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Semantic web recommender systems

Semantic web recommender systems
Semantic web recommender systems

Semantic Web Recommender Systems

Cai-Nicolas Ziegler

Institut f¨u r Informatik,Universit¨a t Freiburg,

Georges-K¨o hler-Allee,Geb¨a ude51,

79110Freiburg i.Br.,Germany

cziegler@informatik.uni-freiburg.de

Abstract.Research on recommender systems has primarily addressed

centralized scenarios and largely ignored open,decentralized systems

where remote information distribution prevails.Absence of superordi-

nate authorities having full access and control introduces some serious

issues requiring novel approaches and methods.Hence,our primary ob-

jective targets succesful deployment and leverage of recommender system

facilities for Semantic Web applications,making use of novel technologies

and conceptions and integrating them into one coherent framework.

1Introduction

Automated recommender systems[1]intend to provide people with recommen-dations of products they might appreciate,taking into account their past ratings pro?le and history of purchase or interest.Most succesful systems apply social ?ltering techniques[2],dubbed collaborative?ltering[3].These systems iden-tify most similar users and make recommendations based upon products people utterly fancy.Unfortunately,common collaborative?ltering methods fail when transplanted into decentralized scenarios.Analyzing issues prevalent to these do-mains,we believe that two novel approaches may alleviate prevailing problems, namely trust networks and taxonomy-based pro?le generation.One aspect of our work hence addresses the conception of suitable components,speci?cally tailored to suit our decentralized setting,while another regards the seamless integration of latter building bricks into one single,uni?ed framework.Empirical analysis and performance evaluations are conducted at all stages.

2Research Issues

Deploying recommender systems on the Semantic Web implies diverse,multi-faceted issues,some of them being inherent to decentralized systems in general, others being novel.Hereby,our devised Semantic Web recommender system per-forms all recommendation computations locally for one given user.Its principal di?erence from generic,centralized approaches refers to information storage,sup-posing all user and rating data distributed throughout the Semantic Web.We thus come to identify several research issues:

–Ontological commitment.The Semantic Web is characterized by machine-readable content distributed all over the Web.In order to ensure that agents can understand and reason about latter information,semantic interoper-ability via ontologies or common content models must be established.For instance,FOAF[4],an acronym for“Friend of a Friend”,de?nes an ontol-ogy for establishing simple social networks and represents an open standard agents can rely upon.

–Interaction facilities.Decentralized recommender systems have primarily been subject to multi-agent research projects.Hereby,environment mod-els are agent-centric,enabling agents to directly communicate with their peers and thus making synchronous message exchange feasible.The Seman-tic Web,being an aggregation of distributed metadata,constitues an inher-ently data-centric environment model.Messages are exchanged by publishing or updating documents encoded in RDF,OWL,or similar formats.Hence, communication becomes restricted to asynchronous message exchange.

–Security and credibility.Closed communities generally possess e?cient means to control user identity and penalize malevolent behavior.Decentral-ized systems,among those peer-to-peer networks,open marketplaces and the Semantic Web,likewise,cannot prevent deception and insincerity.Spoo?ng and identity forging thus become facile to achieve[5].Hence,some subjective means enabling each individual to decide which peers and content to rely upon are needed.

–Computational complexity and scalability.Centralized systems allow for predicting and limiting community size and may thus tailor their?ltering systems to ensure scalability.Note that user similarity assessment,which is an integral part of collaborative?ltering[3],implies computation-intensive processes.The Semantic Web will once contain millions of machine-readable https://www.wendangku.net/doc/8f3314612.html,puting similarity measures for all these“individuals”thus becomes infeasible.Consequently,scalability can only be ensured when re-stricting latter compuations to su?ciently narrow neighborhoods.Intelligent pre?ltering mechanisms are needed,still ensuring reasonable recall,i.e.,not sacri?cing too many relevant,like-minded agents.

–Low pro?le overlap.Interest pro?les are generally represented by vectors indicating the user’s opinion for every product.In order to reduce dimen-sionality and ensure pro?le overlap,some centralized systems like Ringo[6] require users to rate small subsets of the overall product space.Others rec-ommenders,among those GroupLens and MovieLens[7],operate in domains where product sets are comparatively small.On the Semantic Web,virtu-ally no restrictions can be imposed on agents regarding which items to rate.

Hence,new approaches to ensure pro?le overlap are needed in order to make pro?le similarity measures meaningful.

3Proposed Approach

Endeavors to ensure semantical interoperability through ontologies constitute the cornerstone of Semantic Web conception and have been subject to rife re-

search projects.We do not concentrate our e?orts on latter aspect but sup-pose data compatibility from the outset.Our interest rather focuses on handling computational complexity,security,data-centric message passing,and pro?le vector overlap.Hereby,our approach proposed builds upon two fundamental notions,namely taxonomy-based interest pro?le assembling and trust networks. Exploitation of synergies of both intrinsically separate concepts helps us leverage recommender system facilities into the Semantic Web.

3.1Information Model

Semantic Web infrastructure de?nes interlinked documents comprising machine-readable metadata.Our information model presented below well complies with its design goals and allows facile mapping into RDF,OWL,etc.:

–Set of agents A={a1,a2,...,a n}.Set A contains all agents part of the community.Globally unique identi?ers are assigned through URIs.

–Set of products B={b1,b2,...,b m}.All products considered are com-prised in set B.Hereby,unique identi?ers may refer to product descriptions from an online shop agreed upon,such as Amazon,or globally accepted codes,like ISBNs in case of books.

–Set of partial trust functions T={t1,t2,...,t n}.Every agent a i∈A has one partial trust function t i:A→[?1,+1]⊥that assigns continuous trust values to its peers.Functions t i∈A are partial since agents generally only rate small subsets of the overall community,hence rendering t i sparse:

t i(a j)=

p,if trust(a i,a j)=p

⊥,if no trust for a j from a i

(1)

We de?ne high values for t i(a j)to denote high trust from a i in a j,and negative values to express distrust,respectively.Values around zero indicate absence of trust,not to be consfused with explicit distrust[8].

–Set of partial rating functions R={r1,r2,...,r n}.In addition to func-tions t i∈T,every a i∈A has one partial function r i:B→[?1,+1]⊥that expresses his liking or dislike of product b j∈B.No person can rate every available product,so functions r i∈B are necessarily partial.

r i(b j)=

p,if rates(a i,b j)=p

⊥,if no rating for b j from a i

(2)

Intuitively,high positive values for r i(b j)denote that a i highly appreciates

b j,while negative values express dislike,respectively.

–Taxonomy C over set D={d1,d2,...,d l}.Set D contains categories.

Each category d k∈D represents one speci?c topic that products b j∈B may fall into.Hereby,topics can express broad or narrow categories.Taxonomy

C arranges all d k∈

D in an acyclic graph by imposing partial subset order

?on D,similar to class hierarchies known from object-oriented languages.

Hereby,inner topics d k∈D with respect to C are all topics having subtopics,

i.e.,an outdegree greater zero.On the other hand,leaf topics are topics with

zero outdegree,i.e.,most speci?c categories.Furthermore,taxonomy C has exactly one top element ,which represents the most general topic and has zero indegree.

–Descriptor assignment function f:B→2D.Function f assigns a set

D i?D of product topics to every product b i∈B.Note that products

may possess several descriptors,for classi?cation into one single category generally entails loss of precision.

We suppose all information about agents a i,their trust relationships t i and ratings r i stored in machine-readable homepages distributed throughout the Web.Contrarily,taxonomy C,set B of products and descriptor assignment function f must hold globally and therefore o?er public accessibility.Central maintenance of latter information hence becomes https://www.wendangku.net/doc/8f3314612.html,ter on,we will demonstrate that such sources of information for product categorization already exist for certain application domains.

3.2Trust Neighborhood Formation

Trust neighborhhod computation constitutes the?rst pillar of our approach. Clearly,neighborhoods are subjective,re?ecting every agent a i s very beliefs about the accorded trustworthiness of immediate peers.Trust makes automatic recommendation generation for a i secure,only relying upon opinions from peers that a i deems trustworthy.Note that in general,collaborative?ltering tends to be highly susceptive to manipulation.For instance,malicious agents a j can accomplish high similarity with a i by simply copying its pro?le.Marsh[8]already indicated that trust makes agents“less vulnerable to others”.However,for our scenario,trust also serves another purpose,namely that of similarity?ltering. Recent studies[9]have provided empirical evidence that people tend to rely upon recommendations received from trusted fellows,i.e.,friends,family members etc.,more than upon online recommender systems.Ongoing research[5]has revealed that trust and interest pro?les tend to correlate,justifying trust as an appropriate supplement or surrogate for collaborative?ltering.

Trust neighborhood detection for a i implies computing trust values for peers a j not directly trusted by a i,but one of the peers latter agents trusts directly and indirectly.Note that functions t i(a j)are commonly sparse,providing values for only few a j compared to A’s overall community size.Numerous scalar metrics [10,11]have been proposed for computing trust between two given individuals a i and a j.However,our approach requires metrics that compute nearest trust-neighbors,and not evaluate trust values for any two given agents.We hence opt for local group trust metrics[12],which have only been attracting marginal inter-est until now.The most important and most well-known local group trust metric is Levien’s Advogato metric[11].However,latter metric can only make boolean decisions with respect to trustworthiness.Appleseed[12],our own novel proposal for local group trust computation,allows more?ne-grained analysis,assigning continuous trust ranks for peers within trust computation range.Its principal

concepts derive from spreading activation models

[13].Appleseed operates on partial trust graph information,exploring the social network within prede?ned ranges only and allowing the neighborhood detection process ro retain scala-bility.Hereby,high ranks are accorded to trustworthy peers,i.e.,those agents which are largely trusted by others with high trustworthiness.These ranks are used later on for selecting agents deemed suitable for making recommendations.

3.3Similarity-based Filtering

The second processing step performs collaborative ?ltering over all peers whose trustworthiness lies above some given threshold.Collaborative ?ltering intends to track most similar peers,considering the principal’s history of interests.Hereby,we overcome low pro?le overlap by introducing taxonomy-based pro?le genera-tion [5].Common collaborative ?ltering approaches apply Pearson’s correlation coe?cient [6,3]to compute similarity between product vectors.Considering the domain of books,the probability that two persons have read several same books becomes considerably low.Category-based collaborative ?ltering [14]and related methods reduce dimensionality by generating vectors containing categories ,along with information about the peer’s liking and dislike for each of these.However,the more ?ne-grained latter categories are de?ned,the less pro?le overlap we may expect.Furthermore,relationships and mutual impact between categories become lost.

Fig.1.Small fragment from the Amazon book taxonomy

Taxonomy-based Pro?le Generation.We are investigating taxonomy-aided generation of interest pro?les [5],inspired by Middleton’s ontology-enhanced

content-based?ltering[15].Categories still play an important role,but we have them arranged in taxonomy C and not separate from each other.Items b j bear

topic descriptors d j

k ∈f(b j)that relate products b j to taxonomic nodes.Sev-

eral classi?cations per item are possible,hence|f(b j)|≥1.Each item the user

likes infers some interest score for those d j

k ∈f(b j).Since these categories d j

k

are arranged in taxonomy C,we can also infer fractional interest for all super-

topics of d j

k .Hereby,remote super-topics are accorded less interest score than

super-topics close to d j

k .For simplicity,suppose C tree-structured and assume

that(p0,p1,...,p q)gives the path from top element p0= to node p q=d j

k .

Function sib(p)returns the number of p’s siblings,while sco(p)returns its score:

?m∈{0,1,...,q?1}:sco(p m)=

sco(p m+1)

sib(p m+1)+1

(3)

Scores are normalized,i.e.,all topic score that a i’s pro?le assigns to nodes from taxonomy C amounts to some?xed value s.Hence,high product ratings from agents with short product rating histories have higher impact on pro?le generation than product ratings from persons issuing rife ratings.Score s is divided evenly among all products that contribute to a i’s pro?le makeup. Example1(Topic score assignment).Suppose the taxonomy given in Figure1 which represents a tiny fragment from the Amazon book taxonomy.Let user a i have mentioned4books,namely Matrix Analysis,Fermat’s Enigma,Snow Crash,and Neuromancer.For Matrix Analysis,5topic descriptors are given,one of them pointing to leaf topic Algebra within our small taxonomy.Suppose that s=1000de?nes the overall accorded pro?le score.Then the score assigned to descriptor Algebra amounts to s/(4·5)=50.Ancestors of leaf Algebra are Pure, Mathematics,Science,and top element Books.Score50hence must be divided among these topics according to Equation3.Score29.087becomes accorded to topic Algebra.Likewise,we get14.543for topic Pure,4.848for Mathematics, 1.212for Science,and0.303for top element Books.These values are then used to update the pro?le vector of user a i.

Success or failure of our approach largely depends upon taxonomy C used for classi?cation.The more thoroughly crafted and?ne-grained latter taxonomy,the more meaningful our pro?le information becomes.Clearly,topic descriptors f(b j) for products b j must be chosen skillfully,too.Thanks to inference of fractional interest for super-topics,one may establish high user similarity for users which have not even rated one single product in common.According to our scheme, the more score two pro?les have accumulated in same branches,the higher their computed similarity.

Similarity Computation.Interest pro?les form the grounding for collabora-tive?ltering,which computes similarity between users.For our approach,we ap-ply common nearest-neighbor techniques,namely Pearson’s coe?cient[6,3]and cosine distance from Information Retrieval.Hereby,pro?le vectors map category score vectors from C instead of plain product-rating vectors.High similarity

evolves from interest in many identical or related branches,whereas negative correlation indicates diverging interests.For instance,suppose a i reads litera-ture about Applied Mathematics only,and a j about Algebra,then their com-puted similarity will be high,considering signi?cant branch overlap from node Mathematics onward.

3.4Rank Synthesization and Recommendations

Trust neighborhood computation and collaborative?ltering return two diverse rankings for every agent a j within our bounding trust neighborhood.One must now merge trust rank and similarity rank into one single measure,i.e.,its overall rank weight.

We have not attacked latter issue yet.Moreover,besides selecting most suit-able peers a j from which to receive recommendations,one must determine prod-ucts mentioned by latter a j most favorable for recommendation.Numerous al-ternatives are possible,like,for instance,every a j voting for all its appreciated products b k∈r j with its own rank weight.Products positively mentioned within several rating histories r j of high weighted peers a j thus have greater chance of being recommended.Other recommendation schemes,based upon content,are also possible.For instance,one might propose agent a i products from categories that a i has left untouched until https://www.wendangku.net/doc/8f3314612.html,tter approach assumes that a i might appreciate these new products since people with similar taste have told to like them.Incentive for trying new product groups becomes created.

Recommendation-making opens numerous alternatives one can take.Our fu-ture research will thus focus on?nding most promising ones and,what will become likewise important,on trying to match these approaches against each other within an experimental framework allowing for some quantitative analysis. 4Real-world Deployment

Section3.1has exposed our envisioned information infrastructure.We will show that such an architecture may actually come into life and become an integral part of the Semantic Web.For instance,some initial projects towards deploying and maintaining decentralized trust networks are already under way:FOAF de?nes machine-readable homepages based upon RDF and allows weaving acquaintance networks.Golbeck[4]has proposed some modi?cations making FOAF support “real”trust relationships instead of mere acquaintanceship.

Moreover,FOAF seamlessly integrates with so-called“weblogs”,which are steadily gaining momentum.These personalized“online diaries”are especially valuable with respect to product rating information.For instance,some crawlers extract certain hyperlinks from weblogs and analyze their makeup and con-tent.Hereby,those referring to product pages from large catalogs like Amazon (https://www.wendangku.net/doc/8f3314612.html,)count as implicit votes for these goods.Mappings between hyperlinks and some sort of unique identi?er are required for diverse catalogs,though.Unique identi?ers exist for some product groups like books,

which are given“International Standard Book Numbers”,i.e.,ISBNs.E?orts to enhance weblogs with explicit,machine-readable rating information have also been proposed and are becoming increasingly popular.For instance,BLAM! (https://www.wendangku.net/doc/8f3314612.html,/hublog/)allows creating book ratings and helps embedding these into machine-readable weblogs.

Besides user-centric information,i.e.,agent a i’s trust relationships and prod-uct ratings,taxonomies for product classi?cation play an important role within our approach.Luckily,these taxonomies exist for certain domains.Amazon de-?nes an extensive,?ne-grained and deeply-nested taxonomy for books contain-ing more than20,000topics.More important,Amazon provides books with subject descriptors referring to latter taxonomy.Similar taxonomies exist for DVDs and videos.Standardization e?orts for product classi?cation are chan-nelled through the“United Nations Standard Products and Services Code”project(https://www.wendangku.net/doc/8f3314612.html,/).However,the UNSPSC’s taxonomy provides much less information and nesting than,for instance,Amazon’s taxonomy for books.

4.1Mining Trust Statements and Ratings

We have created an experimental environment simulating the infrastructure pro-posed above.Hereby,we mined rife information from various trust-aware on-line communities like All Consuming(http://www.allconsuming),and Advogato (https://www.wendangku.net/doc/8f3314612.html,),extracting information about approximately9,100 users,their trust relationships and implicit product ratings.Ratings were ob-tained from All Consuming only.Moreover,we captured Amazon’s huge book taxonomy and categorization data about9,953books that All Consuming com-munity members have mentioned.Tailored crawlers search the Web for weblogs and ensure data freshness.All our experiments and empirical evaluations were based upon latter“real-world”data.

5Related Work

Recommender systems have begun attracting major research interest during the early nineties[3].Nowadays,commercial and industrial systems are rife and wide-spread,detailed comparisons concerning features and approaches are given in[16].Recommender systems di?er from each other mainly through their?l-tering method.Hereby,distinctions between three types of?ltering systems are made[3],namely collaborative,content-based and economic.Collaborative?lter-ing systems[6]generate recommendations obtained from persons having similar interests.Content-based?ltering only takes into account the content of products, based upon metadata and extracted features.Economic?ltering has seen little practical application until now and exerts marginal impact only.Modern rec-ommender systems are hybrid,combining both content-based and collaborative ?ltering facilities in one single framework.Fab[17]counts among the?rst popu-lar hybrid systems,more recent approaches have been depicted in[18],and[15].

Our?ltering approach,comprising taxonomy-based pro?le generation and sim-ilarity computation,also exploits both content-based and collaborative?ltering facilities.Trust networks add another supplementary level of?ltering.

Initial attempts have been taken towards transplanting recommender systems into decentralized scenarios.Olsson[19]o?ers an extensive overview of existing approaches.Montaner[20],and Chen et al.[21]devise agent-based approaches, where agents acquire knowledge about other peers from interaction experience. Hereby,reputation evolves over time and simple trust relationships become tied. 6Future Directions

Our past e?orts have mainly focused on designing suitable trust metrics for com-puting trust neighborhoods[12],and conceiving metrics for making collaborative ?ltering applicable to decentralized architectures[5].Moreover,we have shaped and synthesized an extensive infrastructure based upon“real-world”data from various communities and online stores.

Until now,analysis has been largely con?ned to the book domain only.Future research will also include movies and other speci?c product groups and investi-gate intrinsic di?erences between these groups.For instance,Amazon’s taxonomy for DVD classi?cation contains more topics than its book counterpart,though being less deep.We would like to better understand the impact that taxonomy structure may have upon pro?le generation and similarity computation.Fur-thermore,we are currently investigating applicability of taxonomy-based pro?le generation for automated stereotype generation and e?cient behavior modelling. E?orts for extracting rife usage and pro?le information from various other com-munities are well under way.

Merging ranks from both?ltering paradigms into one metric and recommen-dation generation have remained untouched until now.Thorough empirical anal-ysis will be required for selecting most appropriate alternatives and integrating them into our recommender application.

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目录 1.概述 (3) 2.产品特点 (3) 2.1.部署灵活 (3) 2.1.1.转发部署 (4) 2.1.2.透明部署 (4) 2.1.3.邮件服务器前端 (5) 2.1.4.网络出口部署 (5) 2.2.分布式结构,性能卓越 (6) 3.流处理技术 (7) 4.独特的存储技术 (7) 5.功能介绍 (8) 5.1.反垃圾引擎 (8) 5.2.反病毒引擎 (10) 5.3.防攻击 (11) 5.4.支持子策略的多级过滤 (12) 5.5.投递控制 (13) 5.6.黑名单和白名单 (14) 5.7.垃圾邮件摘要 (14) 5.8.高效的邮件备份审计功能 (15) 5.9.完备的报表统计功能 (16) 5.10.TOP排名统计 (16) 6.产品报价 (17)

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2. 表单元素的组织:
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