胡壮麟语言学修订版笔记Chapter 7

Chapter 7 Language, Culture and Society

[The textbook form of this chapter seems very twisted for me. So I changed the structure of the notes, using some questions to guide the whole chapter. – icywarmtea] 7.1 Language and culture

1. The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis

What the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis suggests is like this: our language helps mould our way of thinking and, consequently, different languages may probably express our unique ways of understanding the world. Following this argument, two important points could be captured in the theory. On the one hand, language may determine our thinking patterns; on the other hand, similarity between language is relative, the greater their structural differentiation is, the more diverse their conceptualization of the world will be. For this reason, this hypothesis has alternatively been referred to as linguistic determinism and linguistic relativity.

This hypothesis has two versions: a strong and a weak version. The strong version of the theory refers to the claim the original hypothesis suggests, emphasizing the decisive role of language as the shaper of our thinking patterns.

The weak version, however, is a modified type of its original theory, suggesting that there is a correlation between language, culture, and thought, but the cross-cultural differences thus produced in our ways of thinking are relative, rather than categorical.

2. Context of situation

(1) The relevant features of the participants: persons, personalities:

a. The verbal action of the participants

b. The non-verbal action of the participants

(2) The relevant objects

(3) The effects of the verbal action

3. Speech community: Speech community refers to a group of people who form

a community, e.g. a village, a region, a nation, and who have at least one

speech variety in common.

4. Gender difference: Gender difference is the difference in a speech between

men and women.

5. Linguistic determinism and linguistic relativity: Linguistic determinism is

one of the two points in S-W hypothesis, i.e. language determines thought.

Linguistic relativity is the other point: there is no limit to the structural

diversity of languages.

6. Ethnography of communication: The study of place of language in culture

and society. Language is not studied in isolation but within a social or

cultural setting. Ethnography of communication studies, e.g. how people in a

particular group or community communicate with each other and how the

social relationships between these people affect the type of language they

use.

7. Cross-cultural communication: An exchange of ideas, information, etc.

between persons from different cultural backgrounds.

8. What are the aims of teaching culture in language class?

There are at least three objectives for us to teach culture in our class:

(1) To get the students familiar with cultural differences;

(2) To help the students transcend their own culture and see things as the

members of the target culture will;

(3) To emphasize the inseparability of understanding language and culture

through various classroom practices.

All this lead to a belief that a good understanding of structural things in some cases has much to do with a conscious understanding of the cultural background of the target language from language learners. In other words, a successful master of a given language has much to do with an understanding of that culture, because language and culture are correlated with each other at different levels of linguistic structure.

7.2 Language and society

1. How many social factors are believed to influence our language behaviors in

a social context?

The following social factors are believed to influence our language behaviors in a social context:

(1) Class;

(2) Gender;

(3) Age;

(4) Ethnic identity;

(5) Education background;

(6) Occupation;

(7) Religious belief.

2. What are the sociolinguistic study of society and the sociolinguistic study of

language>

If we want to know more about a given society or community by examining the linguistic behavior of its members, we are doing a sociolinguistic study of society. That is to say, we are doing sociolinguistics at a macro level of investigation. At this level of discussion things that we are interested in include bilingualism or multilingualism, language attitude, language choice, language maintenance and shift, language planning and standardization, vernacular language education, etc.

On the other hand, if we want to know more about some linguistic variations in language use by turning to potential socio-cultural factors for a description and explanation, we are doing a sociolinguistic study of language. Consequently, we are more interested in examining micro linguistic phenomena such as structural variants, address forms, gender differences, discourse analysis, Pidgin and Creole languages, and other more language-related issues.

3. What are vernacular, Pidgin and Creole?

Vernacular refers to the native language of a country, not of a foreign origin or learned formation; or the indigenous language or dialect of a region.

Pidgin is a mixed or blended language used by people who speak different languages for restricted purposes such as trading. Pidgins arose as a result of mixing two languages such as a Chinese dialect and English, an African dialect and French, etc.

Creole is a pidgin that has become the primary language of a speech community, and is acquired by the children of that community as their native language.

4. What is discourse analysis?

Discourse analysis refers to the study of how sentences in spoken and written language form larger meaningful units such as paragraphs, conversation, interviews, etc. Analysis of spoken discourse is sometimes called conversational analysis. Some linguistics use the term text linguistics for the study of written discourse. Recent analyses have been carried out on discourse in the classroom.

Such analyses can be useful in finding out bout the effectiveness of teaching methods and the types of teacher-student relationships.

5. What are bilingualism, diglossia, and multilingualism?

Bilingualism refers to the use of at least two languages either by an individual or by a group of speakers, such as the inhabitants of a particular region or a nation. Bilingualism is common in the province of Quebec in Canada where both English and French are spoken, and parts of Wales, where both Welsh and English are spoken.

When two languages or language varieties exist side by side in a community and each one is used for different purposes, this is called diglossia. Usually, one is

a more standard variety called the high variety, which is sued in government, the

media, education, and for religious services. The other one is usually a non-prestige variety called the low variety, which is used in the family, with friends, when shopping, etc.

Multilingualism refers to the use of three or more languages by an individual or by a group of speakers such as the inhabitants of a particular region or a nation.

Multilingualism is common in Malaysia, Singapore, Israel, etc.

7.3 Summary

(Omit.)

胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记和考研真题详解(现代语言学理论与流派)【圣才出品】

第12章现代语言学理论与流派 12.1 复习笔记 本章要点： 1. The Prague School and Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP) 布拉格学派与功能句子观 2. The London School and context of situation 伦敦学派与语境观 3. Halliday and Systemic-Functional Grammar 韩礼德与系统——功能语法 4. Bloomfield and American Structuralism 布隆菲尔德与美国结构主义 5. Chomsky and Transformational-Generative Grammar 乔姆斯基与转换——生成语法 常考考点： 各流派的代表人物、理论基础、特点、主要观点、重要概念；语言普遍性和人类行为关系等。 本章内容索引：

I. Saussure and modern linguistics II. The Prague School 1. Main points and contribution 2. Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP) 3. Communicative Dynamism (CD) III. The London School 1. Introduction 2. Malinowski’s theories 3. Firth’s theories 4. Halliday and Systemic-Functional Grammar 5. Systemic grammar and Functional grammar (1) Systemic grammar (2) Functional grammar IV. American Structuralism 1. Introduction 2. Three stages of the development V. Transformational-Generative Grammar 1. Introduction 2. The Innateness Hypothesis 3. Generative Grammar 4. Stage of development of TG Grammar 5. Main features of TG Grammar

胡壮麟《语言学教程》第四版笔记

Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics 1.3 Design features of language The features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication. 1.3.1 Arbitrariness Arbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meanings. 1.3.2 Duality Duality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. 1.3.3 Creativity Creativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the possibility of creating endless sentences. 1.3.4 Displacement Displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of conversation. 加1 Each sound in the language is treated as discrete. 加2 the direct/non-arbitrary/non-symbolic relation between meaning and form. There are resemblances between the language form and what they refer to. That relationship is called icon. Iconicity exists in sounds, lexicons and syntax. It is the motivation between language forms and meanings. It is a relation of resemblance between language form and what they refer to. 1.5 Functions of language As is proposed by Jacobson, language has six functions: 1. Referential: to convey message and information; 2. Poetic: to indulge in language for its own sake; 3. Emotive: to express attitudes, feelings and emotions; 4. Conative: to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties; 5. Phatic: to establish communion with others; 6. Metalingual: to clear up intentions, words and meanings. three metafunctions: 1. function: to convey new information, to communicate a content that is

语言学教程第四版第二章 胡壮麟 主编

Chapter 2 Speech sounds Contents ?How sounds are made? ?Consonants and vowels ?Phonological processes, phonological rules and distinctive features ?Suprasegmentals 超音段 ?Two major areas for studying speech sounds: phonetics and phonology ?Phonetics: it studies how speech sounds are made, transmitted and perceived. ?Three branches of phonetics: ?Articulatory phonetics发声语音学 is the study of the production of speech sounds. ?Acoustic phonetics声学语音学 is the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech. Auditory phonetics听觉语音学 is concerned with the perception of speech sounds ?Phonology：it deals with the sound system of a language by treating phoneme 音素 as the point of departure. ?It studies the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. ?Ultimately it aims to discover the rules that underlie the sound patterns of all languages. How speech sounds are made? ? speech organs 言语器官 ?Speech organs are also known as vocal organs（发音器官）. ?Parts of human body involved in the production of speech sounds: lungs, trachea (windpipe) 气管, throat, nose, mouth ? organs of speech (Figure 2.2, p.26 on our books)

胡壮麟语言学教程(修订版)一至三单元课后名词解释中英对照

语言学教程chapter1-3 1.design feature: are features that define our human languages,such as arbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,cultural transmission,etc. 本质特征：决定了我们语言性质的特征。如任意性、二重性、创造性、移位性等等。 2.function: the use of language to communicate,to think ,https://www.wendangku.net/doc/7616042815.html,nguage functions inclucle imformative function,interpersonal function,performative function, emotive function,phatic communion,recreational function and metalingual function. 功能：运用语言进行交流、思考等等。语言的功能包括信息功能、人际功能、施为功能、感情功能。3.etic: a term in contrast with emi c which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics.Being etic means making far too many, as well as behaviously inconsequential,differentiations,just as was ofter the case with phonetic vx.phonemic analysis in linguistics proper. 非位的：相对于“位学的”源于美国语言学家派克对于语音学和音位学的区分。 4.emic: a term in contrast with etic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics.An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech communith rather than via a ppeal to the investigator’s ingenuith or intuition alone. 位学的：相对于“非位的”源于美国语言学家派克对于语音学和音位学的区分。言语行为和事件中的位学系统必须是有效而有意义的，是通过言语社会中的本族语者而不仅仅是调查者的聪明和直觉获得的。5.synchronic: a kind of description which takes a fixed instant(usually,but not necessarily,the present),as its point of observation.Most grammars are of this kind. 共时：以一个固定的时间（通常，但非必须，是现在）为它的观察角度的描写。大多数的语法书属于此类型。 6.diachronic:study of a language is carried through the course of its history. 历时：在语言的历史过程中研究语言。 7.prescriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be,https://www.wendangku.net/doc/7616042815.html,ying down rules for language use. 规定式：规定事情应该是怎样的。如制定语言运用规则。 8.descriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described. 描写式：描述事情是怎样的。 9.arbitrariness: one design feature of human language,which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. 任意性：人类语言的本质特征之一。它指语言符号的形式与意义之间没有自然的联系。 10.duality: one design feature of human language,which refers to the property of having two levels of are composed of elements of the secondary.level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. 二重性：人类语言的本质特征之一。拥有两层结构的这种特性，底层结构是上层结构的组成成分，每层都有自身的组合规则。 11.displacement: one design feature of human language,which means human language enable their users to symbolize objects,events and concepts which are not present (in time and space),at the moment of communication.

语言学重要知识点(胡壮麟版)

Language is a means of verbal communication. It is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 1.Design features of language The features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication.Arbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meanings.eg.the dog barks wowwow in english but 汪汪汪in chinese.Duality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.eg.dog-woof(but not w-oo-f)Creativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Eg. An experiment of bee communication.Displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication. 3. Origin of language The bow-wow theory In primitive times people imitated the sounds of the animal calls in the wild environment they lived and speech developed from that.The pooh-pooh theory In the hard life of our primitive ancestors, they utter instinctive sounds of pains, anger and joy which gradually developed into language. The “yo-he-ho” theory As primitive people worked together, they produced some rhythmic grunts which gradually developed into chants and then into language. 4.Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one community, but the language of all human beings. 5. Main branches of linguistics ?Phonetics is the study of speech sounds, it includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics. ?Phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. ?Morphology studies the minimal units of meaning – morphemes and word-formation processes. ?Syntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences. ?Semantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language. It is concerned with both meanings of words as lexical items and levels of language below the word and above it. ?Pragmatics is the study of meaning in context. It concerned with the way language is used to communicate rather than with the way language is structured. 6.Important distinctions in linguistics 1)Descriptive vs. prescriptive For example, ―Don’t say X.‖ is a prescriptive command; ―People don’t say X.‖ is a descriptive statement. The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are.Lyons 2)Synchronic vs. diachronic A synchronic study takes a fixed instant (usually at present) as its point of observation. Saussure’s diachronic description is the study of a language through the course of its history. E.g. a study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time would be synchronic, and a study of the changes English has undergone since then would be a diachronic study. 3)Langue & parole langue: the linguistic competence of the speaker. parole: the actual phenomena or data of linguistics(utterances). Saussure 4)Competence and performance According to Chomsky,a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called the linguistic competence, and the actual use of language in concrete situations is called performance. Competence 7.consonant is produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some places to divert, impede, or

胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记和考研真题及典型题详解(第二语言和外语教学)【圣才出品】

第11章第二语言和外语教学 11.1 复习笔记 本章要点： 1. The relation between linguistics and language teaching 语言学与语言教学之间的关系 2. Grammar, input and language learning 语法、输入与语言学习 3. Interlanguage in language teaching 语言教学中的中介语 4. Linguistics and syllabus design 语言学与教学大纲设计 5. Contrastive analysis and error analysis 对比分析与错误分析 6. Corpus linguistics and language teaching 语料库语言学与语言教学 常考考点： 语言学与语言教学的关系；语言学与语言学习；语言学与教学大纲设计；二语学习者的主要障碍；对比分析与错误分析；中介语；语料库语言学与语言教学等。

本章内容索引： I. Definition of Applied Linguistics II. The Relation between Linguistics and Language Teaching III. Linguistics and Language Learning 1. Grammar and Language Learning 2. Input and Language Learning 3. Interlanguage in Language Learning IV. Linguistics and Language T eaching 1. The discourse-based view of language teaching 2. The universal grammar (UG) and language teaching V. Syllabus Design 1. Syllabus and curriculum 2. Theoretical views behind syllabus design 3. Types of syllabus (1) The structural syllabus (2) The situational syllabus (3) The communicative syllabus (4) The task-based syllabus 4. Current trends in syllabus design (1) The co-existence of the old and the new (2) The emphasis on the learning process

胡壮麟语言学教程课件Part12

Literary linguistics studies the language of literature. It focuses on the study of linguistic features related to literary style. 9.1 Theoretical background

9.2.1 Foregrounding and grammatical form 9.2.2 Literal language and figurative language Simile Metaphor Metonymy Synecdoche 9.2.3 The analysis of literary language

9.3.1 Sound patterning 9.3.2 Different forms of sound patterning Rhyme Alliteration Assonance Consonance Reverse rhyme Pararhyme Repitition

-Metre(Dimetre, Trimetre, Tetrametre, Hexametre, Heptametre, Octametre) -Foot (Iamb, Trochee, Anapest, Dactyl,Spondee, Pyrrhic) 9.3.4 Conventional forms of metre and sound Couplets Quatrains Blank verse Sonnet 9.3.5 The poetic functions of sound and metre 9.3.6 How to analyse poetry?

语言学教程胡壮麟(第四版) 第3章

Chapter 3 From Morpheme to Phrase 第一部分The formation of word——Morpheme词的构成 1. Morpheme 词素的定义 Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of language in regard to the relationship between sounding and meaning, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, such as boy and –s in boys, check and –ing in checking. And the systematic study of morpheme is a branch of linguistics called morphology 2. Types of morphemes 词素的种类 ①Free morpheme and bound morpheme 自由词素和黏着词素 Free morphemes: Those that may occur alone, that is, those which may make up words by themselves, are free morphemes, such as Dog, nation. Bound morphemes: Those that cannot occur alone. They must appear with at least one different morpheme, are called bound morphemes, for example, the word distempered has three morphemes, namely, dis-, temper, and –ed, of which temper is a free morpheme, dis- and –ed are two bound morphemes. ②Root, affix and stem 词根、词缀和词干 A root is the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without destroying its meaning. That is to say, it is that part of the word that remains when all the affixes are removed. For example, in the word internationalism, after the removal of inter-, -al and -ism, what is left is the root nation. Therefore, all words contain a root morpheme. A root may be free or bound. First, free root morphemes are those that can stand by themselves and are the base forms of words, such as black in black, blackbird, blackboard, blacksmith. A language may contain many morphemes of this type. Second, there are relatively a few bound root morphemes in English, such as -ceive in receive, perceive and conceive: -mit in remit, permit, commit and submit: -tain in retain, contain and maintain, among many others A few English roots may have both free and bound variants. E.g. the word sleep is a free root morpheme, whereas slep- in the past tense form slept cannot exist by itself, and therefore bound. An affix is the collective term for the type of morpheme that can be used only when added to another morpheme. They are classified into three subtypes, namely, prefix, infix, and suffix. Prefix such as para-, mini- in paragraph and miniskirt; Infix such as –ize, -tion in colonize and revolution; Suffix such as –ee- in feet (vs. foot). A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added, so both friend- in friends and friendship- in friendships are stems. The former shows that a stem may be the same as a root, whereas the latter shows that a stem may contain a root and one, or more than one, derivational affix. ③Inflectional affix and derivational affix 屈折词缀和派生词缀 Inflection is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect, and case, which don’t change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached. The distinction between inflectional affixes and derivational affixes is sometimes known as a distinction between inflectional morphemes and derivational morphemes. We can tell the difference between them with the following ways: 1)First, inflectional affixes are generally less productive than derivational affixes. They often add a minute or delicate grammatical function to the stem, such as toys, walks, John’s. Therefore, they serve to produce different forms of a single lexical item. However, derivational affixes are very productive in making new words. For example, cite, citation, cital. So derivational affixes often change the lexical meaning. 2)Second, inflectional affixes don’t change the word class of the word they attach to, such as flower, flowers, whereas derivational affixes might or might not, such as the relation between small and smallness for the former, and that between brother and brotherhood for the latter. 3)Third, that whether one should add inflectional affixes or not depends very often on other factors within the phrase or sentence at stake. For example, the choice of likes in “The boy likes to navigate on the Internet.” is determined by the subject the boy in the sentence. However, derivational affixes are more often based on

胡壮麟语言学复习及答案

胡壮麟语言学复习及答案 Chapter I In troducti on I.Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False: 1.Lin guistics is gen erally defi ned as the scie ntific study of Ian guage. 2.L in guistics studies particular Ian guage, not Ian guages in gen eral. 3.A scie ntific study of Ian guage is based on what the lin guist thi nks. 4.In the study of lin guistics, hypotheses formed should be based on Ian guage facts and checked aga inst the observed facts. 5.Gen eral li nguistics is gen erally the study of Ian guage as a whole. 6.General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of other areas, studies the basic con cepts, theories, descripti ons, models and methods applicable in any lin guistic study. 7.Phon etics is differe nt from phono logy in that the latter studies the comb in ati ons of the sounds to con vey meaning in com muni cati on. 8.Morphology studies how words can be formed to produce meanin gful senten ces. 9.The study of the ways in which morphemes can be combined to form words is called morphology. 10.Syntax is different from morphology in that the former not only studies the morphemes, but also the comb in ati on of morphemes into words and words into senten ces. 11.The study of meaning in Ian guage is known as sema ntics. 12.Both semantics and pragmatics study meanings. 13.Pragmatics is differe nt from sema ntics in that pragmatics studies meaning not in isolati on, but in con text. 14.Social cha nges can ofte n bring about Ian guage cha nges. 15.Sociolinguistics is the study of Ianguage in relation to society. 16.Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive. 17.Moder n lin guistics is differe nt from traditi onal grammar. 18. A diachronic study of Ianguage is the description of Ianguage at some point in time. 19 Modern linguistics regards the written Ianguage as primary, not the written Ian guage. 20.The disti ncti on betwee n compete nee and performa nee was proposed by F. de Saussure. II.Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the