2010 26 1.255 Innovation, diffusion and the distribution of income
J Evol Econ(2010)20:689–714
DOI10.1007/s00191-009-0170-8
REGULAR ARTICLE
Innovation,diffusion and the distribution of income
in a Malthusian economy
Mark Staley
Published online:20November2009
?Springer-Verlag2009
Abstract Between5000bce and1800,the population of the world grew120-fold despite constraints on the total amount of land available for production. This paper develops a model linking population growth to increasing pro-ductivity driven by random innovation and diffusion.People are endowed with a set of skills obtained from their parents or neighbours,but those skills are imperfectly applied during their lifetimes.The resulting variation in productivity leads to a distribution of income and to a process of diffusion whereby high-income activities spread at the expense of low-income activities. An analytic formula is derived for the steady-state distribution of income.The model predicts that the rate of growth of population approaches an asymptotic limit,whereupon there are no scale effects.The model also predicts that if the rate of diffusion of knowledge is increased,the growth rate will increase. Keywords Malthusian·Innovation·Diffusion·Selection
JEL Classi?cation C02·O15·O31·O33·O40·N00
1Introduction
For thousands of years prior to1800,average per-capita income was very stable and very low.According to Thomas Malthus,incomes were stagnant for so long because“the constant effort towards population,which is found even in M.Staley(B)
University of Ontario Institute of Technology,2000Simcoe Street North,
Oshawa,ON,Canada,L1H7K4
e-mail:staleymd@https://www.wendangku.net/doc/8310153555.html,
690M.Staley the most vicious societies,increases the number of people before the means of subsistence are increased”(Malthus1826).The two main assumptions of Malthus’model were that the rate of population growth was increasing in per-capita income,and that there were diminishing returns to labour because land was in?xed supply.He showed that under these two assumptions income would be mean reverting.Population would also be mean reverting unless there were improvements to skills or technology that allowed more people to subsist off the same amount of land.Hence according to Malthus,innovation led to an increase in population,but did not lead to any increase in income per capita.
Historical evidence supports a link between population growth,innovation, and a stagnant level of income per capita.Phillip Hoffman has constructed an index of total factor productivity(TFP)for agricultural land in the Paris Basin between1500and1800,showing a steady increase in TFP accompanied by a similar increase in the labour force over that period of time(Hoffman 1996,Table4.10).Galor(2005)has summarized evidence showing that tech-nologically superior regions had higher population but not higher income per capita in the pre-industrial epoch.And Ashraf and Galor(2008)have tested the Malthusian assumptions for the years1,1000and1500and have found that societies characterized by higher land productivity and an earlier onset of agriculture had higher population densities.
During the nineteenth century the western world escaped from the Malthusian trap.How this occurred is a question of fundamental importance not only for the history of the developed countries,but also for an under-standing of the barriers faced by less-developed countries today.Recently, a new approach to modeling this transition,called Uni?ed Growth Theory, has appeared in the economic growth literature(Galor and Weil2000;Galor and Moav2002).According to Uni?ed Growth Theory,the escape from the Malthusian tap was an inevitable by-product of the slow evolution of relation-ships between technology,population,and human capital.These relationships, which are only partially understood,are the focus of this paper.
We present a model of the pre-industrial economy in which random inno-vation,diffusion and selection give rise to a steady increase in knowledge, a steady increase in population,but nevertheless a stationary distribution of income.The model is designed to capture the following three“stylized facts”of the pre-industrial economy:
1.The Malthusian trap.Innovation leads to higher population but does not
lead to higher income per capita.
2.A very slow rate of population growth.Figure1shows world population at
around?ve million in the year5000bce(when agriculture was taking hold), increasing to600million on the eve of the industrial revolution(Kremer 1993).In the context of a Malthusian economy this120-fold increase in population represents an enormous amount of innovation,but in any given year the rate of improvement would have been glacial.A120-fold increase in population between5000bce and1800implies a growth rate of only
Innovation,diffusion and the distribution of income in a Malthusian economy691
-5,000-4,000-3,000-2,000-1,00001,0002,000
Year
Fig.1World population(millions),5000bce to2000,log scale.Source is Kremer(1993).The regression line is based on data between5000bce and1800.The slope of the regression line is 0.075%,which is slightly higher than the?gure of0.07%quoted in the text,which was based on the ratio of the endpoints
0.07%per annum,which in turn implies a very low rate of technological
advancement.
3.A lack of observed scale effects.An important characteristic of Fig.1is
that the rate of growth of population appears to be independent of the level of population between5000bce and1800.
The assumptions of the model are as follows:
?There are a large number of production units,each of which is small(e.g.
a family,or a tribe).The economy is competitive.
?Production functions are?rst-order homogeneous in land and labour, and productivity is a function of human capital(knowledge).There is no physical capital in the model.
?The supply of land is?xed,and is allocated to the units of productions in such a way that the marginal product of land is same for all units.The assumption of equal marginal product can be justi?ed in the context of
a society in which there is clear title to land and a competitive rental
market.In the context of a more“primitive”society the assumption can be justi?ed by considering the optimal level of military spending for each unit.
Equilibrium is obtained when there is a military stalemate,which occurs when the marginal products are equalized across all units.?Knowledge is transmitted through two mechanisms:vertical transmission,
i.e.from parent to child;and horizontal transmission,i.e.from neighbour
to neighbour.
?Learning is error-prone,which leads to variation in productivity across units.
?High-income units produce more children than low-income units.
692M.Staley Together,these assumptions lead to a model that is similar to Darwin’s theory of Natural Selection,but where the unit of selection is knowledge instead of genes.1In the case of vertical transmission,selection occurs through a combination of the Malthusian mechanism and competition for land.Higher skilled individuals enjoy a higher income and thus have more children than lower-skilled individuals.The higher-income individuals are motivated to increase their holdings of land(e.g.they bid up the rent)while the lower-income individuals are forced to reduce their holdings of land,which lowers their income and leads to a reduction in their numbers.Since children learn most of their skills from their parents,this mechanism of selection leads to the preferential spread of useful knowledge.Horizontal transmission also gives rise to a selection effect because old skills are dropped in favour of newer more pro?table skills.
There are two offsetting forces working to maintain a static distribution of income.On the one hand there is a tendency for highly pro?table skills to spread at the expense of less pro?table skills as described above.Given slow random innovation and selection one would expect the average income of the population to slowly rise.On the other hand,the Malthusian mechanism works to limit income per capita through population pressure and a?nite supply of land.Hence there is a tendency for income to revert to the mean. Continuous random innovation and population pressure eventually balance, leading to a stable distribution of income.The mean of the income distribution is just slightly higher than the subsistence wage,which translates into a slow but steady increase in population.
The key prediction of the model is that the rate of population growth is constant,i.e.there are no scale effects.This prediction is consistent with the pattern seen in Fig.1,but is not what one might at?rst expect from intuition.Kremer(1993)presents a proto-typical model of population growth showing how scale effects arise naturally when innovation is assumed local.In Kremer’s model,each person’s chance of inventing something is independent of others,so the aggregate rate of invention is proportional to population. When combined with the Malthusian mechanism linking population and in-come,Kremer’s model predicts that the rate of growth of population should be proportional to the level of population.In the present model,although individual(random)innovation is also assumed to be local and independent of others,the?nite rate of diffusion acts as a“speed limit”on the aggregate rate of innovation and hence eliminates scale effects.As the population grows, more people discover new skills that have already been discovered elsewhere 1From Darwin(1883):“...I saw,on reading Malthus on Population,that natural selection was the inevitable result of the rapid increase of all organic beings...”.The type of selection considered here has been variously termed cultural selection or behavioural selection,to distinguish it from genetic selection(Jablonka and Lamb2005).
Innovation,diffusion and the distribution of income in a Malthusian economy693 but have not yet diffused across society,i.e.they end up“re-inventing the wheel”.Hence a?nite rate of diffusion eliminates scale effects.
The prediction that the rate of growth of population is constant is not consis-tent with the Boserupian point of view(Boserup1965).The main assumption of Boserupian theory is that increases in population spur increases in the rate of innovation.In a Malthusian economy all technological progress is absorbed by population growth,so the rate of growth of population serves as a measure of the aggregate rate of invention.Our model predicts that the rate of growth of population is independent of the level of population,which implies that the aggregate rate of invention is independent of the level of population,in contradiction to Boserupian theory.2
Several recent papers have presented models of pre-industrial growth based on Malthusian assumptions(Kremer1993;Jones1999;Galor and Moav2002; Hansen and Prescott2002;Lucas2002).These papers are mainly concerned with the transition from Malthusian income stagnation to modern growth, while the present paper is concerned only with the Malthusian era.The role of selection in the diffusion of innovation was previously discussed by Galor and Moav(2002),by Clark and Hamilton(2006),and by Clark(2007).Whereas those authors explored the possibility that genetic selection may have driven increases in productivity,the present paper considers only what may be termed cultural selection,i.e.changes in knowledge and skills.Many of the results in this paper have been obtained using the tools of continuous-time stochastic calculus,originally applied to the study of economic growth by Bourguignon (1974)and Merton(1975).
The paper is organized as follows.Section2presents a model of population growth with random innovation and diffusion of knowledge(both horizontal and vertical).Section3presents an analytic formula for the distribution of income and shows how one may compute the population growth rate as a function of demographic and economic factors.Finally,Section4summarizes the predictions of the model,proposes some tests,and suggests an extension to the model that may have relevance for modern growth.
2The model
To set the stage we?rst present a simple macroeconomic model that captures the phenomenon of a steadily growing population and a constant level of income per capita.The detailed model to be presented in the following sections will be shown to be reducible to this simple macroeconomic model in the aggregate.
2Note that it is not Malthusian theory that is in contradiction with Boserupian theory.Kremer was able to successfully marry Boserupian theory with Malthusian theory by postulating that the rate of growth of technology is proportional to the size of population.
694M.Staley Let Y,X,L stand for output,?xed land,and labour respectively.Let A stand for labour ef?ciency(or human capital per person).The simple model consists of three equations:
Cobb–Douglas Production:
Y=Xα(AL)1?α,0<α<1,
Exogenous Innovation:
A=e gt,
Malthusian Dynamics:
·
L=B Y?δL
The symbol B in the last equation represents the number of new labourers that survive to adulthood per unit of economic output,andδrepresents the natural death rate of labourers.This last equation is analogous to the savings equation used by Solow in this1956model of industrial growth,but with labour substituted for capital(Solow1956).Following the technique used by Solow,a steady-state solution to these equations can be obtained:
Population Growth:
g L≡
·
L
L
=1?α
αg,
Income Per Capita:
y≡Y
L
=
δ+g L
B
Given the success of the above model in capturing the essence of the pre-industrial economy one might simply stop at this point.But the model as it stands is incomplete because it treats innovation as if it were some macroeconomic effect by which improvements in ef?ciency descend upon the entire population in a coordinated fashion.The goal of the following sub-sections is to present a detailed model incorporating individual innovation and diffusion of knowledge,but which reduces to the above model at the aggregate level.
2.1Production
The production function for each unit follows the Cobb–Douglas form:
Y i=Xαi(A i L i)1?α.(2.1) Here i labels a unit of production in which people have attained a certain level of knowledge A i,and Y i,X i,and L i stand for the levels of output,land and labour associated with that unit.We assume that the quality of land is homogeneous across all units.Note that there is no capital in this model(or
Innovation,diffusion and the distribution of income in a Malthusian economy 695equivalently,capital is tied to land or to labour in some ?xed proportion 3).A set of people may be a tribe,a manor in pre-industrial Europe,or just a family.We assume that the size of a unit is small in comparison with the whole population,so the economy is competitive.One may think of the quantity (A i L i )as representing the amount of effective labour,or human capital.Total output for the economy is simply Y = i
Y i .
Since income drives population in a Malthusian economy,our immediate goal is to derive an expression for per-capita income applicable to each unit.In order to do so we must ?rst determine how land is distributed across the various units of production.Two assumptions are suf?cient.First,we assume that the marginal product of land is the same across all units:
?Y i ?X i
=constant.Second,we assume that the total amount of land is ?xed (normalized to 1for convenience): i X i =1.
With these two assumptions one may show that land is distributed in propor-tion to human capital:
X i =
A i L i AL
,(2.2)where L is the total quantity of labour and A is the labour-weighted average productivity across all units.Per-capita income is then proportional to produc-tivity:4y i ≡Y i L i =A i (AL )α,(2.3)
and aggregate production follows Y =(AL )1?α,consistent with the macroeco-nomic model presented at the beginning of Section 2(for X =1).
The assumption of a constant marginal product of land can be justi?ed in the context of a society where there is clear title to land and a competitive rental market.In that case,the marginal product of land is equal to the rent,and rent is the same for everyone because the quality of land is assumed homogeneous across all units of production.
In a society without formal land ownership the distribution of land is more likely determined by military strength.But even then one can argue that 3The assumption that capital is tied to other factors seems reasonable for a pre-industrial economy.For example,draught animals were an important form of capital but required pasture for grazing so the potential for accumulation was limited.
4An interpretation of Eq.2.3is that each unit earns its average product of labour,i.e.y i = Y AL A i .
696M.Staley as long as people are rational,land will be distributed as described above. Consider the situation where there are two neighbouring units of production, one of which enjoys a high marginal product of land(labeled“H”),and the other of which has a low marginal product of land(labeled“L”).All units wish to expand their holdings of land because according to(2.1)that will allow them to expand output.It is pro?table for a given unit to invade its neighbour only if the military budget required to defend the acquired piece of land is less than its marginal product.It turns out that unit“H”can economically expand its territory at the expense of unit“L”if it spends an amount on defense that is intermediate between the marginal products of the two units.In that case unit “L”will?nd it uneconomical to match the military spending of unit“H”and will be forced to retreat.A stalemate will be obtained when land is divided between the two communities such that their marginal products are the same.
There remains the question of how much of income goes to fuel population growth.An extreme Ricardian view might be that only the labour share of income fuels population growth because the remainder of income(rent) is squandered by a small land-owning elite on luxury goods and military adventures.But luxury goods makers and soldiers presumably have children, so some of that rental income will support the“effort towards population”.It is not the aim of this paper to develop a full theory of land ownership,so instead we will simply assume that all income generated by a unit of production goes to support the raising of children in that unit.Equation2.3can then be used as the basis for a Malthusian model of population dynamics.
2.2Fertility
Following Hansen and Prescott(2002)we assume that the rate of growth of population in a production unit is a linear function of income:
·
L i
=B y i?δ.(2.4)
L i
Here y i is given by Eq.2.3and B andδare constants.Since the size of the labour force is proportional to total population,Eq.2.4also describes the rate of growth of labour.The?rst term in Eq.2.4then represents the rate of entry into the labour force,which is roughly equal to the number of children that survive to adulthood.Here adulthood means the ability to both work and reproduce.A natural interpretation of the?rst term in Eq.2.4is that wealthy parents produce more children than poor parents.5The second term in Eq.2.4 represents the natural death rate of labourers.
5In a paper entitled“Survival of the Richest”,Clark and Hamilton provide evidence based on parish records from pre-industrial England showing a positive correlation between the number of heirs listed in wills and the total assets of testators,the later presumably a good proxy for income (Clark and Hamilton2006).
Innovation,diffusion and the distribution of income in a Malthusian economy 697Equation 2.4can be derived by assuming a constant elasticity of parent’s marginal utility with respect to both net consumption c (after child-rearing expenses)and the number of children n .E.g.
U (c ,n )= cn φ 1?θ?11?θ,c =y ?kn .
Here k is the expenditure required to raise a single child.For a given level of family income y ,utility is maximized when n =B y ,B =φk (1+φ).If we assume that knowledge is passed down through the generations,then Eqs.2.3and 2.4together de?ne a system that exhibits the characteristics of Darwinian selection.Consider a hypothetical situation where there are two types of labourers,one representing the majority (labelled “L”),and the other representing a small minority having above-average skills (labelled “H”).Figure 2shows schematically what happens to these two populations over time.Since the population of type “H”individuals is small at ?rst,the equilibrium of the economy is initially dictated by the properties of type “L”individuals.The net income of type “L”individuals is just high enough to allow the population to remain stable (each couple produces on average two children that survive to reproduce).But the type “H”individuals enjoy a higher income and so are able to grow in number.The marginal product of land in type “H”communities is temporarily higher than that of the land controlled by the type “L”communities.Hence by the logic of the previous section the territory controlled by type “H”individuals grows at the expense of the territory controlled by type “L”communities until the marginal products of land are equalized.In the new equilibrium the net income of type “L”people is lower than before,so their numbers start to shrink (e.g.the rate of infant mortality goes up).In the meantime,the population labelled “H”continues to rise,which according to Eq.2.2triggers further expansion of territory.The process continues until type “H”individuals have taken over the economy.As expected,the higher level of population absorbs the higher income of the more
Fig.2Selection in a Malthusian economy.The population of individuals having superior skills eventually displaces the population of individuals having inferior skills,leading to a net increase in population.However income per capital always reverts to the subsistence level
I n c o m e P o p u l a t i o n
698M.Staley productive people,to the extent that disposable per-capita income once again reverts to its original subsistence level.
The mechanism of selection just described is similar to the evolutionary mechanisms presented by Nelson and Winter (1982)but with the roles of capital and labour reversed.In Nelson and Winter’s models,?rms grow by reinvesting capital while competing for ?nite supplies of other resources such as labour.To ?nd something even closer to the present model one must look to the theoretical population ecology literature.6Ecological models typically capture competitive dynamics by assuming the existence of a common limiting resource,and a population growth equation similar to Eq.2.4,but with a “crowding term”C (L ),e.g.
·L i L i
=βi C (L )?δ.C (L )is a decreasing function of the total population L ,and βi is a population speci?c birth parameter.We can relate Eq.2.4to the above ecological model by mapping A i →βi and B (AL )α→C (L ).In the model of population growth given by Eqs.2.3and 2.4,people are competing for a ?xed quantity of land and the most productive people can survive crowded conditions that are too onerous for other types of people.The main difference between the ecology models and our model of Malthusian dynamics is that in the former case fertility rates are determined by genetics,whereas in our case fertility rates are determined by skills,which are nevertheless passed to descendents as if they were something like genes.
2.3Horizontal diffusion
One of the key assumptions of the present model is that knowledge diffuses through a Malthusian economy at a ?nite rate.In the case of vertical diffusion,knowledge transfer is slow because it takes many generations for a new skill to spread through the population.In this section we propose a model for horizontal diffusion (the transfer of knowledge from neighbour to neighbour)that is also not instantaneous.
Consider two populations,labeled i and j ,and assume that the productivity of any person in population j is greater than that of a person in population i .That is,A j >A i .According to Eq.2.3this productivity difference manifests itself as a difference in income,i.e.y j >y i .One would expect that if a person in population i came into contact with a person in population j and was able to observe the superior techniques used by the person in population j ,then there would be a transfer of knowledge.This type of knowledge transfer can be captured using epidemic models,which generally assume that the rate of 6See Vandermeer and Goldberg (2003)Ch.1,for example.
Innovation,diffusion and the distribution of income in a Malthusian economy699 transfer between two populations is proportional to the product of the two populations(see Giroski2000for a review).The resulting dynamics gives rise to an S-shaped pattern of diffusion as seen by Griliches in his pioneering study of hybrid corn(Griliches1957).The Bass model of diffusion(Bass1969), widely used by marketers to forecast the spread of technology,is also based on this type of rule.
Another aspect of diffusion observed by Griliches,and also emphasized by Rogers(1995),is that the speed of diffusion appears to be proportional to the economic bene?t that is obtained by switching to the superior technique or technology.This aspect of diffusion can be captured by assuming that the speed of diffusion is an increasing function of the difference in income.
We now postulate the following dynamics for the horizontal diffusion of knowledge between two populations,labeled i and j:
·
L j=νL i L j
L
y j?y i
,(2.5)
·
L i=?
·
L j=νL j
L i
L
y i?y j
,(2.6)
where L is the total population.The?ow of knowledge is always from lower-
income activities to higher-income activities.The constantνcaptures the speed
of diffusion.Note the symmetry between Eqs.2.5and2.6:only one of these
equations is needed to specify the model.The intuition behind Eq.2.5is that
the rate of increase in the population with superior knowledge A j is propor-
tional to the number of potential learners(L i),and is also proportional to the percentage of labourers that have already attained that level of knowledge
(L j/L).This second factor represents the likelihood that a potential learner will be neighbours with a potential“teacher”,which captures the epidemic nature of diffusion.
In an economy with many different levels of productivity,the rate of dif-
fusion away or towards a given level of knowledge can be obtained by summing
the effects of diffusion over all relevant pairs of types.Hence to obtain the total
rate of change of L i,we can sum Eq.2.6over j to obtain
·
L i=νL i(y i?y),(2.7) where y is the labour-weighted average wage across the economy.
It is useful at this point to place the above model of knowledge diffusion
in the context of technology diffusion models.Giroski(2000)classi?es dif-
fusion models into four categories:epidemic models,probit models,density-
dependent population models,and information cascade models.Epidemic
models have already been discussed.Probit models postulate that units of
production(?rms in modern parlance)are heterogeneous in their ability to
adopt new technologies.For example,a?rm may adopt a new technology only
if the pro?t in doing so exceeds some threshold,sayπ*.Let’s say the dis-
tribution ofπ*across?rms is f(π*).The proportion of?rms adopting the
technology is then equal to the area under f(π*)whereπ*is less than the
700M.Staley increase in pro?t obtained by switching to the new model.Density dependent population models include the model of selection described in the previous https://www.wendangku.net/doc/8310153555.html,rmation cascade models describe the phenomena whereby “herd mentality”may cause ?rms to adopt a certain technology even when there are other more pro?table alternatives.
The model of diffusion described by Eqs.2.5,2.6and 2.7is a hybrid of epi-demic and probit models.The factor νL i L j /L in Eq.2.5captures the epidemic dynamics,while the dependence on y j ?y i captures the heterogeneity of capabilities across units of production.One can derive the y j ?y i factor from a probit model by assuming that each unit of production adopts a new technique only if the accompanying increase in income exceeds some threshold.If that threshold is uniformly distributed across units,then the proportion of units adopting the given technique will be linear in y j ?y i .
Note that Eq.2.7is similar to the equation for population dynamics pre-sented in the previous section (Eq.2.4).The correspondence can be seen if we map v →B and v y →δ(νy is a constant since y is constant in a Malthusian economy).Hence our model can also be viewed as a selection model.In epidemic models,selection acts on different variants of pathogens that are competing for hosts.If skills are something like pathogens,then these skills are “competing for people”and only the most communicable will survive,communicability in this case being related to differences in income.7
Finally,Eq.2.7can be combined with Eq.2.4to obtain the total rate of change of population of a given type:
·L i L i =By i ?δ+ν(y i ?y )(2.8)
This last equation combines the effects of vertical diffusion and horizontal diffusion.If one sums Eq.2.8over i one obtains the equation of Malthusian Dynamics ·
L =B Y ?δL ,Y =yL ,consistent with the macroeconomic model presented at the beginning of Section 2.
2.4Innovation
Our model of innovation is very simple:
dA i A i =σdz i .(2.9)Here σis a constant and dz i represents a draw from a standardized iid normal process:dz i ～N (0,dt).There is no direction to innovation,and productivity is as likely to decrease as it is to increase.To simplify matters we assume that 7Dawkins concept of a meme comes closest to capturing the idea of skills competing for people (Dawkins 1976).
Innovation,diffusion and the distribution of income in a Malthusian economy701 individuals innovate independently of one another,so the dz i are uncorrelated across i.One complication that we will need to address later is that the de?nition of a group may change over time.For example,a group may start out as a single“tribe”,but after the population expands,the tribe may split into two independent tribes each pursuing their own innovation according to Eq.2.9.
Equation2.9admits frequent small changes in productivity as well as rare large changes in productivity.An example of the later might be the Neolithic Revolution.It is conceivable that major improvements in cultivation took place in only a few locations,and that those improvements slowly diffused, vertically or horizontally,to the rest of the world.Equation2.9is consistent with such large local jumps in productivity.
2.5Summary of the model
Income:y i≡Y i
L i
=A iα,A=
j
L j
L
A j,L=
i
L i,(2.3)
Diffusion/Selection:
·
L i
L i
=B y i?δ+ν(y i?y),y≡
i
L i
L
y i,(2.8)
Innovation:dA i
A i
=σdz i.(2.9)
3Aggregate growth
3.1Simulation of the model
Before developing an analytic model of aggregate growth we present the results of a simulation exercise,designed to replicate the pattern seen in Fig.1. The purpose of the simulation is to highlight some key properties that will need to be captured in the analytical solution.Some of the parameters of the simulation have been chosen to be consistent with historical data;others have been chosen based on plausibility.Together,they are designed to produce a rate of growth of0.075%per year,consistent with the slope of the regression line shown in Fig.1.
First,we assume that there are a large number of“tribes”,each of which is restricted in size.Initially there are1,000tribes,each containing5,000people; hence there are5million people to start.Whenever a tribe grows beyond 10,000people,it splits into two.This step is necessary to prevent any single tribe from taking over the entire economy,contradicting the assumption that there are a large number of units of production.We are assuming that as
702M.Staley
387415443472500529557586
Income (1990 U.S. Dollars)
Fig.3The distribution of income.The bars show the empirical distribution based on Monte Carlo simulation,and the solid line is the best-?t normal (Gaussian)distribution
population expands in the pre-industrial world,the number of communities expands with it,instead of each community becoming larger.
Parameters Using data from Hansen and Prescott (2002),along with our estimate of growth g L =0.075%,we can infer that δmust be approximately 1/18in units of years ?1,which implies that in the pre-industrial era the average person could expect to live an additional 18years upon reaching adulthood.8Summing (2.8)over i we have
g L ≡·L L =B y ?δ,(3.1)and hence B =(g L +δ) y =0.05625 y .According to ?gures contained in
Maddison (2007),world GDP per capita prior to 1800was roughly US $500in 1990terms.Therefore B 0.05625 500=0.0001125.For simplicity let us assume initially that there is no horizontal diffusion,so v =0and all diffusion occurs vertically through a process of selection.The share of land in production,α,is set to 0.3.The one parameter left to be determined is σ.By a process of trial and error it was determined that σ=0.0022results in a rate of growth that is close to 0.075%.This value of σimplies that productivity ?uctuates with a standard deviation of 0.22%per annum,or just less than 1%over the average working life of an individual.
The main ?nding of the simulation exercise is that the distribution of income quickly adopts the form shown in Fig.3,even when starting from an arbitrary shape.The mean of the distribution ($500)is quite stable,which translates into a constant population growth rate and hence no scale effects.Note that the mean income of $500is close to the subsistence level of δ/B =$4938Annualising Eq.15in Hansen and Prescott,δ=2 1 35?g where g =0.075%,hence δ=0.0555.
Innovation,diffusion and the distribution of income in a Malthusian economy703 (substitute g L=0into Eq.3.1).The standard deviation of the distribution is approximately$38.Over99%of the population has an income that lies somewhere between$400and$600.The solid line in Fig.3represents a normal distribution with the same mean and standard deviation as the simulated distribution.It turns out that the normal distribution?ts the simulated results very well,although as we shall see in the next section the exact distribution is actually related to a Bessel function.
Although the average level of income is almost constant after a few hundred years of simulation,there is still a small residual dependence on population. Figure4shows that the dependence appears to be approximately of the form a?b/N,where a and b are constants and N is the number of tribes.As N→∞the average income(and hence the growth rate)becomes independent of population.
The observed dependence of the growth rate(and mean income)on the parameters B,δ,v andσis as follows:
1.When v=0,the population growth rate is independent of B.However,
average income is negatively correlated with B as expected in a Malthusian economy.When v>0,the population growth rate is negatively correlated with B.
2.If one increases the death rateδ,the level of population drops and the
average level of income increases,as expected in a Malthusian economy.
But interestingly,the population growth rate goes up.
3.The population growth rate and the average income are both positively
correlated with v.
4.The population growth rate and the average income are both positively
correlated withσ.
The last observation conforms to the expectation that in a“Darwinian”economy the rate of increase in mean productivity should be a positive function of the variance of productivity.The more variance there is,the more that
1/(Number of Tribes)
Fig.4Dependence of mean income on population.The x-axis is the reciprocal of the number of tribes(or units of production).The graph shows that the mean income slowly converges to a limiting value,in this case approximately$500,as the number of tribes approaches in?nity
704M.Staley selection has to operate upon.Some of the other results are surprising.For
example,the second bullet point says that if the death rate increases,the rate of
growth of population increases,and it is not at all obvious why this relationship
should hold.
By studying the workings of the simulation one can obtain a picture of how
diffusion and selection work in this economy and so gain some intuition around
the relationships reported above.The picture that emerges is as follows.
There are a large number of units,some of which are operating close to the
frontier of knowledge,while others are further behind.The more units there
are operating near the frontier,the more likely it is that one of them will
accidentally discover something that increases the overall productivity of the
economy.Furthermore,the faster the speed of diffusion,the more units will
be located near the frontier of knowledge.Therefore an increase in the speed
of diffusion should increase the growth rate.Regarding the second point,an
increase in the death rate leads to a higher rate of selection(i.e.the slope of the
curves in Fig.2are steeper),and therefore a higher rate of(vertical)diffusion.
Finally,we can gain some intuition around why there are no scale effects
in this model.One might expect that as the population increases,the rate of
discovery should go up because there are more units drawing independent
samples from the productivity distribution(dz i).However,not everyone is operating near the frontier of knowledge.Those that are lagging the frontier
are making discoveries just as fast as those that are ahead,but the laggards are
effectively“re-inventing the wheel”.As the economy expands this phenom-
enon becomes more and more common,counteracting the increased rate of
discovery.
3.2Analytic solution
We now wish to?nd an expression for the growth rate of population g L as a
function of the parametersσ,B,δ,v andσ.According to Eq.3.1,the overall
growth rate of population is a simple linear function of the average income y,
so we can direct our efforts towards?nding y.
In the summary of the model shown in Section2.5,we listed some differ-
ential equations for L i and A i;and we expressed y i as a function of A i.So it
should be possible to?nd a differential equation for y and?nd its?xed-point
solution.To carry out this procedure we make use of Ito’s lemma(Ito1951):9 Ito’s Lemma:
Given the process dx i=a(x i)dt+b(x i)dz i,and function f({x i},t),then
df=?f
?t dt+
i
?f
?x i
{a(x i)dt+b(x i)dz i}+1
2
ij
?2f
?x i?x j b(x i
)b
x j
ρij dt,
whereρij is the correlation between dz i and dz j.
9A non-rigorous derivation of Ito’s lemma can be found in Hull(2003).
Innovation,diffusion and the distribution of income in a Malthusian economy705 Since innovations are assumed to be independent,ρij is a matrix with ones down the diagonal and zeros everywhere else,i.e.ρij=δij.Hence
df=?f
?t dt+
i
?f
?x i
{a(x i)dt+b(x i)dz i}+1
2
i
?2f
?x2i
b(x i)2dt
From Eq.2.3we have
y=A1?α
L
.(3.2)
Applying Ito’s lemma to(3.2)using(2.3,2.8)and(2.9)(see Section2.5)we can obtain dy in several steps.First:
dA=A
(B+ν)
σ2y
y
dt+σ
H
1
N
dZ
(3.3)
where
σ2y=1
N
i
(y i?y)2is the variance of income,
H
1
N
=
i
L2
i
y2
i
i
L i y i
2is a Her?ndahl index(a measure of concentration),
dZ～N(0,1)is a standardized normal,
and N is the number of production units(e.g.tribes,manors).One can
readily see that the Her?ndahl index is of order1/N by scaling the number
of production units by a positive factor.Note that according to Eq.3.3,if σy and y are static then A grows exponentially,which is consistent with the macroeconomic model presented at the beginning of Section2.One of the
goals of the following analysis is to show that the distribution of y is indeed
asymptotically static.
From Ito’s lemma we then have:
dA1?α=(1?α)
Aα
dA?
1
2
α(1?α)σ2A1?αH
1
N
dt.(3.4)
Combining Eqs.3.3and3.4with dL=L(B y?δ)dt we?nally obtain:
dy=
(1?α)(B+ν)σ2y+αy(δ?B y)?α(1?α)
σ2
2
yH
1
N
dt
+(1?α)σy
H
1
N
dZ,(3.5)
The equation for y is mean reverting,with the point of attraction being a neg-ative linear function of H(1/N),which explains the pattern shown in Fig.4.In
706M.Staley the limit that N →∞,H vanishes,as does the stochastic term.The vanishing of the stochastic term is analogous to the elimination of unsystematic risk in a large diversi?ed portfolio of assets.We are then left with a deterministic portion only,which simpli?es to:dy dt =(1?α)(B +ν)σ2y +αy (δ?B y ).(3.6)
In deriving Eq.3.6we have not considered the issue of changing group structure,such as occurred in the simulation exercise where we continuously split old tribes into new tribes.However,it turns out that this complication is irrelevant for Eq.3.6because at any given time,quantities such as y and σy are invariant under splitting.
A stable ?xed-point solution can be obtained by setting both sides of Eq.3.6
equal to zero.10At the ?xed point,σ2y is related to y as follows:
σ2y =α1?αy (B y ?δ)(B +v).(3.7)
Using the parameter values listed in Section 3.1,we obtain σy =$37.80,which is close to the value of $38obtained in the simulation exercise.
In order to proceed further in deriving an expression for y in terms of the
parameters of our model,we need to ?nd another equation for σ2y .We can apply Ito’s lemma to derive an equation for d σ2y dt and try to ?nd its ?xed
point,but it turns out that the ?xed-point equation for σ2y then has a term
containing the third moment.Going further we could derive a whole set of recurrences relations for the higher moments,but that would only lead to an in?nite regress.Clearly we need to determine the entire density function for income.
The most direct approach to ?nding the density function is to ?rst derive it for each y i ,and then sum over i (weighting by L i /L ).We can sum the individual distributions because we are assuming no correlation between the various stochastic processes driving the changes in productivity.First,we apply Ito’s lemma to Eq.2.3using Eqs.2.8and 2.9to obtain,in the limit of an in?nite number of tribes:dy i =y i ?α(B +ν)σ2y ˉy
+α(δ?B y ) dt +y i σdz i .(3.8)This describes a simple process of geometric Brownian motion.
Next,to compute the density function for y i we use the Fokker–Planck Equation,also known as the Kolmogorov Forward Equation (Cox and Miller 1995):
10The ?xed point is stable by inspection of the last term in Eq.3.6.
Innovation,diffusion and the distribution of income in a Malthusian economy 707Fokker–Planck–Kolmogorov Equation:
Given the process dy i =a (y i )dt +b (y i )dz i ,the density function ρi (y i ,t )satis?es
?ρi (y i ,t )?t =???y i a (y i )ρi (y i ,t ) +12?2?y 2
i b (y i )2ρi (y i ,t ) ,Application of this equation to Eq.3.8leads to the following partial differential equation for ρi (y i ,t ):
?ρi = σ2+α(B +ν)σ2y y
?α(δ?B y ) ρi + 2σ2+α(B +ν)σ2y y ?α(δ?B y ) y ?ρi ?y +σ22y 2?2ρi ?y 2.(3.9)
Here we have dropped the index i on y i because the income scale is common across all units.Now de?ne f (y ,t )as the distribution of income across all units of production:
f (y ,t )≡ i
L i (t )L (t )ρi (y ,t ).We may now derive a partial differential equation for f using (3.9),along with (2.9)and (3.1):
?f ?t = (B +ν)(y ?y )+σ2+α(B +ν)σ2y y
?α(δ?B y ) f + 2σ2+α(B +ν)σ2y ˉy ?α(δ?B y ) y ?f ?y +σ22y 2?2f ?y 2
The term (B +ν)(y ?y )in the above expression captures the effect of knowl-edge diffusion,while the rest of the expression is identical to Eq.3.9.
A steady-state distribution of income is obtained when ?f /?t =0.Substitut-
ing for σ2y from Eq.3.7we obtain the following ordinary differential equation for f (y ):
0=y 2f +ayf +(b y +c )f (3.10)
708M.Staley where a =2σ2 2σ2?α1?α
(δ?B y ) b =22(B +ν)c =2σ2 ?(B +ν)y +σ2?α1?α
(δ?B y ) Following the suggestion of Polyanin and Zaitsev (2003,p.228),we make the substitutions z =2 b y and f (y )=z 1?a u (z ).
Equation 3.10then becomes
0=z 2d 2u dz 2+z du dz
+ z 2?γ2 u ,γ= (1?a )2?4c (3.11)
which is Bessel’s equation.It has the solution u (z )=C 1J γ(z )+C 2Y γ(z ),
where J γand Y γare γ-order Bessel functions of the ?rst and second kind respectively,and C 1,C 2are arbitrary constants.Hence
f (y )= 2 b y
1?a C 1J γ 2 b y +C 2Y γ 2 b y .In order to prevent f (0)from blowing up,C 2must be zero.To see why,expand J γ(z )near z =0(Abramowitz and Stegun 1972,p.360):J γ(z )= 12z γ∞ k =0
1k ! (γ+k +1) ?14z 2 k ,and Y γ(z )=J γ
(z )cos (γπ)?J ?γ(z )sin (γπ).When γ>0,lim z →0J γ(z )=0and lim z →0J ?γ(z )=∞,hence lim z →0
Y γ(z )=?∞.So in order for the function f (y )to be bounded at the origin,we must set
C 2=0.Therefore our solution is f (y )=C 2 b y 1?a J γ 2 b y ,(3.12)where C is a normalization constant.
Now that we have the functional form for f (y ),the ?nal step of our analysis to compute y as a function of the parameters of our model:α,B,δ,v and σ.Since the coef?cients of the function f (y )themselves contain y (see Eq.3.10),we must solve for y using the consistency relation: D yf (y )dy
D f (y )dy =y ,(3.13)
2020年高考政治哲学原理和方法论知识点整理(表格版)
第二单元探究世界与追求真理（唯物论） 标题原理方法论 世界的物质同一性原理世界的本质是物质，世界上先有物质后有意识，物质决定意识， 意识是客观存在在人脑中的反映 想问题、办事情时，要一切从实际出发，实事求是。理论联系实际，解放思 想，与时俱进，在实践中检验和发展真理.（有时候会考察课本“一切从实际 出发的内容”） 物质运动的辩证关系原理物质和运动不可分割。物质是运动的物质，运动是物质的根本属性和存在方 式， 世界上不存在脱离运动的物质；运动是物质的运动，物质是运动的承担者。 ①善于在运动中把握事物，不能静止地看问题，一切以时间、地点、条件为转 移。 ②既要反对离开物质谈运动的唯心主义观点（仁者心动）；③又要反对离开运动 谈物质的形而上学观点（刻舟求剑）； 运动和静止的关系原理①运动是绝对的、无条件的、永恒的②静止是相对的、有条件的、暂时的， ③物质世界是绝对运动和相对静止的统一。 ①既要承认事物的绝对运动，又要看到事物在运动中存在着相对静止，坚持绝对 运动和相对静止的统一②既要反对只承认静止而否认运动的形而上学的不变论， 又要反对只承认绝对运动而否认相对静止的相对主义和诡辩轮； 规律的客观性和普遍性原理①所谓规律，就是事物运动过程中固有的、本质的、必然的、稳定的联系； ②规律是客观的，是不以人的意志为转移的，它既不能被创造，也不能被消 灭； ③规律是普遍的，任何事物在其运动变化和发展中，都遵循其固有的规律。 ①必须遵循规律，按客观规律办事，而不能违背规律。否则就会受到规律的惩 罚。②在客观规律面前，人并不是无能为力的，人可以在认识和把握规律的基础 上根据规律发生作用的条件和形式利用规律，改造客观世界，造福于人类。 尊重客观规律和发挥主 观 能动性的辩证关系原理尊重客观规律是正确发挥主观能动性的前提和基础，发挥主观能动性是认识和 利用规律的必要条件。 想问题、办事情，既要尊重客观规律，按规律办事，又要充分发挥主观能动 性，把尊重客观规律和发挥主观能动性有机地结合起来。 意识的能动作用原理人能够能动地认识世界：①意识活动具有目的性和计划性② 主动创造性和自 觉选择性 ①发挥主观能动性, 自觉树立正确的思想意识，克服错误的思想意识②反对否认 意识能动作用的形而上学观点和片面夸大意识能动作用的唯心主义观点 人能够能动地改造世界：① 意识对改造客观世界具有指导作用（注意两重 性）； ②意识对于人体生理活动具有调节和控制作用（高昂的精神、萎靡的精神） 物质和意识的辩证关系原理①物质决定意识 ②意识对物质具有能动作用：正确意识对事物发展起促进作用错误意识对事物 发展起着阻碍作用。 ①要坚持一切从实际出发，实事求是 ②要发挥主观能动性，能动地认识和改造世界，树立正确的思想意识，克服错误 思想意识 一切从实际出发：做是什么；为什么怎么做：①坚持客观规律②发挥主观能动性③把两者结合起来
马克思主义哲学的基本原理和方法论总结
马克思主义哲学的基本原理和方法论总结 一、唯物论（辩证唯物论） 1.世界的本原是物质（世界的物质性原理） （1）原理：世界的本质是物质，物质决定意识。 （2）方法论：这要求我们看问题办事情要一切从实际出发，实事求是。 反对从主观出发，反对“上帝创世说”。 2.自然界的物质性原理 （1）原理：自然界是物质的，它的产生、存在和发展是客观的。 （2）方法论： ①人们在利用自然、改造自然的同时，应当尊重、保护自然，学会与自然和谐相处。 ②承认自然界的客观性是我们正确处理人与自然关系的基本前提。 3.规律的普遍性和客观性 （1）原理： ①规律具有客观性和普遍性，它不以人的意志为转移，既不能被创造也不 能被消灭。一旦违背客观规律就会受到规律的惩罚。 ②规律是客观的、普遍的，但是人在客观规律面前并不是无能无力的，人 可以发挥主观能动性，认识和利用规律，改造客观世界为人类造福。（2）方法论： ①人必须遵循规律，而不能违背规律，按照客观规律办事； ②人还要发挥主观能动性，认识和利用规律，改造客观世界为人类造福； ③要把尊重客观规律性和发挥人的主观能动性结合起来。 4.物质和意识的辩证关系原理 （1）原理： ①世界是物质的，物质决定意识； ②意识具有能动性，对物质有反作用：正确的意识促进客观事物的发展， 错误的意识则阻碍客观事物的发展。 （2）方法论： ①我们必须坚持一切从实际出发，实事求是，使主观符合客观； ②充分发挥意识的能动作用，树立正确的意识，克服错误的意识。 5.人的主观能动性和客观规律性的辩证关系原理 （1）原理：
①规律是事物运动过程中固有的、本质的、必然的、稳定的联系。规律具 有客观性和普遍性，规律的存在与发生作用不以人的意志为转移，既不 能被创造也不能被消灭，是不可违抗的； ②人在客观规律面前不是无能为力的，人可以通过发挥主观能动性，认识 和利用客观规律，改造客观世界为人类造福。 ③尊重规律、按规律办事，离不开发挥人的主观能动性；发挥主观能动性， 也必须以尊重客观规律为基础。 （2）方法论： ①这就要求我们既要尊重规律，按客观规律办事，即一切从实际出发，实事求是； ②又要发挥主观能动性，认识和利用规律； ③把尊重客观规律和发挥主观能动性结合起来，坚持解放思想、实事求是， 做到主观和客观具体的历史的统一； ④我们既要反对片面夸大主观能动性的唯意志主义和唯心主义；又要反对 片面强调客观规律的机械唯物主义和片面强调客观条件，安于现状、因 循守旧、无所作为的宿命论思想。 二、马克思主义认识论 1.实践和认识的辩证关系原理 （1）原理： ①实践决定认识，实践是认识的基础。实践是认识的来源；实践是认识发 展的动力；实践是检验认识的真理性的唯一标准；实践是认识的目的和 归宿。 ②认识对实践具有反作用。正确的认识、真理和科学理论能指导人们有效 地开展实践活动，推动实践的发展；错误的认识会阻碍实践的发展。（2）方法论： ①坚持实践第一的观点，自觉参与实践活动； ②重视认识对实践的反作用，重视科学理论对实践的指导作用。 2.真理观 （1）真理是标志主观同客观相符合的哲学范畴，是人们对客观事物及其规律的正确反映。真理最基本的属性是客观性，真理还有条件性和具体性，真理和谬误往往相伴而行。这就要求我们热爱真理，坚持真理一元论，真理面前人人平等；同时，我们还要正确对待谬误。 （2）人类的认识具有反复性。因此，人类追求真理的过程并不是一帆风顺的。 人们对一个事物的正确认识往往要经过从实践到认识，再从认识到实践的多次反复才能完成。人类的认识需要不断深化。 （3）人类的认识具有无限性和上升性。从实践到认识、从认识到实践的循环是一种波浪式的前进或螺旋式的上升。因此，人类追求真理是一个永无止境的过程。
TRIZ创新方法尔雅满分答案
TRIZ创新方法 课程简介 1 【判断题】《创新方法论》课程所介绍的知识只包含经典TRIZ理论。(×) 创新需要方法吗？ 1 【单选题】“最有用的知识是关于方法的知识。”这句话是（B）讲的。 A、贝尔纳 B、笛卡尔 C、奥斯本 D、吉尔福斯 2 【单选题】“中国没有科学的原因在于没有科学的方法”。这句话是（B）讲的。 A、贝尔纳 B、蔡元培 C、奥斯本 D、吉尔福斯 3 【判断题】通过《创新方法论》课程的学习，我们发现，采用不同的方法、选择不同的工具，完成同一实践活动的效果、效率、成本与代价常常会存在较大的差 别。(√) 4 【判断题】通过《创新方法论》课程的学习，我们知道在创新实践的时候，只需 要选择工具就可以了。(×)
【判断题】《创新方法论》课程告诉我们，创新不需要方法，本身没有规律可循。(×) 6 【判断题】《创新方法论》课程告诉我们，创新方法是人们在创造发明、科学研究或创造性解决问题的实践活动中，所采用的有效方法和程序的总称。(√) 7 【判断题】创新方法的根本作用在于根据一定的科学规律，启发人们的创造性思维，提升人们的创新效率。(√) 创新方法的演化 1 【单选题】创新方法按照发展历程分为（B）个阶段。 A、2 B、3 C、4 D、5 2 【单选题】创新方法按照发展历程划分，第二阶段是（B）。 A、尝试法 B、试错法 C、现代创新方法 、设问法D． 3 【单选题】创新方法按照发展历程划分，第三阶段是（C）。
B、试错法 C、现代创新方法 D、设问法 4 【单选题】《创新方法论》课程告诉我们，神农尝百草，日中七十毒”，便是（A）的生动写照。 A、尝试法 B、试错法 C、现代创新方法 D、设问法 5 【单选题】爱迪生以极大的毅力和耐心，先后实验了6000多种材料，做了7000多次实验，终于发现可以用棉线做灯丝，足足亮了45小时灯丝才被烧断。这使用的是（B）。 A、尝试法 B、试错法 C、现代创新方法 D、设问法 6 【单选题】屠呦呦发现青蒿素的主要途径是大量筛选、大量实验和灵感，主要采用了（B）。 、尝试法A．
常用哲学原理及方法论
常用哲学原理及其方法论 拔山中学高2014级政治组一、物质和意识的辩证关系原理及方法论 原理内容： （1）物质是本原的，世界上先有物质，后有意识。物质决定意识，意识是物质的反映。（2）意识对物质具有能动作用，它不仅能够能动地认识世界，而且能够能动地改造世界。正确的意识推动物质世界的发展,有促进作用;错误的意识阻碍事物的发展,有破坏作用. 方法论： 1.树立一切从实际出发,实事求是的思想; 2.发挥人的主观能动性,将主观能动性与客观事实和客观规律相结合; 3.树立正确的意识观,促进事物的发展. 二、物质和运动的辩证关系及方法论 物质是不依赖于人的意识,并能为人的意识所反映的客观实在.物质的唯一特性就是客观实在性. 运动是指宇宙间一切事物、现象的变化和过程。 原理： 1.物质是运动的物质,物质是运动的主体（承担者）； 2.运动是物质的运动,运动是物质的固有属性和存在方式. 方法论： 1.世界上不存在脱离运动的物质，也不存在脱离物质的运动。离开运动谈物质会形而上学，离开物质谈运动会导致唯心主义，都是错误的。 2.既要坚持唯物论,又要坚持辩证法;既反对唯心主义,又反对形而上学. 三、运动和静止的辩证关系原理及方法论 运动是指宇宙间一切事物、现象的变化和过程。静止是运动的一种特殊状态。一是说事物在它发展的一定阶段和一定时期，其根本性质没有发生变化；二是说物体相对于某一参照系来说没有发生某种运动，或者说物体在一定条件和范围内没有进行某种特殊的运动。 运动和静止的关系 区别：运动是绝对的、无条件的和永恒的。静止是相对的，有条件的和暂时的。 联系：物质世界是绝对运动和相对静止的统一。 (动中有静，静中有动) 只承认静止而否认运动是形而上学的不变论，只承认绝对运动而否认相对静止则导致相对主义和诡辩论。 方法论： 1.要在绝对运动和相对静止的统一中把握事物; 2.坚持辩证法,反对形而上学的不变论（只承认静止而否认运动）和相对主义与诡辩论（只承认绝对运动而否认相对静止）。 四、人和规律的辩证关系原理及方法论 规律就是事物运动过程中固有的本质的、必然的、稳定的联系. 人要发挥主观能动性,能动地认识世界,改造世界. [原理]
马克思主义哲学原理及方法论
马克思主义哲学（辩证唯物主义和历史唯物主义） 第一部分辩证唯物主义 一、辩证唯物论 1、物质与意识的辩证关系 2、规律的客观性和普遍性 3、尊重客观规律与发挥主观能动性的关系 二、认识论 1、实践与认识的辩证关系 2、真理的客观性 3、真理的条件性和具体性 4、认识的反复性、无限性、上升性 三、唯物辩证法 （一）联系观 1、联系的普遍性 2、联系的客观性 3、联系的多样性（联系的条件性、具体性） 4、整体和部分的辩证关系 5、系统与要素的辩证关系（系统优化） （二）发展观 1、发展的普遍性 2、发展的趋势（发展的途径） 3、发展的状态 (量变与质变的辩证关系、质量互变关系原理)
4、发展的原因（内外因辩证关系） （三）矛盾观 1、矛盾的客观性 2、矛盾的普遍性 3、矛盾的特殊性 4、矛盾普遍性与特殊性的辩证关系 5、主次矛盾关系 6、矛盾的主次方面关系 7、发展的原因（内外因辩证关系） （四）创新观 1、辩证的否定观 2、辩证法的革命批判精神 3、创新的作用 第二部分历史唯物主义 一、历史观 1、社会存在与社会意识的辩证关系 2、两大基本规律的矛盾运动 3、人民群众是历史的创造者 二、人生价值观 1、价值观的导向作用 2、人生价值观 第一部分辩证唯物主义一、辩证唯物论
1、规律的客观性和普遍性 （1）原理内容： ①规律的含义：规律是事物运动过程中固有的、本质的、必然的、稳定的联系。 ②规律是客观的，是不以人的意志为转移的，它既不能被创造，也不能被消灭。规律是普遍的。自然界、人类社会和人的思维，在其运动变化和发展的过程中，都遵循其固有的规律。 （2）方法论： ①规律的客观性和普遍性要求我们，必须遵循规律，而不能违背规律。按照客观规律办事，我们就能够体会到规律对于我们的意义。一旦违背规律，人们就会受到规律的惩罚。 ②在客观规律面前，人并不是无能为力的。人可以在认识和把握规律的基础上，根据规律发生作用的条件和形式利用规律，改造客观世界，造福于人类。人不能改变规律，但人能够改变规律发生作用的条件。 2、物质与意识的辩证关系 （1）原理内容： ①物质的作用：物质世界是先于人的意识而存在的，物质是本原的，意识是派生的，物质决定意识。 ②意识的能动作用： A、人能够能动的认识世界（反映）a、意识活动具有目的性和计划性b、意识活动具有主动创造性和自觉选择性c、意识活动的主动性和创造性，是人能够认识世界的重要条件，世界上只有尚未认识之物，而没有不可认识之物。 B、人能够能动的改造世界（反作用）a、意识对改造客观世界具有指导作用。正
哲学原理和方法论的对应表
《生活与哲学》基本原理和方法论 第一部分：辩证唯物论（8个） （一）世界的本质是物质原理 基本内容：自然界是物质的，人类社会的产生、存在、发展及其构成要素也具有客观物质性，人的意识是社会的产物，是在劳动中伴随着人和人类社会一起产生的。世 界是物质的世界，世界的真正统一性在于它的物质性。 方法论要求：我们想问题、办事情要一切从实际出发，理论联系实际，主观符合客观，反对主观主义。 （二）物质决定意识原理 基本内容：物质世界是先于人的意识而存在，物质是本原的，意识是派生的，物质决定意识，意识是物质的反映。 方法论要求：们想问题办事情坚持一切从实际出发，实事求是，使主观符合客观。（三）意识对物质具有能动作用原理 基本内容：人能够能动地认识世界和改造世界。正确的意识能促进事物的发展，错误的意识会阻碍事物的发展。 方法论要求：我们要重视发挥正确意识的能动作用，树立正确的思想意识，克服和抵制错误的思想意识。 （四）物质和意识的辩证关系原理 基本内容：物质决定意识，意识对物质具有能动作用。人能够能动地认识和改造世界。 方法论要求：要求我们在实际工作中，一方面要坚持一切从实际出发，实事求是，使主观符合客观。另一方面要重视发挥正确意识的能动作用，树立正确的思想意识，克 服和抵制错误的思想意识。 （五）物质和运动辩证关系原理 基本内容：物质是运动的物质，运动是物质的固有属性和存在方式；运动是物质的运动，物质是运动的承担者。 方法论要求：我们要用运动、变化、发展的眼光看问题；既要反对离开物质谈运动的唯心主义观点，又要反对离开运动谈物质的形而上学观点。 （六）运动和静止辩证关系原理 基本内容：运动是绝对的、无条件的、永恒的，静止是相对的、有条件的、暂时的。物质世界都是绝对运动和相对静止的统一。 方法论要求：我们既要用运动、变化、发展的观点观察和处理问题，又要看到事物相对静止的存在。既要反对只承认静止而否认运动的形而上学的不变论，又要反对 只承认绝对运动而否认相对静止的相对主义和诡辩论。 （七）规律的普遍性、客观性原理 基本内容：规律是事物运动过程中固有的本质的、必然的、稳定的联系。规律是客观的，是不依人的意志为转移的，它既不能被创造，也不能被消灭。规律是普遍的， 自然界、人类社会和人的思维，在其运动变化和发展的过程中，都遵循其固有 的规律。 方法论要求：我们必须遵循规律，按客观规律办事。在客观规律面前，人并不是无能为力的，人可以在认识和把握规律的基础上根据规律发生作用的条件和形式利用 规律，改造客观世界，造福于人类。（八）尊重客观规律和发挥主观能动性的辩证关系原理 基本内容：规律是客观的，不以人的意志为转移。发挥主观能动性，是认识和利用规律的必要条件；尊重规律，是正确发挥主观能动性的前提和基础。人可以发挥主观 能动性在认识和把握规律的基础上，根据规律发生作用的条件和形式利用规 律，改造客观世界，造福于人类。 方法论要求：我们想问题、办事情，既要尊重客观规律，按规律办事，又要充分发挥主观能动性，把尊重客观规律和发挥主观能动性有机地结合起来。 第二部分：（辩证唯物主义）认识论（4个） （一）实践是认识的基础（实践对认识具有决定作用）原理 基本内容：实践决定认识，实践是认识的基础。实践是认识的来源，是认识发展的动力，是检验认识的真理性的唯一标准，是认识的目的和归宿。 方法论要求：我们要积极参加社会实践活动，在实践中检验和发展认识。 （二）实践和认识的辩证关系原理 基本内容：实践决定认识，实践是认识的基础。实践是认识的来源，是认识发展的动力，是检验认识的真理性的唯一标准，是认识的目的和归宿。认识对实践具有反作 用，正确的认识、科学的理论对实践有巨大的指导作用；错误的认识则会把人 的实践活动引向歧途。 方法论要求：我们要积极参加社会实践活动，在实践中检验和发展认识；坚持正确认识、科学理论的指导作用。坚持理论和实践相结合的原则。 （三）真理的条件性和具体性原理 基本内容：真理是人们对客观事物及其规律的正确反映，但真理是具体的有条件的。任何真理都有自己适用的条件和范围，任何真理都是相对于特定的过程来说的，都 是主观与客观、理论与实践的具体的历史的统一。 方法论要求：①真理的条件性和具体性要求我们，如果不顾过程的推移，不随着历史条件的变化而丰富、发展和完善真理，只是照搬过去的认识，或者超越历史条 件，把适用于一定条件下的科学认识不切实际地运用于另一条件之中，真 理都会转化为谬误。 ②真理的条件性和具体性表明，真理和谬误往往是相伴而行的。在人们探索 真理的过程中，错误是难免的。犯错误并不可怕，可怕的是不能正确对待 错误。 （四）认识的反复性和无限性原理 基本内容：认识具有反复性。由于受主客观条件的限制，人类追求真理的过程不是一帆风顺的，这就决定了人们对一个事物的正确认识往往要经过从实践到认识，再从认识 到实践的多次反复才能完成。认识具有无限性。认识的对象是无限变化着的物质 世界，作为认识的主体的人类是世代延续的，作为认识基础的社会实践是不断发 展的，因此，人类的认识是无限发展的，追求真理是一个永无止境的过程。 方法论要求:我们要与时俱进，开拓创新，在实践中认识和发展真理，在实践中检验和发展真理。 唯物辩证法联系观：（5个） （一）联系的普遍性原理 基本内容：联系是普遍的。世界上一切事物都与周围其他事物有着这样或那样的联系。事物
怎样研究理论以及怎样创新理论
怎样研究理论以及怎样创新理论 ――马克思经济学方法论的启示 梁东黎 （南京大学商学院经济学系 210093） 内容提要：“继承和发展”马克思经济学的研究有两类，一类是完善经济理论本身，一类是解决实际经济问题。前者必然面临对马克思经济理论的多元化理解，以及学术观点的相对性和政治观点的绝对性的矛盾。马克思“继承和发展”前辈理论的基点是解决他所处时代的实际经济问题。解决实际问题的理论必然广泛“继承和发展”前辈理论。理论研究有真问题和假问题之分。揭示实际问题的因果联系，才是真正的、具有生命力的理论。“继承和发展”马克思经济理论，必须以解决实际经济问题作为第一目的。 关键词：继承和发展马克思经济理论实际问题方法论原则 一、问题的提出 马克思的经济理论是人类宝贵的精神财富。但是，后人往往不自觉地以一种极端的态度不恰当地对待它，结果使得这样宝贵的精神财富未能发挥应有的作用。就是说，在很多时候，我们对马克思的经济理论要求太高了，即要求马克思的经济理论能够解释一切时代、一切方面的经济问题。然而这是不现实的。马克思的经济理论有其固有的研究对象，有其固有的需要解决的经济问题。马克思的经济理论是对发展至19世纪（1883年以前）的资本主义所进行的理论解释。马克思留下了一部具体的经济学，没有留下一部一般的经济学。即使我们把马克思经济学的方法论称为马克思的一般经济学，它也只是19世纪（1883年
以前）人类方法论研究的一个优秀成果。方法论本身的研究也需要发展，它的发展也是没有止境的。当人们用这么高的标准要求马克思时，对自己的理论要求必然降低了。马克思曾经说不是物产丰富的温带、而是条件艰苦的寒带更适合资本主义的发展。对马克思理论的发展来说，也有类似的情况：马克思理论本身太伟大、太丰富，致使马克思理论的后来者很难抵挡当懒汉的诱惑，他们不自觉地坐享其成、坐吃山空，使马克思的理论难以继续发展。似乎可以说，马克思理论太伟大反而损害了马克思理论的发展。这种情况迫使我们思考：怎样才能真正更好地发展马克思的理论？在这个问题上,我们可以而且应该首先向马克思请教。 在运用马克思经济理论进行研究的时候，笔者发现其间必然会面对一个取舍的问题：（1）当研究以“继承和发展”马克思主义经济学作为基本的目的时，我们的注意力不得不主要集中于怎样的研究才是真正对马克思主义经济学的“继承和发展”问题上，这样对于实际经济问题的关心程度和感受程度必然降低。（2）当研究以解决实际经济问题为基本目的时，我们关心的是解决实际经济问题本身。至于必须用哪一种理论来解决这个问题，则不必刻意追求。问题第一，理论第二，能够解决问题的理论才是好理论。在这种情况下，对理论研究中必须坚持“继承和发展”马克思主义的原则的要求必然降低。在笔者看来，这就是运用马克思主义经济学理论进行研究的悖论。 为了更好地继承和发展马克思主义的经济理论，必须对这个悖论进行深入的研究，从而理解它，并最终加以克服。 二、为完善经济理论本身进行的研究 经济研究五花八门，笔者将其分为两类，一类是为了完善经济理论本身而进
哲学原理与方法论归纳整理
哲学原理与方法论归纳整理 导读：马克思主义哲学是辩证唯物主义和历史唯物主义的哲学，其中，辩证唯物主义包括辩证唯物论、辩证唯物主义认识论、唯物辩证法三个组成部分。历史唯物主义包括历史观、价值观和人生观等组成部分。学习时应把握以下范畴：物质、运动、静止、规律、意识、认识、实践、真理、联系、发展、矛盾、社会存在与社会意识、人民群众、价值及价值观、价值判断与价值选择、价值创造与实现。 一、辩证唯物主义（辩证唯物论8、唯物辩证法19、认识论3）（共30条原理） 第一部分：辩证唯物论（物质和意识、规律和主观能动性）（共8条原理） 一、世界的物质统一性原理 1、【原理内容】：辩证唯物主义认为，自然界是物质的；人类社会是物质的。意识是物质的派生。因此，世界是物质的世界，世界的真正统一性在于它的物质性。 2、【方法论】：想问题、办事情，要坚持一切从实际出发，使主观认识和客观实际相符合。 3、【反对】：反对实际工作中，违背世界物质性原理的表现是主观主义。 ☆☆如何做到一切从实际出发，实事求是：（1）坚持一切从实际出发，实事求是，要求我们不断解放思想，与时俱进，以求真务实的精神探求事物的本质和规律，在实践中检验和发展真理。（2）坚持一切从实际出发，实事求是，要把发挥主观能动性和尊重客观规律结合起来，把高度的革命热情同严谨的科学态度结合起来。既要反对夸大意识能动作用的唯意志主义，又要反对片面强调客观条件，安于现状，因循守旧，无所作为的思想。 二、物质决定意识原理 1、【原理内容】辩证唯物主义认为：世界的本质是物质，先有物质后有意识，物质第一性，意识第二性，物质决定意识，意识是物质的反映。 2、【方法论】：要求我们想问题办事情坚持一切从实际出发，使主观符合客观。 3、【反对】：反对不从实际出发的主观主义。反对本本主义（教条主义）、经验主义。 三、意识能动作用原理（或意识反作用于物质原理） 1、【原理内容】：（1）人能够能动地认识世界。人的意识不仅能反映事物的外部现象，而且能够把握事物的本质和规律，世界上只有尚未认识之物，而没有不可以认识之物。意识具有计划性、目的性、主动创造性与自觉选择性。 （2）人能够能动地改造世界。①意识对物质具有反作用，正确反映客观事物及其发展规律的意识，能够指导人们有效地开展实践活动，促进客观事物的发展。歪曲反映客观事物及其发展规律的意识，则会把人的活动引向歧途，阻碍客观事物的发展。②意识对于人体生理活动具有调节和控制作用。高昂的精神，可以催人向上，使人奋进；萎靡的精神，则会使人悲观、消沉，丧失斗志。 2、【方法论】：要求我们一定要重视意识的作用，重视精神的力量，自觉地树立正确的思想意识，克服错误的思想意识。 3、【反对】：反对否对意识能动作用的形而上学观点和片面夸大意识能动作用的唯心主义观点。 四、物质和意识辩证关系原理【重点掌握】 （1）【原理内容】：辩证唯物主义认为，物质决定意识，意识对物质具有能动作用。正确意识对事物发展起着促进作用，错误意识对事物发展起着阻碍作用。 （2）【方法论】：想问题、办事情既要坚持一切从实际出发，实事求是；又要重视意识的作用，重视精神的力量，自觉地树立正确的思想意识，克服错误的思想意识。 （3）【反对】：反对夸大意识能动作用的唯意志主义和反对片面强调客观条件，安于现状、因循守旧、无所作为的思想。
马克思主义哲学原理及方法论
马克思主义哲学原理及方法论 一．唯物论 世界的物质统一性原理及方法论 ［原理］：辩证唯物主义认为，世界的本质是物质，世界上先有物质后有意识，物质决定意识，意识是客观存在在人脑中的反映。 ［方法论］：这一原理要求我们在想问题、办事情的时候，要一切从实际出发，理论联系实际，解放思想，实事求是，与时俱进，在实践中检验和发展真理。 ［错误倾向］：反对不从实际出发的主观主义，反对本本主义（教条主义）、经验主义。 意识能动作用原理及方法论 ［原理］（1）人能够能动地认识世界。人的意识不仅能反映事物的外部现象，而且能够把握事物的本质和规律，世界上只有尚未认识之物，而没有不可以认识之物。 （2）人能够能动地改造世界。（1）意识对物质具有反作用，正确反映客观事物及其发展规律的意识，能够指导人们有效地开展实践活动，促进客观事物的发展。歪曲反映客观事物及其发展规律的意识，则会把人的活动引向歧途，阻碍客观事物的发展。（2）意识对于人体生理活动具有调节和控制作用。高昂的精神，可以催人向上，使人奋进；萎靡的精神，则会使人悲观、消沉，丧失斗志。 ［方法论］：要求我们一定要重视意识的作用，重视精神的力量，自觉地树立正确的思想意识，克服错误的思想意识。 ［错误倾向］：反对否认意识能动作用的形而上学观点和片面夸大意识能动作用的唯心主义观点。 物质和意识的辩证关系原理 ［原理内容］：物质决定意识，意识对物质具有能动作用。 正确意识对事物发展促进作用，错误意识对事物发展起着阻碍作用。 ［方法论］：一方面要坚持一切从实际出发，实事求是； 另一方面，要重视意识的作用，重视精神的力量，自觉地树立正确 的思想意识，克服错误的思想意识。 ［错误倾向］：反对夸大意识能动作用的唯意志主义和反对片面强调客观条件，安于现状、因循守旧、无所作为的思想 规律的客观性和普遍性原理及方法论 ［原理内容］：所谓规律，就是事物运动过程中固有的本质的、必然的、稳定的联系。规律是客观的，是不依人的意志为转移的，它既不能被创造，也不能被消灭。规律是普遍的，自然界、人类社会和人的思维，在其运动变化和发展的过程中，都遵循其固有的规律。没有规律的物质运动是不存在的。 ［方法论］：规律的客观性和普遍性要求我们，必须遵循规律，按客观规律办事，而不能违背规律。一旦违背客观规律，人们就会受到规律的惩罚。在客观规律面前，人并不是无能为力的，人可以在认识和把握规律的基础上根据规律发生作用的条件和形式利用规律，改造客观世界，造福于人类。 ［错误倾向］：反对否认规律的客观性和企图创造规律或消灭规律的唯心主义观点，反对不讲科学，不顾客观规律的冒险盲干的主观主义。 尊重客观规律和发挥主观能动性辩证关系原理
必修四 哲学原理+方法论
必修四《哲学生活》 辩证唯物主义：唯物论、认识论、辩证法。 （一）唯物论（5个） ★一、世界的物质统一性原理及方法论 (辨证唯物论) 〖原理内容〗：辩证唯物主义认为，世界的本质是物质，物质决定意识，意识是客观存在在人脑中的反映。 〖方法论〗：这一原理要求我们在想问题、办事情的时候，要一切从实际出发，实事求是。 ★二、意识能动作用原理及方法论 (辨证唯物论) 1、〖原理〗（1）人能够能动地认识世界。 （2）人能够能动地改造世界。①意识能够指导人们改造世界。正确的意识，能够指导人们有效地开展实践活动，促进客观事物的发展。错误的意识，则会把人的活动引向歧途，阻碍客观事物的发展。②意识对于人体生理活动具有调节和控制作用。 2、〖方法论〗：要求我们一定要重视意识的作用,重视精神的力量,自觉地树立正确的思想意识,克服错误的思想意识。 ★三、物质和意识的辩证关系原理 (辨证唯物论) （1）〖原理内容〗：物质决定意识；意识对物质具有能动作用，正确意识对事物发展促进作用,错误意识对事物发展起着阻碍作用。（2）〖方法论〗：一方面要坚持一切从实际出发，实事求是；另一方面，要重视意识的作用，重视精神的力量，自觉地树立正确的思想意识，克服错误的思想意识。
★四、规律的客观性和普遍性原理及方法论 (辨证唯物论) 1、〖原理内容〗：事物运动是有规律的，规律具有普遍性和客观性。 2、〖方法论〗：规律的客观性和普遍性要求我们，必须遵循规律，按客观规律办事 ★五、尊重客观规律和发挥主观能动性辩证关系原理 (辨证唯物论) （1）〖原理内容〗: 】：规律是客观的，不以人的意志为转移，它既不能被创造，也不能被消灭。但人在规律面前又不是无能为力的，人可以发挥主观能动性在认识和把握规律的基础上，根据规律发生作用的条件和形式利用规律，改造客观世界，造福于人类。 （2）〖方法论〗：我们在想问题、办事情的时候，既要尊重客观规律，按规律办事，又要充分发挥主观能动性，把尊重客观规律和发挥主观能动性有机地结合起来。 （二）认识论（3个） ★六、实践和认识的辩证关系 (辩证唯物主义认识论) （1）〖原理内容〗1、实践是认识的基础（实践决定认识）：实践是认识的唯一来源，实践是认识发展的动力，实践是检验认识的真理性的唯一标准，实践是认识的目的和归宿。 （2）〖方法论〗：要求我们首先要坚持实践第一的观点，积极参与实践，同时我们要树立正确的认识 2、认识对实践具有反作用。正确的认识（真理）对于人们的实践活动有积极的推动作用。 七、真理的客观性、条件性和具体性 (辩证唯物主义认识论)
唯物辩证法原理及方法论
唯物辩证法原理及方法论
唯物辩证法 一、联系观 1、联系的普遍性原理 原理内容：联系是指事物之间以及事物内部诸要素之间的相互影响、相互制约和相互作用。联系是普遍的。世界上一切事物都与周围其他事物有着这样或那样的联系。世界是一个普遍联系的有机整体，没有一个事物是孤立存在的。 方法论：要求我们要用联系的观点看问题。反对用孤立的观点看问题。 典例列举：猪肉价格上涨引起连锁反应，人与自然、经济发展与环境保护、五个统筹、循环经济等。 2、联系的客观性原理 原理内容：联系是客观的。联系是事物本身所固有的，不以人的意志为转移。不论自在事物的联系还是人为事物的联系都是客观的。人们不能否认和割断事物之间的客观联系，也不能主观臆造联系。 方法论：要从事物固有的联系中把握事物，切忌主观随意性。 联系是客观的，并不意味着人对事物的联系无能为力，人们可以根据事物固有的联系，改变事物的状态，建立新的具体的联系。
典例列举：A有些人将命运同生肖属相联在一起；涸泽而渔、破坏生态环境；建设社会主义生态文明等。B 青藏铁路全线开通；循环经济；嫦娥一号卫星实现绕月飞行。 3、联系的多样性、条件性原理 原理内容：世界上的事物千差万别，事物的联系也是多种多样的。 联系是普遍的，但联系又是具体的，每一个事物与它事物的联系又是有条件的。 方法论：注意分析和把握事物存在和发展的各种条件（主观、客观、内部、外部、有利、不利的条件）。在认识和改造世界过程中，既要注重客观条件，也要恰当运用自身的主观条件；既要把握事物内部条件，又要关注事物外部条件；既要认识事物的有利条件，又要重视事物的不利条件。要一切以时间，地点和条件为转移。 联系的条件性要求我们在用联系的观点看问题的时候要注意到联系的条件性。 典例列举：见贤思齐，见不贤而内省；择其善者而从之，其不善者而改之；某人在社会上可扮演学生、教师、消费者等不同角色。
仓库管理人员培训课件
仓库管理人员培训课件 一、概念 原材料--指企业在生产过程中经加工改变其形态或性质并构成产品主要实体的各种原 料及主要材料、辅助材料、燃料、修理用备件（备品备件）、包装材料、外购半成品（外购件）等。 在产品--指企业正在制造尚未完工的生产物，包括正在各个生产工序加工的产品和已加工完毕当尚未检验或已检验但尚未办理入库手续的产品。 半成品--指经过一定生产过程并已检验合格交付半成品仓库保管，但尚未制造完工成为产成品，仍需进一步加工的中间产品。 产成品--指工业企业已经完成全部生产过程并已验收入库，可以按照合同规定的条件送 交订货单位，或者可以作为商品对外销售的产品。企业接受来料加工制造的代制品和为外单位加工修理的代修品，制造和修理完成验收入库后，应视同企业的产成品。 工艺性外协—生产前某个零部件或某道工序需经外单位加工后，自身再进一步生产加工工序间外协—生产过程中部分工序需外协加工 扩散性外协--订单涉及的全部工序都需要外协加工。类似外购产品、 二、单据 1、与仓库相关的单据的种类及用途 用于原材料收、发的相关单据 入库单、领料单一联作为仓库登记材料明细的依据；一联交财务部门以进行材料收发和材料费用的核算，其余各联相关部门留底核查。 用于产成品收、发的相关单据 入库单、出库单一联作为仓库登记产品明细的依据；一联交财务部门以进行产成品成本的核算，其余各联相关部门留底核查。
2、单据填写及责任划分 填写单据时要书写清楚，注明日期、工程编号、品名、规格型号、数量重量，签字确认。审核单据时要注意填写是否规范，相关手续是否齐全，相关人员是否都已签字确认。 为加强对材料、产品费用的控制，明确有关责任，希望相关人员重视对签字确认的重要性，杜绝代签等现象，要对自己签字确认的单据负责。 二、操作流程 原材料收、发流程确认
(完整版)高中政治哲学原理及方法论大全
第一部分辩证唯物论（核心内容：物质、意识、规律、主观能动性） 原理一物质意识的辩证关系原理 1、物质决定意识，意识对物质具有能动的反作用（能够能动的认识世界，意识活动具 有目的性，主动创造性和自觉选择性）正确的意识对物质的发展有促进作用。 【方法论】：重视意识作用，自觉树立正确的思想意识，克服错误的思想意识 2、物质决定意识 【方法论】：想问题办事情要一切从实际出发，实事求是。 原理二规律的普遍性和客观性原理 规律是事物运动过程中固有的、本质的、必然的、稳定的联系，规律是普遍的，客 观的。 【方法论】：①尊重客观规律，按客观规律办事。 ②在认识和把握规律的基础上，根据规律发生作用的条件和形式利用规 律改造客观世界。 ③在尊重客观规律的基础上充分发挥主观能动性。 原理三人与自然的原理 自然界是客观的，承认自然界的客观性是正确处理人与自然关系的前提。 【方法论】：要尊重自然，与自然和谐相处。 原理四意识对物质的能动作用原理 人能够能动的认识世界，意识活动具有目的性、主动创造性和自觉选择性；人能够 能动的改造世界。正确的意识对事物的发展有促进作用；意识对人的生理活动具有 调节作用。 原理五一切从实际出发 一切从实际出发，就是我们想问题办事情要把客观存在的事物作为根本出发点。 【方法论】：①我们办事情要尊重物质运动的客观规律，从客观存在的事物出发，作为我们行动的依据。 ②要求我们充分发挥主观能动性，坚持以求真务实的精神探求事物的本 质和规律，用科学的理论指导实践。 ③把发挥主观能动性和尊重客观规律结合起来，把高度的革命热情同严谨 踏实的科学态度结合起来，既要反对夸大意识的能动作用的唯意识主义， 又要反对片面强调客观条件，安于现状，因循守旧，无所作为的思想。原理六客观规律与主观能动性的辩证关系原理 尊重客观规律是充分发挥主观能动性的基础，发挥主观能动性是认识客观规律的必要条件，发挥主观能动性能够认识事物的规律。 【方法论】：在尊重客观规律的基础上充分发挥主观能动性。 第二部分辩证唯物主义认识论（核心内容：实践、认识、真理）原理一实践具有客观物质性、主观能动性和社会历史性。
马克思主义哲学原理+方法论大全
基本原理 世界的物质性原理及其方法论要求 1、原理归纳：马克思主义哲学把不依赖于人的意识并能为人的意识所反映的客观实在叫物质。 界还是人类社会都是客观存在的物质世界。世界的本质是物质。 2、方法论要求：这一原理要求我们从实际出发，反对从主观出发，反对 二、意识能够反映客观事物的原理及方法论要求 1、原理归纳：意识能够正确地反映客观事物，但会受主 客观方面因素的影响，意识对客观事物的反映会不 同。主观方面的因素主要有立场不同、世界观不同、人生观不同、思维方法不同、知识结构不同。 2、方法论要求：只要我们端正立场，以人民的根本利益为出发点来观察事物，以科学的世界观、人生观为 指导，不断充实我们的科学知识，运用正确的思维方法，我们就一定能够在正确认识世界的道路上不断前 进。 三、意识反作用的原理及方法论要求 1、原理归纳：物质决定意识，意识对物质有反作用。正确反映客观事物及其发展规律的意识，能够指导人 们有效地开展实践活动，促进客观事物的发展。歪曲反映客观事物及其发展规律的意识，则会把人的活动 引向歧途，阻碍客观事物的发展。 2、方法论要求：要求我们一定要重视意识的反作用，重视精神的力量，自觉树立正确的思想意识，克服错 误的思想意识，既反对否认意识能动作用的形而上学的观点，又要反对片面夸大意识能动作用的唯心主义 错误。 1、原理归纳：物质决定意识，意识是物质的反映，意识对物质具有能动作用。正确的意识对客观事物的发 展起积极促进作用，错误的意识对客观事物的发展起消极阻碍作用。 2、方法论要求：要求我们既要做到一切从实际出发，使主观符合客观。 第二课基本原理 一、事物是普遍联系的原理及方法论要求 1、原理归纳：唯物辩证法认为，联系是事物之间以及事物内部各要素之间的相互影响、相互制约的关系。 世界上的一切事物都处在普遍之中，其中没有任何一个事物孤立地存在，整个世界就是一个普遍联系的统 一整体。联系具有客观性和多样性。 2、方法论要求：坚持用联系的观点看问题，对事物的联系进行具体分析，反对形而上学孤立、片面地看问 题。 二、因果关系的原理及其方法论要求 1、原理归纳：唯物辩证法认为，原因是引起某种现象产生的现象，结果是被某种现象引起的现象。在每事 每物的具体因果联系中，原因和结果有严格区别，在一定条件下，可以相互转化。因果联系具有普遍性、 客观性、条件性。 2、方法论要求：承认因果联系的普遍性和客观性，是人们正确认识事物、进行科学研究的前提；正确把握 事物的因果联系，才能提高人们活动的自觉性和预见性；反对倒因为果，倒果为因。 三、整体和部分关系的原理及其方法论要求 1、原理归纳：唯物辩证法认为，一切事物都是由各个局部构成的有机联系的整体，局部离不开整体，整体 也离不开局部，全局高于局部。 2、方法论要求：整体和部分关系原理要求我们办事情从整体着眼，寻求最优目标；搞好局部，使整体功能 得到最大发挥；树立整体观念和全局观念。 四、事物是变化发展的原理及其方法论要求 1、原理归纳：唯物辩证法认为，世界上一切事物都处在永不停息的运动、变化和发展的过程中，整个世界 是一个无限变化和永恒发展着的物质世界。发展就是新事物的产生和旧事物的灭亡，即新事物代替旧事物 的过程。 2、方法论要求：用发展的观点观察和分析问题。要把事物如实地看成是一个变化发展的过程；要弄清事物 在发展过程中所处的阶段和地位；要与时俱进，培养创新精神，促进新事物的成长，反对形而上学静止地 看冋题。 无论是自然 上帝创世说”。 四、 物质和意识的辩证关系原理及其方法论要求
(完整版)哲学原理与方法论(经典版)
生活与哲学》基本原理和方法论 世界观：人们对整个世界以及人与世界关系的总的看法和根本观点。方法论：人们认识世界和改造世界的根本原则和根本方法。辩证唯物论：物质、意识、规律 1、世界物质性统一性原理【原理内容】世界是物质的世界，世界的真正统一性在于它的物质性。【方法论】要求我们想问题、办事情要一切从实际出发，理论联系实际，主观符合客观，反对主观主义。 〖错误倾向〗：反对不从实际出发的主观主义，反对本本主义（教条主义）、经验主义。 2、意识的指导作用原理 【原理内容】意识对改造客观世界具有指导作用，正确的意识能够促进客观事物的发展，错误的意识则会阻碍客观事物的发展。 【方法论】我们要重视意识的作用，重视精神的力量，树立正确的思想意识，克服错误的思想意识。（举例：树立正确的金钱观、消费观、就业观、价值观；弘扬航天精神、感动中国人物的感人精神） 3、物质和意识的辩证关系原理 【原理内容】物质决定意识，意识对物质具有能动作用。 【方法论】我们要处理好主观和客观的关系，既要做到一切从实际出发、使主观符合客观，又要重视意识的作用。（举例：家庭实际消费、自身实际就业、省情制定发展战略等）【错误倾向】既要反对夸大意识能动作用的唯意志主义，又要反对片面强调客观条件，安于现状，因循守旧，无所作为的思想。 4、规律的客观性和普遍性原理 【原理内容】规律是事物运动过程中固有的、本质的、必然的、稳定的联系。规律是客观的，既不能被创造，也不能被消灭，是不可违抗的。规律是普遍的，事物在运动变化发展过程中都遵循其固有的规律。 【方法论】我们要尊重客观规律，按客观规律办事。人可以在认识和把握规律的基础上，根据规律发生作用的条件和形式利用规律，改造客观世界，造福于人类。 〖错误倾向〗：反对否认规律的客观性和企图创造规律或消灭规律的唯心主义观点，反对不讲科学，不顾客观规律的冒险盲干的主观主义。 5、发挥主观能动性和客观规律的关系【原理内容】尊重客观规律是发挥主观能动性的前提和基础，只有发挥人的主观能动性才能认识、掌握和利用客观规律。 【方法论】我们既要尊重客观规律，又要发挥主观能动性，把尊重客观规律和发挥主观能动性结合起来。
马克思主义哲学的基本原理和方法论
马克思主义哲学的基本原理和方法论 一、辩证唯物论（第一课、第二课） 1、物质和意识的辨证关系 原理：物质决定意识，意识对物质具有反作用。正确的意识对物质具有促进作用。 方法论：①一切从实际出发②重视意识的作用，树立正确的意识。 2、规律的客观性和人的主观能动性的辨证关系 原理：规律是客观的，它发生作用不以人的意志为转移，规律制约人的主观能动性的发挥。另一方面，人具有主观能动性，能够认识和利用规律。 方法论：发挥主观能动性要尊重客观规律，按规律办事。另一方面，要充分发挥人的主观能动性，认识和利用规律，改变规律发生作用的条件，变害为利。 二、唯物辩证法（第二、三、四课） （一）联系的观点 1、联系的普遍性 原理：世界上的一切事物都处于普遍联系之中，其中没有任何一个事物是孤立存在的，整个世界就是一个普遍联系的统一整体。 方法论：坚持用联系的观点看问题，认识和把握事物的真实联系，具体分析事物之间的联系。 2、因果联系 原理：事物之间的因果联系既是先行后续的关系，又是引起和被引起的关系；原因总是伴随一定的结果，结果总是由一定的原因引起的；任何事物都处于因果联系的连接之中，因果联系是普遍存在的，它不以人的意志为转移。 方法论：①承认因果联系的普遍性和客观性，是人们正确认识事物，进行科学研究的前提； ②正确把握事物的因果联系，才能提高人们实践活动的自觉性和预见性。 3、整体和部分的关系 原理：整体处于统帅的决定地位，部分从属于整体，整体的性能状态及其变化会影响到部分的性能状态及其变化；整体是由部分构成的，整体功能的形成离不开部分原有的功能，部分制约整体，甚至在一定条件下，关键部分的性能状态会对整体的性能状态起决定作用。方法论：①要树立全局观念，办事情从整体着眼，寻求最优目标②搞好局部，使整体功能得到最大发挥。 （二）发展的观点 4、发展的观点 原理：一切事物都处在永不停息的运动、变化和发展的过程中，整个世界就是一个无限变化和永恒发展着的物质世界；发展就是新事物代替旧事物的过程。 方法论：①坚持用发展的观点看问题②要把事物如实地看成一个变化发展的过程③要明确事物处于怎样的阶段和地位④要与时俱进，培养创新精神，促进新事物的成长 5、内因和外因的辨证关系 原理：事物的发展都是内因和外因共同起作用的结果；内因是事物变化发展的根据；外因是条件；外因通过内因起作用。 方法论：坚持用内因和外因辨证关系的观点看问题，要重视内因的作用，同时也不能忽视外因。