词汇学名词解释,复习提纲
第一章： A word can be defined as a fundamental unit of speech and a minimum free form; with a unity of sound and meaning, capable of performing a given syntactic function
The development of English Vocabulary.①Old English (OE) (449-1100)OE is chracterized by the frequent use of compounds. Some OE compounds involving alliteration have survived in Modern 85% of OE words are no longer in use.②Middle English (1100-1500)ME is characterized by the strong influence of French following the Norman Conquest in 1066.（law and governmental administration）③Modern English (1500-the present) The rapid growth of present-day English vocabulary and its causes：A. marked progress of science and technology（software, hardware）, political and cultural changes （credit card, fringe benefit, pressure cooker）C.influence of other cultures and languages （maotai, sputnik）
classification of English words according to different criteria 1. By origin：native words and loan words。Native words(Anglo-Saxon origin of OE) Loan words(borrowed from other language)
features of basic word stock: to form collocations. level of usage(1)Common words: stylistically neutral, appropriate in both formal and informal writing and speech(2)Literary words:chiefly used in writing, especially in books written in a more elevated style, in official documents, or in formal speeches .A. archaic words: They are sometimes employed in poetry, business letters, legal documents, religious speeches, and proses. words（the deep (the sea), slumber (sleep) maiden( girl), etc.）
(3) colloquial words：mainly used in spoken English, or in informal writing.(4) slang words（kick the bucket, top-notch teachers, buzz( telephone call)(5) technical words（psychoanalysis, interlanguage, discovery, assault and coversation） 3. By notion Function words: determiners, conjunctions, prepositions, auxiliaries.Content words: nouns, main verbs, adjectives, adverbs.
第二章：The morpheme is the smallest meaningful linguistic unit of language, not divisible or analyzable into smaller forms.
The classification of morpheme：and bound morphemes：A free morpheme is one that can be uttered alone with meaning. It can exist on its own without a bound morpheme. A bound morpheme cannot stand by itself as a complete utterance. It must appear with at least one other
morpheme.2. roots and affixes 1) roots: A root is the basic unchangeable part of a word, and it conveys the main lexical meaning of the word. A. free roots：In English, many roots are free morphemes. B. bound roots：Quite a number of roots derived from foreign sources, especially from Greek and Latin.2) affixes A. inflectional affixes: plurality, tense, comparative or superlative degree. B. derivational affixes (prefixes and suffixes)
第三章：1. Derivation(1)prefixes：Prefixes can be classified into the following categories by their . 表“方式”的前缀（）B. 表“态度”的前缀C. 表“程度”的前缀D. 表“时间”的前缀E. 表“地点”的前缀F. 表“否定”的前缀G. 表“大小”的前缀 (2)suffixes(1) -ee:加于动词后，表示受事者或施事者(2) -eer: 由其构成的名词有时含有贬义，表达作者或说话人对某人的蔑视态度(3）-er: 由其构成的新词在现代英语中显得生动活泼，带有浓厚的口语色彩(4) -ism(5) -wise: (in terms of, so far as... is concerned)在......方面，就......来说
is a word-formation process whereby a word of a certain word-class is shift into a word of another word-class without the addition of an affix. It is also called zero –derivation.Types of conversion 1.①N to V conversion A. to put in/on N 把.......放入.......使.......处于.......
B. to give N, to provide with N 给予，提供
C. to deprive of N 去掉
D. to ......with N 用......来做
E. to be/act as N with respect to 像......那样
F. to make/change... into N 使......成为......，把.......改变为......
G. to send/go by N
H. to spend the period of time denoted by N②Adj to this type of verb means "to make/become...adj.”Some adjectives can only be converted into transitive verbs. ③adv. to V （to up. To down）④conjunction to V（to but）
2. ①V to N这一类词常与动词have, take, give, make 等词搭配使用形成一个短语2)表示行动的结果（a find, a catch, a cough, etc. ）3) 原动词表示一种行动或行为，转化为名词后表示行为的主体，如：（a bore, a cheat, a sneak, a coach, a good kick）②A to N(1) Partial conversionA. 表示一种类的概念，指具有某种特点的一类人，不指个别人。B. 以-s, -sh, -se, -ch结尾表示民族概念的形容词转化为名词，与定冠词连用，指整个民族 C.表示抽象概念，指具有某种特点的东西D.最高级形容词转化为名词，其中一些词用在固定词组或英语习语词组中。E. 过去分词构成的形容词转化为名词。这类词前面加定冠词，不指一般人，而指特定的人。(2) Complete conversion
3. N to A. 英语中的名词可以直接用作定语修饰另一个名词，既不需要加形容词词尾，也不需要任何格的变化，这
样的定语就是名词定语.
3. Compounding or composition is a word-formation process consisting of joining two or more words to form a new unit, a compound word. Classification of compounds 1. Noun compounds(1)a+n（hard disk, easy chair, deadline) (2) n+n（mousemat, Dream Team, information highway, etc.)（3) adv+n（after-effect, overburden）(4) gerund+n（chewing gum, reading lamp）(5）present participle+n（ruling class, floating bridge(6) v+n（swearword, driveway）(7) n+v（nightfall, toothpick, watersupply, snowfall）(8) v+adv(show-off, put-off)(9）adv+v(downfall, upset, upstart)2. adjective compounds (1) 由状语转化而成的复合形容词（an off-the cuff opinion(临时想起的一点意见）(2）短语动词（a stand-up collar (竖领）(3）动词不定式（take-home pay(扣除税后的实得工资）a cross-border raid(越界袭击）(4）定语从句压缩（a difficult-to-operate machine）3. verb compounds
第四章：Acronymy: Initialism词首字母缩略词and Acronyms首字母缩略词Initialisms(首字母缩略词）Initialism is a type of shortening, using the first letters of words to form a proper name a technical term, or a phrase.（BBC(British Broadcasting Corporation), VIP(Very Important Person) Three types of letters represent full words: （CIA=Central Intelligence Agency ofthe ）letters represent elements in a compound or just part of a word:（ID=Identification(card)3. A letter represents the complete form of the first word, while the second word is in full form.(V-Day=Victory Day) Acronyms :are words formed from the initial letters of the name of an organization or a scientific term, etc.(SAM=surface-to-air missile
SALT=Strategic Arms Limitation Talks) Rapid growth of acronyms and initialisms :space-saving and time-saving devices
Clipping: 1. Back clippings:(ad=advertisement;
gas=gasoline ) clippings:(chute=parachute;) and back clippings:（flu=influenza;fridge=refrigerat or） 4. Phrase clippings:（pub=public house;pop= popular music）
Blending is a process of word-formation in which a new word is formed by combining the meanings and sounds of two words, one of which is not in it full form or both of which are not in their full . First part of the first word+the last part of the second word:（botel (boat+hotel):汽艇游客旅馆）2. First part of the first word+ First part of the second word:（psywar
(psychological+warfare):心理战）3. Whole form of the first word +last part part of the second word:（viedophone (viedo+telephone))4. First part of the first word+ Whole form of the second word:（helipad (helicopter +pad)
从文体色彩来看，拼缀词可分为以下三大类：1.俚语或临时语2.科技用语3. 报刊用语
Back-formation is a term used to refer to a type of word-formation by which a shorter word is coined by the deletion of a supposed affix from a longer form already present in the language.
Words From Proper Names From names of people From names of places From trdemarks From literature
第五章：Word Meaning and Semantic Features
1. Conventionality and Motivation Conventionality归略法：Most English words are conventioal, arbitrary symbols; consequently, there is no intrinsic relation between the sound-symbol and its Motivation有理据的：Motivation refers to the connection between word-symbol and its sense.①Phonetic motivation: Words motivated phonetically are called echoic words or onomatopoeic words,whose pronounciation suggests the show a close relationship of sound to sense.（miaow of a cat; roar of a lion; quack of a duck）②Morphological motivation:When a word is morphologically motivated, a direct connection can be observed between the morphemic structure of the word and its meaning. （anticancer, kilometer, etc.）③Semantic motivation:
It refers to motivation based on semantic factors. It is a kind of mental association.
隐喻：在20世纪的绝大部分的时间里，隐喻被认为是语义演变的主要因素。相似性是构成隐喻的基础，是词义得以演变的依据 the eye of a needle(针眼）the eye of a potato(土豆的芽眼）相似性包括外观相似、功能相似、褒贬相似、心理相似等。
隐喻的分类（1）结构隐喻：一个概念通过隐喻的方式系统地用另一个概念表达出来，两个概念具有结构上的相似性（2）方位隐喻：方位隐喻是指参照空间方位而构建的一系列隐喻概念。（3）本体隐喻：用关于物体的概念或概念结构来认识和理解我们的经验，如可将抽象的概念喻说成具体的物体，可使后者的有关特征映射到前者上去。（4）容器隐喻：将本体（不是容器的事物，如大地、视野、事件、行动、状态、心境等）视为一种容器（5）拟人隐喻：将事体视为具有人性。
转喻：转喻基于邻近联想突显性（salience)一件事情、一个物体或一个概念有很多属性，而人的认知往往更多地注意到其最突出、最容易记忆和理解的属性，即突显属性。语境依赖性
types of word meaning
grammatical meaning语法意义指词中表示语法概念或关系的那部分意义，如词的词性、名词的单复数、动词的时态。Lexical meaning①denotative meaning/conceptual
meaning/cognitive meaningIt is the central factor in linguistic denotative meaning of a word is its definition given in a dictionary. It is that aspect of lexical meaning which makes communication possible.
②Connotative meaning refers to the emotional association which a word or a phrase suggests in one’s mind ③Compared with conceptual meaning, connotative meaning is peripheral, and relatively unstable, that is, it may vary according to culture, historical period, and the experience of the individual. Social or stylistic meaning：One of the consequences of the way in which English has developed over the past 1,500 years has been the emergence of different styles. This has been partly due to the influx of new words from other languages such as Latin and French and partly to the variety of social needs which English has had to fulfill. . Affective . Reflexive meaning：R eflexive meaning is the meaning which arises in cases of multiple conceptual meanings, when one sense of a word forms part of our response to another sense. meaning：The associations a word gets because of the meanings of words which tend to occur in its linguistic context are called collocative meanings. meaning i：mainly a matter of choice between alternative grammatical constructions.
3.文化差异：文化差异往往和不可译性联系起来，主要表现在带有文化含义的语项翻译上。英汉两种语言所体现出来的文化异同表现在多个方面，但主要集中在概念意义和联想意义上，可粗略归类为等额对应、差额对应和文化空缺。
(1)等额对应，是指甲文化语境下的某一表达形式在另一语言文化背景下能找到现成的表达形式。（入乡随俗 When in Rome, do as the Romans do）(2)差额对应指英汉两种语言都拥有某一文化概念，但两种概念在文化语义层面并不完全对应。(母亲望子成龙The mother longs to see her son become
a dragon.)
4.英汉文化差异的表现(1)动物的联想意义(狗急跳墙A cornered beast will do something desperate)(2)颜色的联想意义(红包 red envelope红娘matchmaker)
第六章：：When a word has two or more meanings that are related conceptually or historically, it is said to be polysemous or is also an essential feature of language’s economy and efficiency. approaches to polysemy：One is diachronic, the other is synchronic. Processes leading to polysemy A. Concatenation
2.语境是帮助译者确定多义词词义的
最有效的途径。我们在此主要探讨两种
语境，即话题语境和搭配语境在翻译实
践中确定多义词词义的作用。1.话题语境：话题指话语所涉及的主题或内容common一词在法律领域与其他词搭配
完全丧失了“普通的；共有的”等含义。（common assurance 物权证书）2.
搭配语境：搭配语境指的是句子成分内部词与词的搭配使用
3. Homonymy. Types of homonyms:①Perfect homonyms: words identical in sound and spelling but different in meaning.②Homophones: words identical in sound but different in spelling and meaning. ③Homographs: words identical in spelling but different in sound and meaning.
4. The stylistic value of polysemy and homonymy :Context plays a very important role in the hearer’s interpretation of words of these two and homonymous words are stylistically useful to achieve humour or irony, or to heighten dramatic effect.
第七章：1. Synonymy：There are also words that sound different but have the same meaning. Such words are called synonyms, and the sense relation of “sameness of meaning” is called synonymy. Two kinds of synonyms①Complete (perfect) synonyms：are very rare. Examples are spirants and fricatives in phonetics, word-formation and word-building in lexicology.
②Relative synonyms：differ from complete synonyms in the following respects:(1) In degree of a given quality or in (2) In affective and stylistic meaning(3) In collocation and distribution
：Words that are opposite in meaning are often called antonyms. And the
oppositeness of meaning is called antonymy.Types of Antonyms（1）Contraries(相对性反义词) Contraries display a type of semantic contrast, illustrated by such pairs as rich and poor, heavy and light, . Complementaries (Contradictories)(互补反义词) Complementaries represent a type of binary semantic contrast. In a complementary pair the contrast between the two terms is absolute, that is they are in such a relationship that “ the assertion of one of the items implies the denial of the other: an entity can not be both at once.”3. Conversives (反向或逆反反义词) Antonyms classified on the basis of morphological structure1. Root antonyms：Words like love-hate, up-down are root antonyms for they are words with different . Derivational antonyms：Words with the same roots having negative affixes.
Some relevant points about antonyms 1. Marked and unmarked members：Antonyms often do not have equal status with respect to markedness. In certain pairs of gradable antonyms, one word is marked and the other unmarked. 2. Some words without antonyms 3. Different antonyms under different circumstances：1) Different circumstances give rise to different antonyms:2) Different contexts bring about different antonyms 3)Some words with different collocations have different antonyms 4. Lexical antonyms vs. syntactic negation：Lexical antonymy is often stronger than syntactic negation (using not).
Hyponymy：We know that the English words red, white, blue, etc. are “colour” terms, that is, they have the feature indicating a category to which they all belong. Semantic(Lexical) field s
第八章：Two types of context context语言语境(1) Lexical context refers to the lexical items combined with a given polysemous word.(2) Grammatical grammatical context, the syntactic structure of the context determines various individual meanings of a polysemous word
(3) Verbal verbal context, in its broad sense, may cover an entire passage, or even an entire book, and in some cases even the entire social or cultural setting.
context (Context of situation)非语言语境(1) The actual speech situation in which a word occurs(2) The entire cultural background against which a word, or an utterance or a speech event has to be set.
The vital role of context in
determination of word meaning 1. Eliminating ambiguities：Ambiguity refers to a word, phrase, sentence or a group of sentences with more than one possible interpretation or meaning 2. Conveying emotional overtone3. Indicating referents and the range of the meaning of a word1. Suggested ways for the correct comprehension of word meaning use of an up-to-date and adequate monolingual dictionary2. A good knowledge of the culture of the English-speaking of the ability to determine the meaning of a word from its context
第九章：Causes of changes in word meaning Historical cause Social cause Foreign influences Linguistic cause Psychological cause词义演变三动因①客观动因：客观世界每一个引起人们注意的变化都会及时地反映到词义中。②主观动因：语言的使用者是人，人的主观世界如思想观念和心理感情等的变化必然导致词义演变。③语言动因：词义的演变跟语言本身的发展也有关。由于语言接触，出现借词的大量涌入，使原有词的词义发生演变。
Four tendencies in semantic changeRestriction of meaning (specialization)
1.词义的缩小（specialization or narrowing）指词从原先表达外延较宽的概念缩小到外延较狭窄的概念。（1）从泛指到特指：meat原指“各种食物”，在sweetmeat（甜食）, greenmeat（蔬菜）（2）从抽象到具体：room一词从前的意义是“空间”、“地方”（3）从普通名词到专有名词. prophet(预言者，先知）写成the Prophet时，伊斯兰教徒都知道是指穆罕默德；（4)从一般词语到术语。许多科学术语都来自一般词语。recovery(恢复），
of meaning (generalization) 词义的扩大指从原先表达外延较狭窄的概念扩大到外延较宽的概念，其结果是新义大于旧义，旧义包含在新义之中。（1）从特指到泛指
bird (幼鸟-----鸟）（2）从具体到抽象grasp的原义是用手“抓牢，握紧”，指的是具体的动作。（3）从术语到一般词语bullish(股市看涨的)源自股市的“牛市的”、“行情看涨的”（4）从专有名词到普通名词sandwitch(三明治，夹肉面包）来自桑德威奇伯爵四世（the fourth Earl of Sandwitch)。
of meaning (pejoration)指词从原表示“中性义或褒义”转为表示“贬义”。
4. Elevation of meaning (amelioration)从表示“贬义或中性的意义”转为表示“褒义”。
Iconicity （象似性）The idea that language is fundamentally arbitrary, and that there is no resemblance between the signs of language and the thoughts they stand for, is one of the oldest commonly held views in linguistic thought. of order 顺序象似性 2. Iconicity of distance 距离象似性of complexity复杂象似性of
Markedness(标记象似性)
第十章： English Idioms 1.习语的本质是概念性的。2）习语意义有认知机制。
Language is a system—elements in it are not arranged and combined randomly, but according to some rules and principles. is arbitrary—means that the sound image or the form of a word and the meaning or concept the word stands for bear no intrinsic is vocal—the primary medium for all language is sound. 3. Language is used for human communication—it is human-specific, very different from systems of animal communication.
Functions of language The primary function of language is to transmit information and to convey commands, feelings and emotions. That is, language is a tool of communication.
1. Phatic function/communion：Language is used to establish an atmosphere or maintain social contact between the speaker and hearer. function：Language is used to tell something, to give information, or to reason things out. 3. Interrogative function：Language is used to ask for information from others. function (emotive function)：Language is used to reveal the speaker’s attitudes and function：Language is used to create certain feelings in the function：Language is used to do things or to perform . metalingual function：It means that we can use language to talk language itself.
词汇学的基本知识
词汇学的基本知识 词汇学是研究词语的学问，它是传统语言学（语法、语音、词汇）的一个分支。词汇学的 主要研究的内容是：词的性质、词的构成、词义的本质及发展、词的各种关系（同音、同 义、反义等）。 一、什么是词 词是有意义的能够独立运用的造句的最小单位，它具有固定的语音形式。汉语词的划分有一 定的困难，因为在书写时词和词之间是不分开的。就“独立运用”而言，许多虚词和量词是 不能独立运用的。于是增加了一条补充，一句话中把能独立运用的词划分出去，剩写的也是词。如：“我把这本书包了个书皮。”这个句子中的“本”“个”和“把”也是词。汉语中词 和短语的界限也不很清楚。一般可以用扩展插入法来区分。能插入的是短语，不能插入的是 词（意义不能变）。比如：钢笔——钢的笔、白菜——白的菜、白布——白的布、吃饭——吃 了饭、鸡蛋——鸡的蛋、睡觉——睡不睡觉。“钢笔”不能插入词，“白菜”插入后意思变了，它们肯定是词。“白布”可以插入且意思不变，可以做为短语。“吃饭”可以插入，“鸡蛋”可 以插入，但“鸡蛋”的频度很高，可以把它做为词。睡觉可以插入，但两个语素的组合是固 定的，把这类词做为离合词（理发、洗澡、打仗等）。 一个语素（有意义的汉字）能独立运用就是词。（米、吃、红、个、从） 两个语素组合后，意义不是它们的简单相加，就是词。（钢笔、金鱼、） 两个语素组合后，不能扩展插入词，就是词。（钢笔，白菜） 两个语素组合后，虽能扩展插入词，但它们是不能用别的语素替换的，则是一种特殊的词 ——离合词。 两个语素组合后，虽能扩展插入词，但它们的使用频度很高，且大家约定俗成认为它是词。（“鸡蛋”是词、“鹰蛋”就有人认为是短语）。 综上所述，汉语的词与短语之间的界限是有模糊地带的。 人们对客观世界的认识形成了概念，词是反映概念的，但它们之间的关系不是一一对应的。 比如，“月亮”、“月球”对应的是一个概念，“人民”这个词可以对应不同的概念。 二、现代汉语词汇的构成 词汇由词和固定的短语——熟语、谚语等构成。 词可以从不同的角度分类： 1.语法分类——实词、虚词（词类） 2.结构分类——单纯词、合成词 3.音节分类——单音节词、多音节词 4.常用——常用词汇（基本词汇）、一般词汇 5.口语词汇——书面词汇 6.普通话词汇——方言词汇 7.汉语词汇——外来语词汇 8.古词语——新词语 熟语可以包括成语、谚语、歇后语等。成语表意凝炼、形象，在书面语中广泛运用。它来源 于古代的典故，有的选取原句中最能概括原句意思的成分（乘风破浪——愿乘长风，破万里浪），有的用四个字概括寓言、故事等（刻舟求剑、狐假虎威），有的增加个别字（短兵相接——车错毂兮短兵接）。成语的意思有的是语素义的简单相加（汗流浃背、无稽之谈、自圆其说）；多数成语的意思不是语素义的相加，有的意思是约定俗成的（高山流水——表示知己知音），有的是取字面的比喻义（水落石出——比喻真相毕露了）。
现代英语词汇学概论最强版复习资料chapter
现代英语词汇学概论最强版复习资料c h a p t e r 文件管理序列号：[K8UY-K9IO69-O6M243-OL889-F88688]
Chapter 9 Changes in Word Meaning 9.1 Causes of Changes in Word Meaning 9.2 Four Tendencies in Semantic Change 9.3 Semantic Development or Change Resulting from the Figurative Use of Words Definition: Change of meaning refers to the alteration of the meaning of existing words, as well as the addition of new meaning to established words. 9.1 Causes of Changes in Word Meaning A.Historical cause 历史原因 It often happens that though a word retains its original form ,its meaning has changed because the object which it denotes has changed . *Changes of meaning because of increased knowledge of the object described are common in the history of science. Eg. pencil ==is from a Latin word meaning “a little tail” or “a fine brush”, like our Chinese “pen”毛笔.Later, when it was made of wood and graphite ,it was still called a “pencil”. atom ==It was borrowed though Latin and French from Greek arouos,invisible. Thus atom meant originally “an particle too small to be divided”. This meaning is now out-of-date, because scientist have found out that atom can be split.
词汇学相关的一些名词解释 (1)
Compounding is a process of word formation by which two independent words are put together to make one word. The word formed in this way is called compound Blending is a process of word formation by which a word is created by combining parts of other words. Words formed in this way are called blends. From morphological viewpoints, there are four types of blending: Acronymy is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms. Words formed in this way are called initialisms or acronyms, depending on the pronunciation of the words. Initialisms are words formed by the initial letters of words and pronounced as lettersEEC: European Economic Community Acronyms are words formed by the initial letters of words and pronounced as words:OPEC: Organisation of Petroleum Export Countries According to Leonard Bloomfield’s point of view, a word is a minimum free form, that is to say, the smallest form that may appear in isolation. There are two types of linguistic forms: one is the bound form, the other is the free form. A bound form is one which cannot occur on its own as a separate word, e.g. the various affixes: de-, -tion, -ize, etc. A free form is one which can occur as a separate word. For example, the word lovely contains the free form love and the suffix –ly. The suffix –ly in the word lovely, of course, i s not a free for m, because it cannot stand by itself. So we call it a bound form. A word is a minimum free form The morpheme can be considered as the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words. 1)Morphemes are commonly classified into two forms according to their character: one is free form, and the other is bound form. 2)Free morphemes自由词素are morphemes which can occur as separate words. That is to say, a free morpheme can stand alone as a word. 3)Bound morphemes粘着词素are morphemes which cannot stand alone as words. They are mainly affixes. That is to say, a bound morpheme is one that must appear with at least one other morpheme, bound or free in a word. 4)2) Morphemes may be classified into two categories according to their lexical and grammatical relationships: 5)lexical morphemes and grammatical morphemesLexical morphemes are morphemes used for the construction of new words as in compound words Grammatical morphemes are morphemes used to express grammatical relationships between a word and its context, such as plurality or past tense There are three types of words according to morphology:Simple words,Compound words,Complex words Conversion Conversion is a main type of word-formation assigning the base to a different word
词汇的形象色彩
词汇的形象色彩与对外汉语教学 词语的形象色彩是指很多词语用于解释普遍存在的概念意义外，还同时具有形象感，它们通过人们的感官如视觉、听觉、味觉等诱发人们的联想，给人以生动可感的形象感。例如：猫头鹰这个词就比较形象地反映出这种鸟头部像猫的特点；哗啦啦，是人耳边回现出流水的声音；而甜丝丝会让我们如同品尝到了甜味的食物。这些都是日常生活中非常常见的例子，可见词汇的形象色彩在生活中的应用是很广的。 正由于应用广泛，有形象色彩的词很丰富，所以对这些词的分类显得有点困难。本文将采取兰宾汉先生对具有形象色彩的词的分类，即将它们分成形感、动感、色感、声感这样四类。下面分别加以阐释： 形感：有些词的意义能给人十分具体的形象。如佛手、木耳、浪潮，大家眼前会浮现出这种事物的整体的形状。木耳是一种长在腐朽的木头上的一种可供食用菌类，形状像人的耳朵；浪潮顾名思义，想浪花一样的潮流；这是对事物整体情状的比喻。又如喇叭花、鹅卵石，灯笼裤、斑马线则是在对事物的性状的比喻之后加上了一个类名。斑马、驼背、白头翁是对描摹事物的突出的特征等等。它们的突出的特点即是让人们很容易地联想到所指事物的外在形状，我们称之形感。 色感：有些词的意义给人以鲜明的色彩感。如血红让人联想到血的颜色；草绿则浮现出一片青草的的画面，联想到充满生机的绿，还有鹅黄、橘红等。具有色感的词多为形容词，比如ABB式的白茫茫，红彤彤，绿油油，金灿灿等；又如ABC式的白呲咧、血呼啦；还有A 里BC、A不BC式的，如血里呼啦，白不呲咧；还有ABCD式的如黑咕隆咚。这些词当中的词缀部分意义很虚，但它们结合在一起具有描摹性，给人们造成一种很模糊的印象，从而给人一种形象感。 动感：有些词的意义能让人产生特殊的动感。如席卷，会让人联想到用席子卷的这样一系列的动作，从而给人一动作快，范围大的感觉。而蚕食则让人们想到蚕不分昼夜沙沙吃蚕叶这样的动作行为，从而给人一种连续不断地侵食这样一种动感。这样的词还有摇曳、撞车、碰钉子、炒鱿鱼等。一些带如字的词常带有动作感：暴跳如雷、血流如注、泪如雨下、不绝如缕等。象点头哈腰、东倒西歪、俯首帖耳等次也是对存在事物的动作状态的直接的描写。声感：有些词能给人以如闻其声的感觉。这些词多为拟声词如呵呵，哈哈，嘻嘻，啧啧，喔喔，咩咩等。还有ABB式的如笑哈哈，笑嘻嘻，轰隆隆，哗啦啦；A里BC式的如稀里哗啦等，看到这些词自然会联想到自然界的一些声音，这也是其形象色彩的特点之所在。 当然，这只是众多对具有形象色彩意义的词的分类中的一种，而且也只是一种大至的分类，比如有的词就不只属于其中的一种，而是兼具两种甚至是多种形象色彩。如银河是因为看起来像一条白色的河而得名，它的意义中就包含了形感和色感两种形象色彩。有如扑啦啦，既有拍翅膀的动感又有拍翅时的声音的形容，也兼具两种形象色彩。 不仅仅是词，在词汇系统中的固定语中的一些成语同样具有形象色彩。例如狼吞虎咽明显是对动作的描摹，具有很强烈的动感；又如羊肠小道则是很典型的对于事物形状的描绘，具有形感。其它的成语如坐如针毡、骨瘦如柴、口若悬河等。还有一些成语以其呈现的整体的画面共同显示它的形象色彩。如隔岸观火，会使人的头脑中浮现一幅画面，隔岸是空间位置，观火是动作行为，如果接受者再补充一个动作行为的主体，就形成了这幅整体的画面。这是由于固定语的内部结构相对来首比较复杂，所呈现的信息量较大，因而信息的叠加呈现出了整体的画面，这个画面对整个成语的理解起着烘托得作用。如按下葫芦浮起瓢、拨云见日、兵临城下等。还有一些词语，其表层的给接受者提供两个形象单位二者结合在一块儿很容易使人想起它的深层的涵义，这一类成语形象感的形成和我国古典诗歌中意境的形成非常相似，既由表层的关系使人联想到深层的意蕴。如南辕北辙，辕向着南边而辄却朝着北，想去南边而却走向了北边，比喻行动和初衷是相违背的。如果对这个成语稍加体会其深沉含义是
心理学自名词解释题
心理学名词解释集 【认知】是指人们获得知识或应用知识的过程，或信息加工的过程。这是人最基本的心理过程。它包括感觉、知觉、记忆、想象、思维和语言等。人脑接受外界输入的信息，经过头脑的加工处理，转换成内在的心理活动，再进而支配人的行为，这个过程就是信息加工的过程，也就是认知过程。 【艾森克的“三因素模型”】艾森克的“三因素模型”是人格的现代特质理论。其主要观点有：三因素包括外倾性，表现为内外倾的差异；神经质，表现为情绪稳定性的差异；精神质，表现为孤独、冷酷、敌视、怪异等偏于负面的人格特质。四层次由下到上依次为“特殊反应水平”，日常观察到的反应，属于误差因子；“习惯反应水平”，是由反复进行的日常反应形成的，属于特殊因子；“特质层”，由习惯反应形成，属于群因子；“类型层”，由特质构成，属于一般因子。各种人格特质可用一个人格维度图表示。 【场依存性】所谓场，就是环境，心理学家把外界环境描述为一个场，简单说场依存性是指一个人独立性的程度。美国心理学家赫尔曼?威特金（Herman?Witkin）认为有些人知觉时较多地受他所看到的环境信息的影响，有些人则较多地受身体内部线索的影响。他把个体较多地依赖自己所处的周围环境的外在参照，以环境的刺激交往中定义知识、信息称作场依存性。 【爬梯实验】美国心理学家格塞尔认为：先天的成熟和后天的学习是决定儿童心理发展的两个基本因素，在这两个因素中，他更强调成熟的作用。他让双生子中的一个从生后48周起每天爬十分钟楼梯，连续6周；而让另一个从生后53周起作同样的爬梯训练。后者在两周以后爬楼梯的水平就赶上前者。格塞尔认为，这一实验充分说明成熟有更重要的作用。 【感觉编码】我们的神经系统不能直接加工外界输入的物理能量和化学能量，这些能量必须经过感官的换能作用，才能转化为神经系统能够接受的神经能或神经冲动。这个过程就是我们说得感觉编码。 ［内隐记忆］是不能进入心灵意识，但可以在行为上表现出来的记忆．其中最重要的一种内隐记忆是程序性记忆，也即＂如何做＂这一类程序或技能知识．另一种内隐记忆出现与＂启动效应＂的研究之中，即：前面接触的相同或类似信息，促进某个具体信息的加工． 【表象】指当事物不在面前时，人们在头脑中出现的关于事物的形象。它具有直观性、概括性和可操作性。 【语言】是一种社会现象。是人类通过高度结构化的声音组合，通过书写符号、手势等构成的一种符号系统，同时又是一种运用这种符号系统来交流的行为。 【图示】是知识的心理组织形式。它说明了一组信息在头脑中最一般的排列或可以预期的排列方式。 【语言表征】是语言材料所负载的信息在头脑中的存在方式。 【动机】是由一种目标或对象所引导、激发和维持的个体活动的内在心理或内在动力。动机是一种心理过程，而不是心理活动的结果。 【驱力】是指个体由生理需要所引起的一种紧张状态，它能激发和驱动个体行为以满足需要，消除紧张，从而恢复机体的平衡状态。 【诱因】是指能满足个体需要的刺激物，它具有激发和诱使个体朝向目标的作用。 【意识】是有意识的支配调节行为，通过克服困难，以实现预定目标的心理过程。 【意识行动】受意识支配的行动。 【冲突】由于在意识行动中人们常常具有两个以上的目标，而这些目标不可能同时实现，因而引起拉意识行动中的目标冲突或动机斗争。 【挫折】指个体的意志行为受到无法克服的干扰或阻碍，预定目标不能实现是所产生的一种紧张状态和情绪反应，也就是俗话说的碰钉子。 默许心向反应 acquiescence response set 在问卷调查中，被试没有看清题目而不假思索的作出“是”的反应倾向。 适应 adaption 在一系列连续的刺激后神经反应性的降低。 上瘾 addiction 依赖药物，当停止服药时，会导致症状复发。 后像 afterimages 当视觉刺激消失后仍残留的视感觉。 注意 attention 通常指从大量刺激中选择某一刺激进行进一步加工。 唤醒 arousal 生理上的觉醒阶段，它包括交感神经系统的激活和身体的活动准备。 供选假设 alternative hypothesis 观察者开始提出的假设，通常认为变量间有差异或相关。 虚无假设 null hypothesis 观察者提出的要放弃的假设，通常认为变量间无差异或不相关。 分析内省 analytical introspection 一种自我报告的方法，被试主要报告他们的个人经验的特定方面。 语法缺失 agrammatism 由于脑损伤而导致造句困难、遗漏重要词语和词尾的症状。 称名失能症 anomia 由脑损伤而导致对物体和物体图片无法命名的病症。 游动效应 autokinetic effect 一种知觉错觉，静止的光点看起来会动的现象。 自动加工 automatic process 加工过程非常快，无须心理能量，不受意识控制，不能避免的加工。 自主神经系统（ANS） autonomic nervous system 神经系统中控制身体内活动（如心跳）的部分，它通过肌肉和腺体起作用。 行为遗传学 behaviour genetics 关于遗传对行为影响的研究，以研究双生子和领养子为主。 行为疗法 behaviour therapy 以行为主义理论为基础的临床治疗方法。 患者中心疗法 client-centred therapy 由罗杰斯发展的心理治疗方法，此方法多采用鼓励的方法以促进患者的个人发展。 认知疗法 cognitive therapy 以改变非理性思想和信念为基础的临床治疗方法。 领悟疗法 insight-oriented therapies 强调治疗着重于患者对自己问题本质的了解。 心理动力学 psychodynamic 包括所有强调无意识冲突和早期经历的治疗方法。 行为顺从 behavioural compliance 尽管态度或信念与别人不一致，但仍屈从于别人的行为方式。
完全版英语词汇学名词解释_共6页
第一章word 1.Word --- A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic funtion. 第三章formation 1 1. Morpheme --- A morpheme is the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words. 2. Allomorph --- Some morphemes are realized by more than one morph according to their position in a word. Such alternative morphs are know as allomorphs. 3. Free morphemes (Free root) --- They are morphemes which are independent of other morphemes. 4. Bound Morphemes --- They are morphemes which cannot occur as separate words. 5. Bound root --- A bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. Unlike a free root, it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words. 6. Affixes --- Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function. 7. Inflectional affixes --- Affixes attaches to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are known as inflectional morphemes. 8. Derivational affixes --- Derivational affixes are affixes added to other morphemes to create new words. 9. Prefixes --- Prefixes are affixes that come before the word. 10. Suffixes --- suffixes are affixes that come after the word. 11. Roo t --- A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analysed without total loss of identity. 12. Stem --- a stem can be defined as a form to which affixes of any kind can be added. 第四章formation 2 1. Affixation --- affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems. 2. Prefixation --- is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems. Suffixation--- is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems. 3. Compounding（Compositon）-- is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems. 4. Conversion-- is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class. 5. Blending-- is the formation of new words by combined by parts of two words or a word plus a plus a part of another word. 6. Clipping- is the formation of new words by shortening a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remain instead.
汉语言文字学书目
汉语言文字学必读书目30种2009年10月修订 1、《中国语言学史》王力 2、《语文常谈》吕叔湘 3、《基础语言学教程》徐通锵 4、《普通语言学教程》 [瑞士]索绪尔 5、《现代语言学流派》冯志伟 6、《应用语言学概论》于根元 7、《对外汉语教学概论》赵金铭 8、《现代汉语八百词》吕叔湘 9、《汉语和汉语研究十五讲》陆俭明、沈阳 10、《现代汉语》黄伯荣廖序东 11、《汉语语法学》张斌 12、《汉语语法入门》马庆株 13、《汉语描写词汇学》刘叔新 14、《现代汉字学纲要》苏培成 15、《语义论》石安石 16、《词汇语义学》张志毅张庆之 17、《修辞学发凡》陈望道 18、《古汉语通论》（《蒋礼鸿文集》）蒋礼鸿 19、《训诂学原理》王宁 20、《训诂学概论》方一新 21、《古汉语词汇纲要》蒋绍愚
22、《文字学概要》裘锡圭 23、《音韵学教程》唐作藩 24、《中国修辞学》杨树达 25、《〈说文解字〉注》 [清]段玉裁 26、《说文释例》 [清]王筠 27、《经传释词》 [清]王引之 28、《四书章句集注》 [宋]朱熹 29、《训诂丛稿》（《郭在贻文集》）郭在贻 30、《同源字论》（《同源字典》）王力 研究生阅读、写作初步建议（09） 壹、阅读 一、文献文本：文献阅读的目的是增强语感，储存语料，了解语言面貌；精读（即参考注释，字句无窒碍）阅读量10-15万字（不包括注释），泛读（即不一定参考注释，基本理解）阅读量20-30万字；下列书目大致按难易排序，可以二选一（史书部头大，可以选读）。 1、《世说新语》/《坛经》 2、《中古汉语读本》（方一新、王云路编著） 3、《近代汉语读本》（刘坚编著） 4、《论语》/《孟子》（杨伯峻译注） 5、《史记》/《汉书》（传记部分） 6、《庄子》（陈鼓应今注今译）/《荀子》（王先谦集解） 7、《诗经》选读（100篇以上）/《左传》选读
词汇学知识点总结
Language Language is a system of symbol based on physiology, psychology, and physics. It’s a special social action and a carrier of information used for human communication in a society. The relationship between Language, Society, and Thought: 1. any language reflects the culture of the society in a particular period. Therefore language is the mirror reflecting the culture of a society. 2. Language is a product of society. Language is inseparable from human society. 3. Language is used as a means of communication in a society. Outside society there is no language. 4. Society depends upon language for its existence. For example, there are many words connected with carriage. Buggy, a light one-horse carriage with two wheels. Coach, a large closed four-wheel horse-drawn carriage. 5. moreover, man’s thought is indispensable to language just as language is indispensable from society. We know that language is used to express man’s thought. The process of thinking is closely connected with language. That is to say, without thinking, there would be no human language. 6. language serves society as a means of intercourse between people. Linguistics is the scientific study of language. The scope of linguistics include phonology, syntax, semantics, phonetics, philology, lexicology, stylistics, general linguistics, descriptive linguistics…… Lexicology is a branch of linguistics concerned with the study of the vocabulary of a given language. It deals with words, their origin, development, history, structure, meaning, and application. Aim of English Lexicology is to give a systematic description of the English vocabulary. It offers students an insight into the origin and development of the English vocabulary. The significance of English Lexicology: help the learners to enlarge their vocabulary and improve their ability to analyze and use the words. Two approaches to the study of English Lexicology: synchronic and diachronic. Synchronic means describing a language as it exists at one period of time. Diachronic means concerned with the historical development of a language. For example: January, February, march, synchronically, they are the words of the months of one year. Diachronically, they are all borrowed words. Synchronically, we consider words like eventful, talkative as derivatives. Diachronically, they are hybrids, that is, words that are made of two parts, each from a different language. Etymology is the study of the origin and history of words and their meanings. Significance: 1.to provides background information and knowledge about the history, origin and development of the English language. 2. To increase the learner’s enjoyment and real understanding of English words from their changes of forms including their spelling and pronunciation to that of meanings. English is classified as a Teutonic language, that is, a Germanic language. English belongs to the Low West Germanic branch of the Indo-European family. Division of the history of the English language: 1. the period from 450 to 1150 is known as the Old English or Anglo-Saxon period. It’s described as the period of full inflection. 2. The period from 1150 to 1500 is known as the Middle English period, also as the period of leveled inflections. 3. The period from 1500 to the present day is called the Modern English period, also as the period of lost inflection. There are two classes of language in the world: synthetic and analytic. A synthetic language is one which shows the relation of word in a sentence largely by means of inflection. An analytic language is one which indicates the relation of words in a sentence by means of word order, preposition or auxiliary verbs, rather than by inflection. Old English the a synthetic language, while Modern English is an analytic language. Modern English can be divided into two parts: the early Modern English period and the Late Modern English period. Dean Swift was a conservative and he opposed the tendency to shorten words, such as ad
心理学题库基本名词解释(总汇)1
心理学题库: 心理学：研究人的行为和心理活动规律的科学。 社会心理学：致力与理解人在社会情境中的心理和行为级其本质和起因的一个科学领域。 个体发展心理学：研究个体从出生到衰老的整个过程中的心理发展和变化规律。 发展与教育心理学：个体心理发生与发展以及为了促进个体心理发展的人类学习与教育的实质与规律的科学。 心理健康：基本心理活动的过程内容完整、协调一致（知、情、意、行、人格完整协调，能适应社会） 方法： 观察法：在自然情境中对行为有目的、有计划观察并记录及进行分析，以发现心理活动变化和发展规律的方法。 测验法：特定量表为工具，对心理特征进行间接了解，做出量化结论的研究方法。 实验法：在控制条件下对某种行为或心理现象进行观察的方法。 调查法：就某个问题要求回答自己想法或做法，以此来分析、推测群体的态度和心理特征的研究方法。 问卷法：采用预先拟定好的问题表，由被试自行填写来搜集资料进行研究的方法。 谈话法：根据预先拟定问题向被调查者提出，在面对面一问一答中搜集资料，然后对群体的心理特点级心理状态进行分析和推测。测验法（人格）：在标准化的技术条件下，对受测者的行为和内部心理变化进行探索和鉴别的方法。 横断研究法：在同一时间研究不同年龄组被试的心理发展水平，并对其进行比较。 纵向研究法：对被试进行较长时间追踪研究，对其心理发展进行观察、记录。目的是考察某些心理现象发生的质的变化规律。 群体序列研究法：在同一时间选定不同的被试群体进行研究，然后对各个被试群体进行纵向的跟踪研究。 投射测验：若干个模棱两可的刺激所组成，被试可任加解释，使自己动机、态度。感情及性格等在不知不觉中反应出来。 意识与注意 意识（心理活动）：用感觉、知觉、思维、记忆等心理活动，对内在的身心状态和环境中外在（人、事、物）变化的觉知。 无意识：不能觉察的心理活动和过程。 前意识：意识与无意识之间过度层面。 催眠：似睡眠又实非睡眠的意识恍惚状态。 注意：意识在某一时刻所处状态，表现为对一定对象的指向与集中。 注意的指向性：瞬间意识选择某个对象，而忽略了其余对象。 注意的集中性：意识指向某个对象时，在这这个对象上集中起来。 不随意注意：事先没有目的、也不需要意志努力的注意。 随意注意：有预定目的、需要一定意志努力的注意。 随意后注意：服从当前的任务要求，节省意志的努力。 感觉 感觉：对直接作用与感觉器官的事物的个别属性在脑中的反映。 感受性：人对刺激物的感觉能力。 感觉阈限：感到性大小的基本指标。 绝对感觉阈限：最小可觉察的刺激量。 差别感觉阈限：对两个刺激间最小差异的察觉能力。 知觉 知觉：通过感官得到内部和外部环境的信息，信息经过头脑的加工（整合和解释），产生了对事物的整体认识。 知觉的整体性：在经验基础上把由多种属性构成的事物，知觉为一个统一的整体的特性。 知觉的选择性：知觉时，从复杂刺激环境中将一些有关内容抽出组织成知觉对象，其他部分则留为背景。 知觉的理解性：以过去的知识、经验来解释对象。 知觉的恒常性：感觉不断在变化，知觉稳定不变。 方位知觉：对物体的空间关系和自己的身体在空间所处的位置的知觉。
词汇学 名词解释(部分)
Types of meaning Types of lexical changes 1.Elevation:词义升格 Definition: words rise from humble beginnings to positions of importance Some words early in their history signify something quite low or humble, but change as time goes by to designate something agreeable or pleasant. For example: nice: ignorant---foolish---delightful, pleasant Marshal: a keeper of horses---a high ranking army officer So elevation refers that the meaning of word changes from the neutral/negative to positive. 2.Old English:It refers to the English starting from 450 to 1100 AD. The old English is made up of different sources of languages spoken then –that of Anglo-Saxons, that of Celts, and that of Jutes, with a lot of Latin elements used for common peopl e’s life. 3.Bound morpheme: It is the smallest unit of grammar, a unit which cannot occur as separate words. They have no independent semantic meaning; instead, they have: Attached meaning E.g. un-kind, hope-ful Grammatical meaning E.g. cat-s, slow-ly, walk-ing, call-ed For an exact example, in the word “careful”, care is free morpheme, “-ful” is a bound morpheme. 4.Hyponymy: Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion, or to say, the relationship between general lexical items and specific lexical items. That is to say, when X is a kind of Y, the lower term X is the“hyponym”, and the upper term Y is the “superordinate”. For example, “fiction”is the superordinate of “novel”, “novelette”and “short story”, which are the hyponyms of “fiction”. Knowing the semantic features of the hyponyms and their superordinates can help us achieve vividness, exactness, and concreteness in expression.