Research on Rural Financing in China with Reference to Village and Township Banks_An Overview

International Journal of Business and Management; V ol. 8, No. 4; 2013

ISSN 1833-3850 E-ISSN 1833-8119

Published by Canadian Center of Science and Education Research on Rural Financing in China with Reference to Village and

Township Banks: An Overview

Bal Ram Duwal1 &Shao Yan Sun2

1 College of Economics, Jilin University, Changchun, PR China

2 Research Center for China Public Sector Economy, Jilin University, Changchun, PR China Correspondence: Shao Yan Sun, PhD Supervisor, Research Center for China Public Sector Economy, Jilin University, Qianjin Street 2699, Changchun 130012, PR China. E-mail: jlcssy@https://www.wendangku.net/doc/7c17470252.html,

Received: November 22, 2012 Accepted: January 10, 2013 Online Published: January 25, 2013

doi:10.5539/ijbm.v8n4p75 URL: https://www.wendangku.net/doc/7c17470252.html,/10.5539/ijbm.v8n4p75

The research is funded by Jilin University '985 Construction'.

Abstract

The problem of rural financing is one of the major challenges to the emerging China. It is challenging for government authorities to provide adequate financial resources and access to financial institutions in rural agricultural areas to farmer households. The development of Village and Township Banks (VTBs) has remarkably increased since 2008 but the deposit collection of VTBs is comparatively weaker than the loan disbursement. Despite of facing numerous challenges, establishing within the framework of new-type financial institutions is playing a significant role for the development of agricultural sector. For the sustainable development of VTBs, VTBs should set up staff and member incentive system, introduce innovative financial products; and strengthen the agricultural insurance system. The cooperation between VTBs and the other rural financial institutions should be developed to meet short-term rural financing gap and to strengthen the institutional capacity of VTBs. The government’s support in policy formulation and financial assistance is essential and the local government intervention should be discouraged. An autonomously functioning financial institution can enhance the sustainable development of rural households’ income, in particular, and the agricultural sector, in general.

Keywords: rural finance, rural financial institutions, village and township banks, financial inclusion

1. Introduction: Rural Financial System in China

Rural finance is a major part of overall China's financial system, where 52% of the entire population still lives in the rural areas. In China there is a huge gap between urban and rural household income. The average income of urban residents was 3.13 times higher than the rural residents in the year 2011(Xinhua, 2012). The per capita disposable income of rural residents stood at Renminbi (Here after RMB) 6,977 whereas the urban residents’ stood at RMB 21,810. By the end of 2011, 48.73 percent of the total population (1.347 billion) lived in rural areas (National Bureau of Statistics, 2012). However, rural population decreased by 14.56 million and stood at 656.56 million in the same period. So, developing the rural financial system is an important part in the effort of building a socialist new countryside. It is also a long-term endeavor to promote a balanced economic development of the urban and rural China as well as Eastern and Western China.

Currently, the four types of formal financial institutions: Policy-based financial institutions, Commercial-based financial institutions, Cooperative-based financial institutions, and New-type rural financial institutions are active in rural China. Historically, rural finance started after the independence of the Agricultural Bank of China (Here in after ABC) from the People’s Bank of China (Here in after PBOC) in February 1979. The former is a policy-based financial institution specially focused in agricultural and rural development. The rural financial system in China mainly consists of Agricultural Development Bank of China (Here in after ADBC), ABC, Postal Savings Bank of China (Here in after PSBC), Rural Credit Cooperatives (Here in after RCCs), Rural Cooperatives Bank, Rural Commercial Bank and various new financial institutions. The ADBC is the only policy based financial institution. As a regulatory body, the China Banking Regulatory Commission (Here in after CBRC) and PBOC exists in China’s rural financial system. These rural financial institutions are providing rural

financial services such as saving, loan, remittance, insurance, futures, securities etc. For details see the graph attached in appendix 1.

1.1 The Existing Problems in Rural Finance 'San Nong'

The Third National Financial Work Conference held in 2007 made some decisions to establish and improve a multi-tired, extensive and sustainable rural financial system tailored to the need of the development of agriculture, rural areas and farmers which is commonly known as 'San Nong' in Chinese. The country is repeatedly stressing on financial institutions to support 'San Nong'. The four big banks (Bank of China-BOC, Agricultural Bank of China-ABC, Industrial and Commercial Bank of China-ICBC and China Construction Bank-CCB) withdrew the investment below county level due to the high risk, low benefits and low return in investment. Finally, only RCCs were left there to provide loan to the farmers but RCCs were capable to provide only around RMB 500 credit per household (Sun, 2008). Some urban and commercial banks also transferred the fund collected in the country to big cities and other economic development areas through their inner system or PSBC. Such kinds of activities cause massive countryside’s deposit outflow, and created difficulties in financing rural areas. Consequently, some farmers, rural enterprises were forced to borrow the high interest rate bearing loan from local people to meet their financial needs.

By the end of 2007, there were 40 813 villages and townships in China and 2 868 villages and townships were out of any banking and financial institutions outlet (Table 1). Nearly 7 percent villages and townships were unbanked in the end of 2007. The number of unbanked villages and township were 2 792 in the end of 2009 and

2 312 in the end of 2010. Between 2009 and 2011, 1096 unbanked villages and townships were eliminated, among them 616 were eliminated in 2011. Data shows that, still 1 696 viz. 4.19 percent villages and townships

did not have any banking and financial institutions outlets by the end of 2011. The portion of unbanked village and townships significantly decreased 5 years period between 2007 and 2011. This improvement is significant though it is not satisfactory and still there are challenges for Chinese government and authorities to eliminate all the unbanked areas in China.

Table 1. Number of unbanked villages and townships

Villages and Townships 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

1. Total Number* 40 813 40 828 40 858 40 906 40 466

2. Unbanked/without banking institutions 2 868** NA 2 792***2312*** 1 696***

7.03 - 6.83 5.65 4.19

Proportion of unbanked Villages and

Townships (%)

Source: * National Bureau of Statistics of China, 2011

** CBRC, 2007a

*** CBRC, 2009, 2010, 2011

NA: Not Available

Rural households are highly dependent upon informal credit channels to meet credit demand. In rural China, 67 percent of farmers' borrowed via informal channels such as relatives, friends, neighbours, underground lenders and other non-regular financial channel (Xu, 2008). Generally, informal credit has usury nature and high financial risk too. Because of the unavailability of formal financial institutions and the lack of credit fund in rural areas, people needed to shift to informal channels to meet their financial needs.

Issues related with the 'San Nong' are still top priorities in China. The government is giving more emphasis on this issue and urging concerned authorities to invest more in this sector. In order to solve the problems in rural financing, the authorities (CBRC, Ministry of Finance and PBOC) have introduced different policies such as the establishment of mutual-aid financial aid projects, the introduction of new-type rural financial institutions, the establishment of banking networks in rural areas and less developed regions. In this regard, the authorities have been encouraging to commercial banks, city banks to establish more VTBs, with priority given to the Western region and the underdeveloped areas in the Central region. Likewise, according to 'Linking the Eastern Region with the West Region' strategy, the big banks and well established financial institutions from the Eastern region are also encouraging to set up VTBs in economically poor Western region of China. Meanwhile, CBRC urged VTBs to serve 'San Nong' sector following the principle of 'granting small loans to diversified small borrowers'.

New-type rural financial institutions have been playing an increasingly important role in promoting the development of rural finance, and they have been taking a crucial part in solving the problems such as the low level of agricultural modernization, and the farmers’ financing difficulties (Liu and Yuan, 2012). The establishment of new-type rural financial institutions is a new concept of providing rural financial services in the rural sector.

2. Policy Adjustment to Deepen Rural Financial Market in China

In December 20, 2006, the CBRC released a policy paper number 90 titled “Opinion Regarding Easing Market Access for Banking Financial Institutions in Rural Areas in order to better Support the Construction of a New Socialist Countryside". This policy stressed on two major issues related with the rural financial institution admittance policy i.e., Capital liberalization and Institutional liberalization.

In the Institutional liberalization sector, the above policy advocated the creation of three new-types of rural financial institutions viz. VTBs, Lending Companies (Here after LCs), and Rural Mutual Credit Cooperatives (Here after RMCC), to support commercial banks and rural cooperative banks to set up the branch offices in the rural area, in order to effectively support the socialist new countryside construction.

In the Capital liberalization sector, a “Low threshold, strict supervision” principle has been adopted. The policy allows all types of social capital, banking capital, industrial capital and private capital from domestic and abroad, to be invested in rural financial market. It is permitted to have ownership and restructure the current financial institutions in rural areas, especially the RCCs.

The policy lowered the registered capital threshold of RMB 3 million ($384,615) for the county (City) bank, RMB 1 million ($128,200) for the VTBs, and RMB 300,000 ($38,462) for township mutual-help associations, as well as RMB 100,000 ($12,820) for village mutual-help associations. For initial establishment of a rural bank, there must be one domestic financial institution or bank as an initiator or contributor (Guo and Jia, 2009). According to the policy registered capital needed to establish county based VTBs is RMB 3 million and RMB 1 million for township based VTBs. Lowering the required registered capital to establish VTBs was also a positive step taken by CBRC, which created favourable and encouraging environment to run more VTBs in China.

The policy adjustment is a landmark phase in deepening rural financial market in China. As a result, many VTBs are established to broaden the financial services in the rural China.

3. The Development of Village and Township Banks in China

The main purpose of establishment of VTBs is to provide financial services to promote the development of local agriculture and rural economy. The VTB is an independent legal entity that enjoys the entire property of the entity that is formed by the investments of its shareholders (CBA, 2011). It is a joint-stock Bank with clear and diversified ownership structure. As per its objective, it only provides financial services to the local borrowers, mainly to local farmers, agricultural production and rural area.

The policy (Several Opinions on Adjusting and relaxing the Access Policies for Banking financial Institutions and Better supporting the Construction of new Socialist Countryside) released by CBRC in December 2006, aims at easing the market access for financial institutions in less-developed rural areas. Jilin, Sichuan, Inner Mongolia, Gansu, Hubei and Qinghai were selected as six pilot provinces (and autonomous regions). In the beginning phase, 31 new-type financial institutions viz. 19 VTBs, 4 LCs and 8 RMCCs were established in 2007. On March 2007, Huimin Rural Bank in Yilong County, Sichuan Province started its operation as the first VTB in China (CBRC, 2009). In September 2007, the CBRC decided to enlarge the number of pilot units from six provinces (autonomous regions) to all the provinces (autonomous regions) of China except Beijing, Tianjin, and Shanghai municipality (CBA, 2011). Since 2007, commercial banks are allowed to establish its own village bank in the form of sole proprietorship or joint stock partnership with either individual and/or institutional investors. This relaxing policy motivated many commercial banks to operate VTBs in rural China. Since the year 2008 the speed of establishment of new type financial institutions were taken up. As a result, number of VTBs were remarkably increased and stood as 91 in end of 2008 from 19 in end of 2007 (Table 2).

Table 2. The establishment of new-type rural financial institutions (operational)

New-type Rural Financial Institutions As end of

2011

As end of

2010

As end of

2009

As end of

2008

As end of

2007

1. Village and Township Banks 726* 349 148 91 19

2. Lending Companies 10 9 8 6 4

3. Rural Mutual Credit Cooperatives 50** 37 16 10 8

Total 786

395

172

107

31 Source: CBRC, 2007b, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011

Note: * 726 VTBs (of which 635 already commenced operation)

** 50 RMCC (of which 46 already commenced operation)

In June 2009, CBRC issued provisional rules on transformation of Micro-credit Companies (MCCs) into VTBs.

This movement indicated that VTBs became the main part of the rural financial institution reform. In 2009, the

pilot program of promoting new-type rural financial institutions showed some progress and 'The General

Working Plan for New-type Rural Financial Institutions (2009-2011)' was drafted and planned to establish,

additional 1,294 new type financial institutions including 1,027 VTBs with the priority given to the

under-banked regions in Central and Western China by the end of 2011. The plan further expected that the new

rural financial institutions will supplement the existing institutions to accomplish the ‘inclusive finance' in rural

China between 2009 and 2011 years. As a result, the number of established new-type financial institutions

rapidly increased and the number reached 172 and 395 in 2009 and 2010, respectively.

In 2011, the CBRC issued the Notice on “Adjusting Licensing Policies and Procedures for the Establishment of

Village and Township Banks'', urges to efficient development and effective management of VTBs. Furthermore

CBRC encouraged to various initiating banks for establishing more VTBs giving priority to the Western region

and the underdeveloped county areas in the Central region. By the end of 2011, a total of 786 new-type rural

financial institutions were incorporated. The number of VTBs increased remarkably, though only 70.7 percent

goal of "Three year 2009-2011 rural financial plan" was achieved. A total of 726 VTBs were incorporated by the

end of 2011. Nine different types of financial institutions viz. state owned large commercial banks, policy banks,

joint-stock commercial banks, city commercial banks, rural commercial banks, rural cooperative banks, urban

credit cooperatives, RCCs and foreign banks have individually and jointly founded these VTBs. Among those

VTBs, 635 had started formal operation while the remaining ones were busy in making preparations for establishment. The figure was only 19 by the end of year 2007. From the above data, it is clear that the VTBs

have been promoted and has become an important mechanism to increase financial inclusion and reduce

unbanked rural areas in China.

4. Total Capital, Deposits of New-Type Rural Financial Institutions

As mentioned above, new-type rural financial institutions in China consist of three type of financial institutions

viz. VTBs, LCs and RMCC. The new-type of rural financial institutions collected 4.12 billion RMB of total

equity capital in the year 2008 (Table 3). Equity capital of new-type rural financial institutions reached at RMB 7

billion in 2009 and RMB 17.38 billion in 2010. At the end of 2011, collected total equity capital was RMB 36.9

billion which was more than 2 times greater than the previous year and 8 times greater than the year 2008.

Table 3. Total capital, deposits and loans amount of new-type rural financial institutions

Unit: RMB in billion

Heading

As end of 2008* As end of 2009* As end of 2010*As end of 2011** Progress/Increase (2008 to 2011) 1. Equity Capital

4.12 7 17.38 36.9 by 8 times 2. Total Deposit

6.46 26.9 75.27 100.67 by 15 times 3. Outstanding balance of loan

3.42 18.1 60.09 131.6 by 37 times a. Total Loan to Rural

household and small business

3.27 (96%) ? 15.7 (87%) 50.59 (87%) 105.2 (80%) by 31 times Rural household loan

1.39 (41%) ? 6.6 (37%) 20.32 (34%) 43.2 (41%) by 30 times Small business loan

1.88 (55%)?

9.1 (50%) 30.27 (66%) 62 (59%) by 32 times b. Other loan 0.15 (4%) ?

2.4 (13%) 9.5 (13%) 26.4 (20%) by 175 times Source: * Development Research Center of the State Council. 2008, 2011

** CBRC, 2011 Note: ?

The figure in (%) refers to portion of specific loan heading to total loan disbursement.

New-type rural financial institutions have collected RMB 6.46 billion amounts of total deposits in the year 2008; it was reached at RMB 26.9 billion in 2009, RMB 75.27 billion in 2010 and RMB 100.67 billion in 2011. By the end of 2011, total deposit collection increased by 15 folds compared to the year 2008.

In the loan distribution sector, total outstanding loans amount was only RMB 3.42 billion in the year 2008. It stood at RMB 18.1 billion in 2009, RMB 60.09 billion in 2010 and RMB 131.6 billion in 2011. The data proves that loan distribution capacity of new-type rural financial institutions has increased remarkably. By the end of year 2011 the loan distribution amount has increased by 37 times of the year 2008.

The huge portion of loan had been distributed to rural farmers and small business enterprises. In the year 2011, 80 percentage of the loan was distributed to rural farmers and small business enterprises. It was 96 percentage in the year 2008 and 87 percentage in both the year 2009 and 2010. The direct loan to rural household and small business stood at 41 percentage and 59 percentages respectively in the year 2011. The portion of other loan was increasing, while the loan to rural farmers and small enterprise was decreasing year by year. In the beginning phase of new-type financial institutions, almost the maximum proportion of loan (96%) was distributed to the rural household and small business in 2008 but it decreased to 80 percent in the year 2011.

In China, agriculture-related loans distributed by all financial institutions reached RMB 11.77 trillion by the end of 2010 (PBOC, 2011a). Meantime, new-type rural financial institutions loans distribution was RMB 60.09 billion which was only 0.51 percent of total agriculture- related loans distributed by all financial institutions. It shows that new-type rural financial institutions' contribution is still in very tiny amount compared to national level agriculture related loans.

During the period of 2008 and 2011 the deposit collection increased by only 15 times whereas loan disbursement increased by 37 times at the same period. It can be concluded that the deposit collection capacity of new-type rural financial institutions is comparatively weaker than the loan distribution. These institutions should enhance the capacity to collect more deposit from the local people and for that financial innovation and different financial products should be design to attract more deposits from the rural people. Instead of having many difficulties and challenges, new-type rural financial institutions are gradually playing significant role in rural financial market through providing financial services in the rural and unbanked areas.

5. Existing General Problems in Rural Finance

5.1 Higher Risk in Agriculture Sector

Agricultural output is more depends upon the natural condition and weather. Farmers have fear of natural disaster risk and market risk. Agriculture output market is highly volatile and flexible in nature. The farmers may not get the reasonable price of agricultural products. Sometimes they are compelled to sale the products below the cost price. Rural farmers hardly get direct contact with the actual consumers due to geographical distance. So, farmers have lack of confidence in repaying the debt and will not go for credit. Due to higher risks inherent in agriculture sector, many financial institutions/investors are not willing to enter to rural finance.

5.2 The Problem of High Interest Rate

According to China’s Supreme Court judicial interpretations; the interest rate which is four times higher than the legal interest rate is known as usury and it cannot be protected by the law. According to China's current loans policy, the annual interest rate is 6% (PBOC, 2011b), so maximum annual interest rate that can be set up to around 24% in small farmer loan. Within this interest rate criterion, rural financial institutions can easily operate their business in commercial way. Research shows that rural financial institutions are charging higher interest rate in small farmer loan and 85% of small farmer loans carry upper limit interest rate viz. around 24%. It is hard to afford higher interest rate bearing small farmer loans for rural farmers.

5.3 Deprivation of Rural Household from Subsidized and Low Interest Bearing Loan

Low interest rate and interest free poverty alleviation loan are basically for local government’s industrial projects. But these kinds of low interest rate bearing loan and interest free loan (subsidized loans) in agricultural development are mostly enjoyed by elite family from countryside, high official persons, village party leaders and cadres etc. (Sun, 2008). The subsidized and soft loans are illegally taken possession by the elite family following the wrong approaches with the help of power and influence. So, rural impoverished community generally could not get opportunity to take credit from the rural financial institutions. For many rural farmers the key-point is not the issue of higher interest rate but the problem of getting loan.

5.4 Existence of Underground Finance

Comparatively, the interest rate of Small farmers' loan and usury in village is not too high. In many rural areas, people think that 'Tai Qian' (means 'Carry Money' which refers to folk usury) is the only way of rapid financing. Generally, the 'Tai Qian' interest rate is several times greater than bank’s interest rate, and it has nearly ten times greater credit risk, but only few people care about it (Sun, 2008). Recently, China’s underground financial scale has developed considerably. The main reason is that the reform of the financial system has become the bottleneck of economic growth. On the one hand, some underground financial activities have clearly “usury" in nature. On the other hand, the underground finance is satisfying farmer's credit demand, financing the private enterprises but it is beyond control of regulatory authorities. At present, formal and underground two financial operations exist in China. Such existence shows that the China’s financial dislocation is comparatively serious and underground financing should be regularized into formal financial system.

5.5 High Operating Cost Inherent in Microcredit Service Provider

According to the World Bank data, internationally commercialized sustainable microfinance institutions (MFIs) management cost is approximately 10% to 15%. China’s financing cost is comparatively low with direct deposit; whole sale funding cost is 6%, if the money is borrowed from market the cost is nearly 7% to 8%. In addition provision of bad loans is at least around 2% to 3% of total loan amount, so that the cost of each loan is above 18% (Ling and Xu, 2006). The loan officer/staff have reached the microcredit needy people’s home which causes transaction cost generally high. The main reason microcredit interest rates are higher than those of other financial institutions is the high operating cost to deliver small loans- paying administrative and staff expenses. It is hard to sustain microcredit lending institutions without higher interest rates. In Bangladesh the government has capped the annual interest rate that MFIs can charges is at 27% (The Economist, 2010). Though there is the issue of capping interest rate by government, some researchers suggest that restricting people's access to microcredit by capping rates could have the perverse effect of driving more poor people into the arms of village loan-sharks, who still provide the bulk of rural credit in poor countries.

Besides above mentioned problems, the fund outflow from rural financial market by state-owned commercial banks and the postal saving banks, weak demand by farmer households due to low income, inadequate banking networks, slow growth of agricultural related loans, lack of modern financial services and backward agricultural insurance policy are still in existence in rural financing in China.

6. Specific Problems in the Developments of VTBs

6.1 Lack of Enthusiasm to Initiate VTBs in Some Initiating Banks

China's top five banks viz. ICBC, ABC, Bank of Communications (BOCm), CCB and BOC each opened 2, 4, 3, 16 and 18 VTBs respectively by December 31, 2011, compared to the total of 85 VTBs opened by 13 of the 16 listed lenders. By contrast, small and medium sized lenders, especially Rural Commercial Banks, grew fast in the field (Big Lenders, 2012). The 'Research on the Development of VTBs in China' jointly conducted by CBA, 2011 and Working Group of Inclusive Finance in China, October 2011 shows that among 192 VTBs, City Commercial Banks, Rural Cooperative Banks and Rural Commercial Banks initiated 45%, 14% and 13% of total respectively whereas large state owned banks and joint-stock banks accounted for only 6% each. These above information clearly show the lack of enthusiasm to initiate VTBs by large scale state owned banks and joint-stock banks. These commercial and joint stock banks are operating in huge scale and transaction with large branch network and outlets. The VTBs operation could not have positive influence in their overall business. Many large banks are only fulfilling the necessary requirements of banking regulatory authorities due to the inherent risk in VTBs and rural finance.

6.2 Local Government Intervention

Some local governments have put forward local policies to the VTBs and impose income tax and business tax as local government's requirements. In some provinces it has been observed that the local governments have been intervening in daily business operation of VTBs; being stock holder, creating restrictions in expansion of business and determining the floating rate between deposit interest rate and lending interest rate. In contrast, some local governments have not taken necessary actions to promote and deploy investment in VTBs with fear of intervention. This investment gap condition attracted large scale private investment and which created misconception among rural people towards VTBs as "Private Bank". Due to misconception of "Private Bank" people hardly trust on VTBs which negatively affects in the collection of deposit as well as market expansion. Local government role in promotion and development of the VTBs is necessary. Local government's roles such as to keep check and balance between private and public shareholders, to build effective bank credit system are required though it may create the serious problem of intervention in the VTBs. Moreover, local government's intervention in loan disbursement procedure will lead to VTBs’ dissimilation; this is the profound lessons of China's RCCs development. So it is required to make business friendly and supportive environment to ensure sustainable development of the VTBs.

6.3 Impracticable Government Tax and Interest Rate Policy

Generally, in China, the credit between RMB 50 000 to 200 000 amount is treated as microcredit by financial institutions (Zhao et al., 2011) but according to government tax policy, business tax is exempted for interest revenue up to RMB 50 000 microcredit and small farmer loan (Cai Shui 2010). The tax exemption policy is just as a showcase for the VTBs. If the loan amount size is decreased, farmers and small enterprises could not meet their financial need and rural people are compelled to divert commercial banks or local lenders. Due to crossing the exemption limit the VTBs should pay heavy tax amount to the government. So this kind of impracticable tax policy should be changed to promote the VTBs. Meanwhile, government interest rate cap policy, high operating cost, low interest rate, and lack of risk compensation system are adding problems in financial sustainable development of VTBs.

6.4 Lack of Access in Advanced Technology

Currently, VTBs do not have internet banking system for its customer. The VTBs do not have access to China Union Pay system and are facing restrictions in launching electronic bank card. Still, VTBs are not allowed to enter the interbank lending market. In this modern banking era, it is required to introduce and adopt modern and advanced banking technology to facilitate its customer effectively. So, the lack of access in advanced technology is also the reason of losing people's attraction in VTBs.

Likewise, the control on VTBs by large shareholders or traditional commercial banks, slow progress of set up new VTBs, loan disbursement only in counties, and difficulty in collecting deposits, lack of skilled and professional human resources are still the problems of VTBs development.

7. Supporting Measures for Development of the VTBs

7.1 Institutional Arrangement

To develop VTBs, it is necessary to start loan officer incentive mechanism. Firstly, the loan officer should professionally train local farmers. Instead of basic salary loan officer should get some monetary incentive from

every loan interest income. Secondly, the membership upgrade incentive mechanism should be formed where the level of members can be determined on the basis of their work performance. The great amount of loan and incentive can be enjoyed by the high level members. The loan amount limitation for different borrower's level/grade should be determined on the basis of financial need and capacity of targeted borrower as well as organizational target and capacity. The institutional supervision and management should be kept effective and competitive. The regular supervision and competitive management body could lead the organization to success. The approval, release and repayment condition and trend of loan should be frequently monitored by supervisory body which effectively control the credit risk and rectify the error in time.

7.2 Government Role

The government support and assistance is the next supporting measures for developing VTBs. Special subsidies should be given to VTBs. The rural financial sector is suffering from low credit fund. So the problem of source of credit funds should be solved, since the demand of short term loan is comparatively higher in rural sector. Refinancing should be expanded through the central bank and the market mechanism from the Postal Savings Banks interbank lending. By reducing the institutional tax and income tax can also enhance the small farmers' friendly environment. The reduction of business tax and income tax in VTBs decreases the heavy tax burden and attract new investment in comparatively low tax area. Furthermore, the government and concerned authorities' efforts should be made to improve the brand image and public credibility of VTBs. Local government can act as a guardian to extend the financial services in the rural areas. Local government's leading role in communication and cooperation is required rather than intervention in autonomous operation of VTBs. Likewise, government should change the impracticable fiscal and operational rules and regulation. Advanced and practical rules and regulations could create supportive environment to flourish VTBs.

7.3 Cooperation with Other Rural Financial Institutions

In China's rural financial market, four different kinds of financial institutions are providing financial services in their own way. Besides policy based ADBC and commercial banks, other cooperative based and new-type financial institutions are competing in the rural financial market. Healthy competition and cooperation between these financial institutions brings the positive changes in financial inclusion of rural household. The financial cooperation between these institutions would help to meet the lack of funds in short period. It also supports in overall management and leadership of VTBs. Cooperation in information sharing on target market and clients result in institutional growth and expansion of business. Through the strengthening cooperation, VTBs should solve the backward payment/settlement system.

7.4 Innovative Financial Products

In order to ensure long-term sustainability and growth, VTBs should invent and design financial products which can satisfy the socio-economic needs of rural farmer. Innovation of financial products focusing on rural farmers' socio-economic needs, living standard and financial knowledge will attract new customer into VTBs. Moreover, VTBs should provide necessary financial information and management skills to handle farmer's seasonal income, extra income and risk management. It will create extra economic benefit and support the borrower.

7.5 Deepening and Strengthening the Agricultural Insurance System

This problem can be gradually eliminated through the deepening and strengthening the agricultural insurance system. Moreover, it can improve the repayment ability of farmers, thereby reducing the loan risk, increasing their loan enthusiasm, eliminating the lending bank's worries for the future. Through the establishment of agricultural insurance system, the government and concerned authorities should permit to operate insurance and reinsurance and the provisions of financial support to agricultural insurance product should be formulated.

8. Conclusion

The establishment of VTBs within new-type rural financial institutions is a useful financial mechanism to solve the problem of rural financing in general and broaden the network coverage of financial institutions and financial inclusion in particular. The VTBs are playing a positive role in rural finance through meeting the diversified financial needs in rural areas, helping to fulfil financial gap, mitigating rural fund outflow, forming the substitute for the private finance and promoting the competition in rural financial markets.

The VTBs have developed rapidly since 2008 though the number of VTBs is comparatively less than the target number in the "Three year 2009-2011 rural financial plan". The main problems in development of VTBs are the lack of enthusiasm in initiating banks to set up VTBs, local government intervention, impracticable government fiscal policy, lack of access in advanced banking technology, and difficulties in collecting deposit from local rural people.

For the development of VTBs, it not only needs the government aid and assistance; but also it needs to avoid the excessive local government intervention. The intervention of the government in loan disbursement procedure can lead to village bank’s dissimilation. Instead of intervention, local government should assist VTBs in accumulating client resources and explore modes of cooperation between banking institutions and enterprises and modes of cooperation between banking institutions, enterprises and local government. An autonomous function of financial institution can enhance the sustainable development of financial institutions as well as financial inclusion.

For the sustainable development of VTBs, VTBs should set up incentive system to collect deposit and disburse loan effectively and efficiently. The cooperation between VTBs and other rural financial institutions would help

to meet the financing gap in short-term and it also supports in strengthening the institutional capacity of VTBs. For the VTBs to introduce innovative financial products and strengthen the agriculture insurance system, government and concerned authorities should provide conducive environment and make necessary policy arrangement. The growth and development of VTBs in China can play a significant role in Chinese rural financial market with the improvement of rural financial system and steady development of agricultural economy.

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Journal of Yunnan Agricultural University, 3, 42-47.

National Bureau of Statistics of China. (2011). China Statistical Year Book 2012. Beijing: China Statistics Press. National Bureau of Statistics of China. (2012). Income of Urban and Rural Residents in 2011. Retrieved from https://www.wendangku.net/doc/7c17470252.html,/english/pressrelease/t20120130_402787464.htm

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Sun, S. (2008). Research on the Sustainable Development of Rural Bank in Jilin Province. Northeast Asia Forum, 17(6), 62-65.

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Xu, S. (2008, January 7). 2007 Annual Survey Report: Rural Finance Facing New Challenges. Retrieved from https://www.wendangku.net/doc/7c17470252.html,/yh/03/200801/t20080107_1341578.htm

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Appendix

Appendix 1. Rural financial system in China

Source: Own presentation

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分，有括号的作用。知识的问题是一个科学问题，来不得半点的虚伪和骄 傲，决定地需要的倒是其反面——诚实和谦逊的态度。2.表示意思的递进。 团结——批评和自我批评——团结3.表示意思的转折。很白很亮的一堆洋 钱！而且是他的——现在不见了！连接号⑥—1.表示时间、地点、数目等 的起止。抗日战争时期（1937-1945年）“北京—上海”直达快车2.表 示相关的人或事物的联系。亚洲—太平洋地区书名号⑦《》〈〉表示 书籍、文件、报刊、文章等的名称。《矛盾论》《中华人民共和国宪法》《人 民日报》《红旗》杂志《学习〈为人民服务〉》间隔号·1.表示月份和日期 之间的分界。一二·九运动2.表示某些民族人名中的音界。诺尔曼·白求 恩着重号.表示文中需要强调的部分。学习马克思列宁主义，要按照毛泽 东同志倡导的方法，理论联系实际。······

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常用标点符号用法含义

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句号① 问号符号用法说明。？1．用于陈述句的末尾。 2．用于语气舒缓的祈使句末尾。 1．用于疑问句的末尾。 2．用于反问句的末尾。 1．用于感叹句的末尾。 叹号！ 2．用于语气强烈的祈使句末尾。 3．用于语气强烈的反问句末尾。举例 xx是xx的首都。 请您稍等一下。 他叫什么名字？ 难道你不了解我吗？为祖国的繁荣昌盛而奋斗！停止射击！ 我哪里比得上他呀！ 1．句子内部主语与谓语之间如需停顿，用逗号。我们看得见的星星，绝大多数是恒星。 2．句子内部动词与宾语之间如需停顿，用逗号。应该看到，科学需要一个人贡献出毕生的精力。 3．句子内部状语后边如需停顿，用逗号。对于这个城市，他并不陌生。 4．复句内各分句之间的停顿，除了有时要用分号据说苏州园林有一百多处，我到过的不外，都要用逗号。过十多处。 顿号、用于句子内部并列词语之间的停顿。

英语介词的用法总结

介词的用法 1.表示地点位置的介词 1)at ,in, on, to，for at (1)表示在小地方; (2)表示“在……附近，旁边” in (1)表示在大地方; (2)表示“在…范围之内”。 on 表示毗邻，接壤，“在……上面”。 to 表示在……范围外，不强调是否接壤；或“到……” 2)above, over, on 在……上 above 指在……上方,不强调是否垂直，与below相对； over指垂直的上方,与under相对,但over与物体有一定的空间，不直接接触。 on表示某物体上面并与之接触。 The bird is flying above my head. There is a bridge over the river. He put his watch on the desk. 3)below, under 在……下面 under表示在…正下方 below表示在……下，不一定在正下方 There is a cat under the table. Please write your name below the line. 4)in front [frant]of, in the front of在……前面 in front of…意思是“在……前面”，指甲物在乙物之前，两者互不包括；其反义词是behind（在……的后面）。There are some flowers in front of the house.(房子前面有些花卉。) in the front of 意思是“在…..的前部”，即甲物在乙物的内部.反义词是at the back of…（在……范围内的后部）。 There is a blackboard in the front of our classroom. 我们的教室前边有一块黑板。 Our teacher stands in the front of the classroom. 我们的老师站在教室前.(老师在教室里) 5）beside，behind beside 表示在……旁边 behind 表示在……后面 2.表示时间的介词 1)in , on，at 在……时 in表示较长时间，如世纪、朝代、时代、年、季节、月及一般（非特指）的早、中、晚等。 如in the 20th century, in the 1950s, in 1989, in summer, in January, in the morning, in one’s life , in one’s thirties等。 on表示具体某一天及其早、中、晚。 如on May 1st, on Monday, on New Year’s Day, on a cold night in January, on a fine morning, on Sunday afternoon等。 at表示某一时刻或较短暂的时间，或泛指圣诞节，复活节等。 如at 3:20, at this time of year, at the beginning of, at the end of …, at the age of …, at Christmas，at night, at noon, at this moment等。 注意：在last, next, this, that, some, every 等词之前一律不用介词。如：We meet every day. 2)in, after 在……之后 “in +段时间”表示将来的一段时间以后； “after+段时间”表示过去的一段时间以后； “after+将来的时间点”表示将来的某一时刻以后。 3)from, since 自从…… from仅说明什么时候开始，不说明某动作或情况持续多久；

表示地点位置的介词

表示地点位置的介词 w qsa 1)at ,in, on, to，for at (1)表示在小地方; (2)表示“在……附近，旁边”in (1)表示在大地方; (2)表示“在…范围之内”。on 表示毗邻，接壤，“在……上面”。to 表示在……范围外，不强调是否接壤；或“到……”2)above, over, on 在……上above 指在……上方,不强调是否垂直，与below相对；over指垂直的上方,与under 相对,但over与物体有一定的空间，不直接接触。on表示某物体上面并与之接触。The bird is flying above my head. There is a bridge over the river. He put his watch on the desk. 3)below, under 在……下面under表示在…正下方below表示在……下，不一定在正下方There is a cat under the table. Please write your name below the line. 4)in front [frant]of, in the front of在……前面in front of…意思是“在……前面”，指甲物在乙物之前，两者互不包括；其反义词是behind（在……的后面）。There are some flowers in front of the house.(房子前面有些花卉。) in the front of 意思是“在…..的前部”，即甲物在乙物的内部.反义词是at the back of…（在……范围内的后部）。There is a blackboard in the front of our classroom. 我们的教室前边有一块黑板。Our teacher stands in the front of the classroom. 我们的老师站在教室前.(老师在教室里) 5）beside，behind beside 表示在……旁边behind 表示在……后面 2.表示时间的介词 1)in , on，at 在……时in表示较长时间，如世纪、朝代、时代、年、季节、月及一般（非特指）的早、中、晚等。如in the 20th century, in the 1950s, in 1989, in summer, in January, in the morning, in one’s life , in one’s thirties等。on表示具体某一天及其早、中、晚。如on May 1st, on Monday, on New Year’s Day, on a cold night in January, on a fine morning, on Sunday afternoon等。at表示某一时刻或较短暂的时间，或泛指圣诞节，复活节等。如at 3:20, at this time of year, at the beginning of, at the end of …, at the age of …, at Christmas，at night, at noon, at this moment等。注意：在last, next, this, that, some, every 等词之前一律不用介词。如：We meet every day. 2)in, after 在……之后“in +段时间”表示将来的一段时间以后；“after+段时间”表示过去的一段时间以后；“after+将来的时间点”表示将来的某一时刻以后。3)from, since 自从……from 仅说明什么时候开始，不说明某动作或情况持续多久；since表示某动作或情况持续至说话时刻，通常与完成时连用。since表示"自（某具体时间）以来"，常用作完成时态谓语的时间状语。since liberation（1980）自从解放（1980年）以来They have been close friends since childhood．他们从小就是好朋友。（1）since the war是指"自从战争结束以来"，若指"自从战争开始以来"，须说"since the beginning of the war"。（2）不要将since与after混淆。比较：He has worked here since 1965．（指一段时间，强调时间段）自从1965年以来，他一直在这儿工作。He began to work here after 1965．（指一点时间，强调时间点）从1965年以后，他开始在这儿工作。4)after, behind 在……之后after主要用于表示时间；behind主要用于表示位置。时间名词前介词用法口诀年前周前要用in 具体日子要用on 遇到几号也用on 上午下午得是in 要说某日上下午用on换in记清楚午夜黄昏用at 黎明用它也不错at用在时分前说“差”可要用上to 说"过''要用past 3.表示运动方向的介词： across, through 通过，穿过across表示横过,即从物体表面通过，与on有关，为二

英语表示地点位置的介词

表示地点位置的介词 1)at ,in, on, to at (1)表示在小地方; (2)表示“在……附近，旁边”in (1)表示在大地方; (2)表示“在…范围之内”。on 表示毗邻，接壤，“在……上面”。 to 表示在……范围外，不强调是否接壤；或“到……” 2)above, over, on 在……上 above 指在……上方,不强调是否垂直，与below相对； over指垂直的上方,与under相对,但over与物体有一定的空间，不直接接触。 on表示某物体上面并与之接触。 The bird is flying above my head. There is a bridge over the river. He put his watch on the desk. 3)below, under 在……下面 under表示在…正下方 below表示在……下，不一定在正下方 There is a cat under the table. Please write your name below the line. 4)in front of, in the front of在……前面 in front of…意思是“在……前面”，指甲物在乙物之前，两者互不包括；其反义词是behind （在……的后面）。 There are some flowers in front of the house.(房子前面有些花卉。) in the front of 意思是“在…..的前部”，即甲物在乙物的内部.反义词是at the back of…（在……范围内的后部）。There is a blackboard in the front of our classroom. 我们的教室前边有一块黑板。Our teacher stands in the front of the classroom. 我们的老师站在教室前.(老师在教室里) 5）beside，behind beside 表示在……旁边 behind 表示在……后面 2.表示时间的介词 1)in , on，at 在……时 in表示较长时间，如世纪、朝代、时代、年、季节、月及一般（非特指）的早、中、晚等。 如in the 20th century, in the 1950s, in 1989, in summer, in January, in the morning, in one’s life , in one’s thirties等。 on表示具体某一天及其早、中、晚。 如on May 1st, on Monday, on New Year’s Day, on a cold night in January, on a fine morning, on Sunday afternoon等。 at表示某一时刻或较短暂的时间，或泛指圣诞节，复活节等。如at 3:20, at this time of year, at the beginning of, at the end of …, at the age

常用标点符号主要用法

常用标点符号主要用法 问号 1、用在特指问句后。如：(7)你今年多大了？ 2、用在反问句后。如：(8)为什么我们不能刻苦一点呢？ ?提示：反问句若语气缓和，末尾可用句号；若语气重可用感叹号。如：(9)国家 主席可以活活被整死；堂堂大元帅受辱骂；……这哪里还有什么尊重可言！ 3、用在设问句后。如：(10)我们能让你计划实现吗？不会的。 4、用在选择问句中。如：(11)我们是革命呢，还是要现大洋？ ( 12)你到底是去，还是不去？ 5、用在表疑问的独词句后。如：(13)我？不可能吧。 ?提示：若疑问句为倒装句，问号应放在句末。如：(14)到底出了什么问题，你的 车？(若说成：“到底出了什么问题？你的车。”则错误。) ?特别提示： 句号、问号均表示句末停顿。句号用于陈述句末尾，问号用于疑问句末尾。有些句 中虽有疑问词，但全句并不是疑问句，句末只能用句号，不能用问号。 例如：(17)……最后应求出铜块的体积是多少？ (18)面对千姿百态、纷繁芜杂的期刊世界，有哪位期刊编辑不想通过期刊版面设 计为刊物分朱布白、添花增色呢？ (19)关于什么是智力？国内外争论多年也没有定论。 (17) (18) ( 19)三句都是非疑问句，(17) (18)句中问号均应改为句号，(19)句中的问号应改为逗号。 感叹号 ?特别提示： 1、在表感叹或祈使语气的主谓倒装句中，感叹号要放在句末。 如：(20)多么雄伟壮观啊，万里长城！ 2、句前有叹词，后是感叹句，叹号放在句末。 如：(21)啊，这儿多么美丽！ 下面介绍句中点号的用法。句中点号包括逗号、分号、顿号、和冒号四种。 逗号 提示：复句内各分句之间的停顿，除了有时用分号外，都要用逗号。 顿号 用于句中并列的词、词组之间较小的停顿。 如：(22)邓颖超的品德、人格、风范为中华民族树立了一座精神丰碑。 (23)从1918年起，鲁迅陆续发表了《狂人日记》、《药》、《祝福》等短篇小说。 ?特别提示：以下九种情况不用顿号。 1、不定数的两个数字间不用顿号。 如：(24)你的年龄大概是十六七岁。(不能写成“十六、七岁”) ?【注意】相邻的两个数字而非约数之间要用顿号。

时间名词前介词用法口诀

英语中按动词后可否直接跟宾语，可以把动词分成两种：及物动词与不及物动词。及物动词：字典里词后标有vt. 的就是及物动词。及物动词后必须跟有动作的 对象（即宾语），并且可直接跟宾语。 如see 看见 (vt.) +宾语 I can see a boy. 不及物动词：字典里词后标有vi. 的就是不及物动词。不及物动词后不能直接 跟有动作的对象（即宾语）。若要跟宾语，必须先在其后添加上某个介词，如 to,of ,at后方可跟上宾语。具体每个动词后究竟加什么介词就得联系动词短语了，如listen to,look at…. 如：look 看 (vi.) x宾语(即不能直接加宾语). Look! She is singing. Look carefully! (注意：carefully 是副词，不是名词，故不作宾语) look at 看…….+宾语 Look at me carefully! (me是代词，作宾语) 介词是一种用来表示词与词, 词与句之间的关系的虚词。在句中不能单独作句子成分。介词后面一般有名词代词或相当于名词的其他词类，短语或从句作它的宾语。介词和它的宾语构成介词词组，在句中作状语，表语，补语或介词宾语。并且在定语从句“介词+whom/which”的结构中，不能用that 代替who/which。She is a good student from who we should learn. 介词分为时间介词.地点位置方向介词.方式介词.原因介词和其他介词，是英 语中最活跃的词类之一，特别是一些常用介词的搭配力特别强，可以用来表示各种不同的意思。英语里大部分习语都是由介词和其他词构成的。介词在句中一般不重读\ 表示地点位置的介词 1)at ,in, on, to，for at (1)表示在小地方; (2)表示“在……附近，旁边” in (1)表示在大地方; (2)表示“在…范围之内”。 on 表示毗邻，接壤，“在……上面”。 to 表示在……范围外，不强调是否接壤；或“到……” 2)above, over, on 在……上 above 指在……上方,不强调是否垂直，与 below相对； over指垂直的上方,与under相对,但over与物体有一定的空间，不直接接触。 on表示某物体上面并与之接触。 The bird is flying above my head. There is a bridge over the river. He put his watch on the desk. 3)below, under 在……下面 under表示在…正下方 below表示在……下，不一定在正下方 There is a cat under the table. Please write your name below the line.

英语介词学习方法及口诀

英语介词学习方法及口诀 首先来看看，at in与on在时间方面的用法：at表示时间的一点；in表示一个时期；on表示特殊日子。如： He goes to school at seven o’clock in the morning. 他早晨七点上学。 Can you finish the work in two days? 你能在两天内完成这个工作吗？ Linda was born on the second of May. 琳达五月二日出生。 1>. at后常接几点几分，天明，中午，日出，日落，开始等。如： at five o’clock （五点），at down （黎明），at daybreak （天亮），at sunrise （日出），at noon （中午），at sunset （日落），at midnight （半夜），at the beginning of the month （月初），at that time （那时），at that moment （那会儿），at this time of day （在一天的这个时候）。2>. in后常接年，月，日期，上午，下午，晚上，白天，季节，世纪等。如： in 2006（2006年），in May，2004 （2004年五月），in the morning （早晨/上午），in the afternoon （下午），in the evening （晚上），in the night （夜晚），in the daytime （白天），in the 21st century （21世纪），in three days （weeks/month）三天（周/个月），in a week （一周），in spring （春季）。 3>. on后常接某日，星期几，某日或某周日的朝夕，节日等。如： on Sunday （星期日），on a warm morning in April （四月的一个温暖的上午），on a December night （12月的一个夜晚），on that afternoon （那天下午），on the following night （下一个晚上），on Christmas afternoon （圣诞节下午），on October 1，1949 （1949年10月1日），on New Year’s Day （新年），on New Year’s Eve （除夕），on the morning of the 15th （15日的早上）等。 我们常用的方位介词有：in on to 在范围之内用in，在范围之外，如果两地接壤就用on 不接壤的用to 如： Beijing is in the north of China . Japan is to the east of China . Shanxi Province is on the west of Hebei Province . 更多介词如下： 表示时间：at, in, on, by, through 表示附近：near, by, beside, at 表示地点：at, in, on 表示除外：besides, except, except for, but 表示方位：in, to, on 表示上下：above, below, over, under, on, beneath 表示方式：by, through, with 表示原因：for, from, at, through, with, because of, due to, owing to, on account of, thanks to 表示价格比率对比：at, by, for, against 表示属性特性：of, with 还有：since, inside, out of, onto, into, without, instead of, from behind, until from, concerning, considering, following, including, regarding, respecting, saving等 更多介词用法如下： 1. at表示"在......处"，一般指较小的比较具体的地点。如： He isn't at school. He is at home. 他不在学校，他在家。 2. in表示"在......内部；在......里面"的意思。如：