个方面是、。 3、到目前为止，语言学家的研究主要有三种不同的角度，分别是着眼于语言的、、。 4、共时语法指的是从某一时期存在的语法现象的角度地、地研究语法，研究的重点是某一语言在特定范围的语法表现形式和语法规则系统。 5、义素分析的要求一是，二是。 6、文字改革有三种不同的情况：一种是；一种是；还有一种是。二、单项选择题（每小题1分，共10分） 1、下列国家中不是以单一民族，单一语言为基础建立起来的是（） A．瑞士B．法国C．西班牙D．英格兰 2、语言是一种（） A．形式和内容相统一的视觉符号系统B．音义结合的听觉符号系统C．用于交际的触觉符号系统D．集视觉、听觉、触觉为一体的符号系统 3、普通语言学从理论上讲是研究（） A．个别民族语言的特殊规律B．人类各种语言一般与个别的规律 C．几种民族语言的一般与个别的规律D．汉语普通话的发展规律 4、噪音是（） A．振幅固定而有规则的声波B．频率最低、振幅最大的音 C．具有周期性重复的复合波形的音D．不具备整数倍的不规则的音 5、把语法分成词法、句法两个部分，是（）提出来的。 A．结构语法学B．形式语法学C．现代语法学D．传统语法学 6、语义的基本特征是（） A．概括性B．民族性C．模糊性D．同语言形式的结合 7、词的（）是词义的基本的和核心的部分 A．通俗意义B．非通俗意义C．理性意义D．非理性意义 8、“我吃光了盘子里的菜”这句话中，“光”的语义指向是（） A．我B．吃C．盘子里的菜D．盘子 9、日文的假名是典型的（） A．辅音文字B．音节文字C．表意文字D．意音文字 10、四川人在公开场合讲普通话，在家里讲四川话，这是一种（）

语言学纲要期末复习重点整理

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