removal of synthetic dyes from wastewater

Review article

Removal of synthetic dyes from wastewaters:a review

Esther Forgacs a,*,Tibor Cserha

′ti a ,Gyula Oros b a

Research Laboratory of Materials and Environmental Chemistry,Chemical Research Center,Hungarian Academy of Sciences,

P .O.Box 17,1525Budapest,Hungary

b

Plant Protection Institute,Hungarian Academy of Sciences,Pf.102,Budapest 114,1525,Hungary

Received 28September 2003;accepted 28January 2004

Available online 6May 2004

Abstract

The more recent methods for the removal of synthetic dyes from waters and wastewater are complied.The various methods of removal such as adsorption on various sorbents,chemical decomposition by oxidation,photodegradation,and microbiological decoloration,employing activated sludge,pure cultures and microbe consortiums are described.The advantages and disadvantages of the various methods are discussed and their efficacies are compared.D 2004Elsevier Ltd.All rights reserved.

Keywords:Synthetic dyes;Wastewater;Adsorption;Oxidation;Biodegradation

1.Introduction

Synthetic dyes are extensively used in many fields of up-to-date technology,e.g.,in various branches of the textile industry (Gupta et al.,1992;Shukla and Gupta,1992;Sokolowska-Gajda et al.,1996),of the leather tanning industry (Tu ¨nay et al.,1999;Kabadasil et al.,1999)in paper production (Ivanov et al.,1996),in food technology (Bhat and Mathur,1998;Slampova et al.,2001),in agri-cultural research (Cook and Linden,1997;Kross et al.,1996),in light-harvesting arrays (Wagner and Lindsey,1996),in photoelectrochemical cells (Wrobel et al.,2001),and in hair colorings (Scarpi et al.,1998).Moreover,synthetic dyes have been employed for the control of the efficacy of sewage (Morgan-Sagastume et al.,1997)and wastewater treatment (Hsu and Chiang,1997;Orhon et al.,1999),for the determination of specific surface area of activated sludge (Sorensen and Wakeman,1996)for ground water tracing (Field et al.,1995),etc.

Synthetic dyes exhibit considerable structural diversity (Fig.1).The chemical classes of dyes employed more frequently on industrial scale are the azo,anthraquinone,sulfur,indigoid,triphenylmethyl (trityl),and phthalocyanine

derivatives.However,it has to be emphasized that the overwhelming majority of synthetic dyes currently used in the industry are azo derivatives.It should be noted that azo-keto hydrazone equilibria can be a vital factor in the easy breakdown of many of the azo dye system.Some dyes quoted in the review have only a marginal importance from the point of view of industrial application.

Unfortunately,the exact amount of dyes produced in the world is not known.It is estimated to be over 10,000tons per year.Exact data on the quantity of dyes discharged in the environment are also not available.It is assumed that a loss of 1–2%in production and 1–10%loss in use are a fair estimate.For reactive dyes,this figure can be about 4%.Due to large-scale production and extensive application,synthet-ic dyes can cause considerable environmental pollution and are serious health-risk factors.Although,the growing im-pact of environmental protection on industrial development promotes the development of ecofriendly technologies (Desphande,2001),reduced consumption of freshwater and lower output of wastewater (Knittel and Schollmeyer,1996;Petek and Glavic,1996),the release of important amounts of synthetic dyes to the environment causes public concern,legislation problems and are a serious challenge to environmental scientists.

Because of their commercial importance,the impact (Guaratini and Zanoni,2000)and toxicity (Walthall and Stark,1999;Tsuda et al.,2001)of dyes that are released in

0160-4120/$-see front matter D 2004Elsevier Ltd.All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/j.envint.2004.02.001

*Corresponding author.Tel.:+36-1-325-7900;fax:+36-1-325-7554.E-mail address:forgacs@chemres.hu (E.Forgacs).

https://www.wendangku.net/doc/8810598712.html,/locate/envint

Environment International 30(2004)953–

971

the environment have been extensively studied (Hunger,1995;Calin and Miron,1995).The formation of a carci-nogenic amine from the dye Direct Blue 14by human skin bacteria (Platzek et al.,1999)and the antifungal activity of 13diazobenzene dyes have been established (Oros et al.,2001).As several thousand different synthetic dyes that are employed exhibit various biological activities,it is under-standable that our knowledge concerning their behavior in the environment and health hazards involved in their use is still incomplete.

Traditional wastewater treatment technologies have proven to be markedly ineffective for handling wastewater of synthetic textile dyes because of the chemical stability of these pollutants.Thus,it has been verified that,of the 18azo dyes studied 11compounds passed through the activated sludge process practically untreated,4(Acid Blue 113,Acid Red 151,Direct Violet 9,and Direct Violet 28)were adsorbed on the waste activated sludge and only 3(Acid Orange 7,Acid Orange 8,and Acid Red 88)were biodegraded (Shaul et al.,1991).

A wide range of methods has been developed for the removal of synthetic dyes from waters and wastewaters to decrease their impact on the environment.The technologies involve adsorption on inorganic or organic matrices,decol-orization by photocatalysis,and/or by oxidation processes,microbiological or enzymatic decomposition,etc.(Hao et al.,2000).The efficacy of the various methods of dye removal,such as chemical precipitation,chemical

oxidation,

Fig.1.The chemical structure of synthetic dyes most frequently studied in degradation experiments.

E.Forgacs et al./Environment International 30(2004)953–971

954

adsorption along with their effects on subsequent biological treatment was compared in an earlier paper(Tunay et al., 1996).Chemical oxidation was very effective but the efficiency strongly influenced by the type of oxidant.

The objectives of this review are the compilation of the newer achievements in the technologies developed for the removal of synthetic dyes from water and wastewater, classification and short description of the methods,critical evaluation of the technological processes and the compar-ison of their advantages and disadvantages.

2.Removal of synthetic dyes from wastewaters by adsorption and other physicochemical methods As synthetic dyes in wastewater cannot be efficiently decolorized by traditional methods,the adsorption of syn-thetic dyes on inexpensive and efficient solid supports was considered as a simple and economical method for their removal from water and wastewater.The adsorption char-acteristics of a wide variety of inorganic and organic supports have been measured and their capacity to remove synthetic dyes has been evaluated.

2.1.Inorganic supports

Because of their good mechanical and chemical stability, high specific surface area and resistance to microbiological degradation-specific inorganic supports have been preferen-tially applied in adsorption studies.

2.1.1.Carbon-based inorganic supports

The excellent adsorption properties of carbon-based supports have been exploited for the decolorization of dyes in the industrial effluents.For a better understanding of the physicochemistry of adsorption processes on the carbon surface,a homogeneous surface diffusion model was devel-oped and successfully applied for the description of the adsorption of dyes and other wastes on the surface of granulated activated carbon(Roy et al.,1993).

It has been repeatedly shown that the type of carbon sorbent and its mode of preparation exert a marked influ-ence on the adsorption capacity.It has been found that the adsorption characteristics of lignite-based carbon markedly depended on the mode of preparation.Maximal dye adsorp-tion was achieved by a lignite that has been treated with 50%solution of sodium tungstate at800j C(Duggan and Allen,1997).The efficacy of various wood charcoals has also been compared for the removal of Basic Red22and Acid Blue25from textile mill effluents.The data indicated that the media obtained from fluted charcoal,pine and chestnut trees were superior to lamellar charcoal,and to the media acquired from beech wood and oak trees(Marm-ier-Dussoubs et al.,1991).The adsorption process on the surface of carbonized spent bleaching earth has been studied in detail.Basic Blue3,Methylene Blue,Acid Blue and Reactive Yellow2were adsorbed on this sorbent.It has been demonstrated even in this instance that the mode of preparation of the sorbent had a considerable influence on the adsorption parameters,whereas the effect of pH was negligible(Low et al.,1995).

The good sorption characteristics of sulfonated coals for the removal of synthetic dyes have also been demonstrated (Mittal and Venkobachar,1993).It has been further found that powdered active carbon efficiently removes the azo dyes Orange P and Red Px from wastewater(Danis et al., 1999).A similar study proved that granular activated carbon can bind acid dyes(Walker and Weatherley, 1997)and the kinetics of adsorption have been elucidated (Walker and Weatherley,1999).

The results discussed above clearly state that carbon-based sorbents show excellent adsorption properties for a consid-erable number of synthetic dyes(Table1).However,the preparation of carbon sorbents is generally energy consum-ing.Consequently,the commercially available products are fairly expensive.Since a large amount of carbon sorbent is needed for the removal of dyes from a large volume of effluent,the expenses involved hamper their application. 2.1.2.Other inorganic supports

As substituents for carbon-based sorbents the adsorption capacity of a wide variety of other inorganic supports was also measured using different dye-support pairs.

The efficacy of coal,fly ash,wollastonite,and china clay was compared for the removal of Omega Chrom Red ME from effluents.It was found that each sorbent could be employed in the adsorption process(Shukla and Gupta, 1992).The use of acid-activated clay for the removal of basic,acidic,disperse,direct and reactive dyes was also reported.The highest adsorption capacity was observed for basic dyes and the support was proposed as an efficient adsorption medium for their removal from aqueous solution (Juang et al.,1997).Furthermore,china clay was found to be an effective sorbent for the removal of Omega Chrom Red ME from house wastewater.An acidic pH,low tem-perature and smaller particle size of china clay increased the efficacy of removal(Gupta et al.,1992).

The good adsorption capacity of silica was exploited in the removal of the textile dye Basic Blue3from effluents (Ahmed and Ram,1992)and was employed for the adsorp-tion of Rhodamine B,Acid Red4,and Nile Blue sulfate from aqueous solutions(Saleem et al.,1993).Alumina has also been used for the removal of Rhodamine B and Nile Blue Sulfate from wastewater(Salem et al.,1994).It has been established that the adsorption of dyes on alumina follows the Langmuir isotherm equation and the analysis of thermodynamical parameters revealed that the adsorption of these dyes is more favorable at high temperatures.Not only pure Al2O3but also waste red mud,a by-product of aluminium production were employed for the removal of Congo Red from wastewater using,90-min of equilibrium time(Namasivayam and Arasi,1997).

E.Forgacs et al./Environment International30(2004)953–971955

Table1

List of organisms intensively decolorizing synthetic dyes No.of organism Dye Reference Prokaryota

Gram negative bacteria

(1)Aeromonas hydrophila Acid Orange7,

Acid Red106,

Direct Orange39,

Direct Yellow4,

Direct Yellow12,

Reactive Black NR,

Reactive Blue160,

Reactive Blue222,

Reactive Red198

Chen et al.(2003)

(2)Burkholderia cepacia Acid Orange7,

Anthraquinone-

2-sulfonate,

Remazol Red F3B

Laszlo(2000)

(3)Citrobacter sp.Brilliant Green,

Crystal Violet,

Gentian Violet,

Malachite Green,

Methyl Red,

An et al.(2002)

(4)Desulfovibrio desulfuricans Reactive

Orange96

Yoo et al.(2001)

(5)Escherichia coli Ethyl Red,

Methyl Red Nakanishi et al. (2001)

Reactive Red22Chang and Lin

(2001) Reactive Red22Chang and Kuo

(2000)

(6)Geobacter sulfurreducens Anthraquinone-2,

6-disulfonate

Cervantes et al.

(2003)

(7)Klebsiella pneumoniae Methyl Red Wong and Yuen

(1998)

(8)Proteus mirabilis Deep Red Chen et al.(1999)

(9)Pseudomonas luteola Crystal Violet,

Red Pigment2B,

Red Pigment V2

Hu(1998,2001)

Reactive Red22Chang et al.(2001),

Chen(2002)

(10)Pseudomonas mendocina Methyl Violet Sarnaik and

Kanekar(1999)

(11)Pseudomonas putida Tectilon Blue

4R-01

Walker and

Weatherley(2000)

(12)Pseudomonas

stutzeri

Methyl Red Itoh et al.(2002)

(13)Sphingomonas xenophaga Acid Orange7,

Acid Orange8,

Acid Orange10,

Acid Red4,

Acid Red88

Coughlin et al.

(1999)

Congo Red Diniz et al.(2002) Naphthalene-2-

sulfonate,

Naphtol Blue

Black

Keck et al.(2002)

Reactive Red2Zee van der et al.

(2003)

(14)Stenotrophomonas

maltophilia

Crystal Violet Kim et al.(2002a,b)

(15)Xenophilus azovorans Carboxy-

Orange II

Blumel et al.(2002)

Table1(continued)

No.of organism Dye Reference

Gram positive bacteria

(16)Arthobacter

globiformis

Acridine Orange,

Crystal Violet

Itoh et al.(1998a,b)

(17)Bacillus

benzenovorans

Tectilon Blue4R-01Walker and

Weatherley(2000)

(18)Bacillus cereus Azobenzene Koneva and

Kruglov(2001)

(19)Bacillus gordonae Tectilon Blue

4R-01

Walker and

Weatherley(2000)

(20)Bacillus polymixa Azobenzene Koneva and

Kruglov(2001)

(21)Caulobacter

subvibrioides

Acid Orange6,

Acid Orange7,

Acid Orange8,

Acid Orange12,

Acid Red151,

Acid Red88,

Methyl Red

Mazumder et al.

(1999)

(22)Clostridium

perfringens

Amaranth Semde et al.(1998)

Bromophenol

Blue,

Crystal Violet,

Methyl Orange

Kim et al.(2002a,b)

(23)Kurthia sp.Brilliant Green,

Crystal Violet,

Magenta

Wong and Yuen

(1998)

Malachite Green Sani and Banerjee

(1999)

Pararosaniline Wong and Yuen

(1998)

(24)Nocardia

corallina

Crystal Violet Azmi et al.(1998)

(25)Paenibacillus

azoreducens

Remazol

Black B

Meehan et al.(2001)

(26)Streptomyces

viridosporus

Poly R-478Ball and Colton

(1996)

Eukaryota

Yeasts—Ascomycota

(27)Candida curvata Chrysoidine Kakuta et al.(1998)

(28)Candida lipolytica Reactive Blue19Aksu and Donmez

(2003)

(29)Candida tropicalis Reactive Black5,

Reactive Blue19,

Reactive Red

Donmez(2002)

(30)Candida zeylanoides Acid Orange7Ramalho et al.(2002)

Azobenzenesulfonates Martins et al.(1999)

p-Methoxyazobenzene Martins et al.(1999)

(31)Geotrichum

candidum

Reactive Blue5Lee et al.(2000)

Reactive Black5,

Reactive Red158,

Reactive Yellow27

Maximo et al.(2003)

(32)Kluyveromyces

marxianus

Reactive Blue19Aksu and Donmez

(2003)

Remazol Black B Meehan et al.(2000),

Bustard et al.(1998)

Remazol Red Bustard et al.(1998)

Remazol Turquoise

Blue

Bustard et al.(1998)

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956

Table1(continued)

No.of organism Dye Reference Eukaryota

Yeasts—Ascomycota

(33)Pichia anomala Disperse Red15Itoh et al.(1996)

(34)Saccharomyces cerevisiae Reactive Blue19Aksu and

Donmez(2003)

(35)Schizosaccharomyces pombe Reactive Blue19Aksu and

Donmez(2003)

Filamentous Fungi—Ascomycota

(36)Aspergillus ficuum Direct Black22Dong et al.(2001)

(37)Aspergillus foetidus Drimarene

Black HFGR1

Sumathi and

Manju(2000) Drimarene Navy

BF Blue F2G1

Sumathi and

Manju(2000) Drimarene Red

BR F3B1

Sumathi and

Manju(2000)

(38)Aspergillus niger Congo Red Fu and Viraraghavan

(2002)

(39)Myceliophthora

thermophila

Poly R-478Alcade et al.(2002) (40)Penicillium sp.Poly R-478,

Poly S-119

Zheng et al.(1999)

(41)Rhizopus arrhizus Reactive

Orange16O’Mahony et al. (2002)

Filamentous fungi—Basidiomycota

(42)Bjerkandera adusta Amaranth,

Remazol Black B,

Remazol Orange,

Tropaeolin O Swamy and Ramsay (1999a,b)

Reactive Blue15, Reactive Blue38Heinfling-Weidtmann et al.(2001)

(43)Coprinus cinereus Direct Blue1Schneider et al.(1999)

(44)Coriolus versicolor Acid Orange7Sam and Yesilada

(2001);Lin et al.

(2003)

Everzol Turquoise Blue G Kapdas and Kargi (2002)

Methylene Blue Mazmanci et al.

(2002)

Pigment Violet12Itoh et al.(1998a,b) (45)Cunninghamella

elegans

Malachite Green Cha et al.(2001)

(46)Cunninghamella

polymorpha

Disperse Blue60Sugimori et al.(1999)

(47)Datronica

concentrica

Poly R-478Tekere et al.(2001)

(48)Dichotmius sqaluens Brilliant Green,

Cresol Red,

Crystal Violet

Gill et al.(2002)

(49)Eichhornia

crassipes

Acid Blue25Lee et al.(1999)

Reactive Blue2Lee et al.(1999)

(50)Flavodon flavus Azure B,Congo

Red,Poly B411,

Reactive Blue19

Raghukumar(2000)

Congo Red Tatarko and Bumpus

(1998)

(51)Funalia trogii Acid Orange7Sam and Yesilada

(2001)

(52)Ganoderma sp.Reactive Blue19Maximo et al.(2003)

(53)Irpex lacteus Reactive Blue19Maximo et al.(2003),

Bhatt et al.(2000),

Kasinath et al.(2003)Table1(continued)

No.of organism Dye Reference Filamentous fungi—Basidiomycota

(54)Lentinula edodes Amido Black10B,

Bromophenol Blue,

Methyl Red,

Reactive Blue19

Nagai et al.(2002)

Acid Orange7Hatvani and Mecs

(2002)

Poly R-478Chiu et al.(1999),

Hatvani and Mecs

(2002)

(55)Phanerochaete Amaranth Swamy and Ramsay chrysosporium Disperse Orange

K-GL,Everzol

Yellow4GL,

Everzol Red RBN,

Everdirect Supra

yellow PG,

Everzol Turquoise

Blue G

(1999a,b)

Kapdan et al.(2000)

Indigo Carmine Podgornik et al.

(2001),

Gemeay et al.(2003)

Poly R-478Couto et al.(2000a),

Mielgo et al.(2002)

Red HE8B Sani et al.(1998)

Remazol Black B Swamy and Ramsay

(1999a,b)

Remazol Turquoise

Blue

Conneely et al.(1999)

(56)Phanerochaete

magnoliae

Reactive Blue19,

Reactive Red158,

Reactive Yellow27

Maximo et al.(2003)

Phanerochete crassa Poly R-478Takano et al.(2001) (57)Phellinus gilvus Indigo Balan and Monteiro

(2001)

(58)Phlebia fascicularia Brilliant Green,

Cresol Red,

Crystal Violet

Gill et al.(2002)

(59)Phlebia floridensis Brilliant Green,

Cresol Red,

Crystal Violet

Gill et al.(2002)

(60)Phlebia tremellosa Remazol Black B Kirby et al.(2000)

(61)Pleurotus eryngii Reactive Black5Heinfling et al.(1998)

(62)Pleurotus

ostreatus

Eosin Yellowish,

Evans Blue Phenol,

Red Poly B411

Eichlerova et al.

(2002)

(63)Pleurotus

pulmonarius

Amido Black

10B,Brilliant

Cresyl Blue,Congo

Red,Ethyl Violet,

Methyl Green,Methyl

Violet,Reactive

Blue19,Trypan Blue

Zilly et al.(2002)

(64)Pleurotus

sajor-caju

Indigo Balan and Monteiro

(2001)

(65)Pycnoporus

cinnabarinus

Reactive Blue19Balan and Monteiro

(2001)

(66)Pycnoporus

sanguineus

Bromophenol

Blue

Pointing et al.

(2000)

Indigo Balan and Monteiro

(2001)

Malachite Green Pointing et al.(2000)

(continued on next page)

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Vermiculite extract solutions as coagulants and vermic-ulite as the adsorbent were used for the removal of Basic Blue from dye wastewaters.The results indicated that the efficacy of vermiculite as both coagulant and adsorbent was better than that of conventional coagulants and adsorbents (Choi and Cho,1996).

Aqueous solutions of Acridine Orange,Alcian Blue 8GX,Alizarin Red,Azure A,Azure B,Brilliant Blue G,Brilliant Blue R,Congo Red,Cresyl Violet Acetate,Crystal Violet,Eosin B,Eosin Y ,Eryhtrosin B,Ehidium Bromide,Giemsa Stain,Janus Green B,Methylene Blue,Neutral Red,Nigrosin,Orcein,Propidium Iodide,Rose Bengal,Safranine 0,Toluidine Blue 0,and Trypan Blue were successfully decolorized passing the solution through a column that was previously filled with Amberlite XAD-16.The efficacy of removal was higher for dyes with low molecular mass,with lower flowrate and smaller particle size of the resin.The adsorbed dyes were easily extracted by washing the column with methanol (Lunn et al.,1994).The decontaminated solutions showed no mutagenicity towards Salmonella typhimurium (Lunn and Sansone,1991).

The application of various inexpensive industrial wastes has also been elucidated for adsorption.Thus,a waste containing trivalent iron and trivalent chromium hydroxide

Table 1(continued )No.of organism

Dye

Reference

Filamentous fungi—Basidiomycota (67)Rigidoporus sp.Reactive Blue 19,

Reactive Red 158,Reactive Yellow 27

Maximo et al.(2003)

(68)Sclerotium rolfsii Acid Blue 74,Reactive Blue 19Nyanhongo et al.(2002)

(69)Trametes cingulata Cresol Red,Poly R-478Tekere et al.(2001)

(70)Trametes hirsuta Acid Blue 225,Basic Red 9,

Direct Blue 71Nyanhongo et al.(2002)

Crystal Violet Abadulla et al.(2000)Indigo

Campos et al.(2001)Poly R-478

Maceiras et al.(2001)Reactive Blue 19,Reactive Blue 221

Nyanhongo et al.(2002)

(71)Trametes modesta Acid Blue 74,Reactive Blue 221,

Direct Blue 71,Basic Red 9,Acid Blue 225,Reactive Blue 19

Nyanhongo et al.(2002)

(72)Trametes pocas Cresol Red,

Crystal Violet

Tekere et al.(2001)(73)Trametes trogii Poly R-478Lenin et al.(2002)(74)Trametes versicolo

Acid Blue 74Nyanhongo et al.(2002)

Acid Violet 7Zhang and Yu (2000)Acid Violet 17

Nyanhongo et al.(2002)

Amaranth

Swamy and Ramsay (1999a,b),Ramsay and Nguyen (2002),Shin et al.(2002)Brilliant Blue R Borchert and Libra (2001)

Congo Red Ramsay and Nguyen (2002)

Phenol Red Lorenzo et al.(2002)Poly R-478Leidig et al.(1999)Ponceau Red 4R Keharia and

Madamwar (2002)Procion Red Keharia and

Madamwar (2002)Reactive Black 5

Maximo et al.(2003),Borchert and Libra (2001),

Ramsay and Nguyen (2002)

Reactive Blue 15

Ramsay and Nguyen (2002),

Swamy and Ramsay (1999a,b)

Reactive Blue 19

Borchert and Libra (2001),Minussi et al.(2001),Nyanhongo et al.(2002)

Reactive Blue 28Keharia and

Madamwar (2002)Reactive Blue 221Nyanhongo et al.(2002)

Reactive Golden Yellow R

Keharia and

Madamwar (2002)

Table 1(continued )

No.of organism

Dye

Reference

Filamentous fungi—Basidiomycota

Reactive Red 158Maximo et al.(2003)Reactive Red 198

Borchert and Libra (2001)

Reactive Violet 5Keharia and

Madamwar (2002)Reactive Yellow 27Maximo et al.(2003)

Remazol Black B Swamy and Ramsay (1999a,b)

Remazol Orange

Swamy and Ramsay (1999a,b)

Tropaeolin O

Swamy and Ramsay (1999a,b),

Ramsay and Nguyen (2002)

(75)Trametes villosa Reactive Blue 19

Minussi et al.(2001)

Algae

(76)Chlorella pyrenoidosa Direct Brown NM

Huang et al.(2000)(77)Spirogyra sp.Reactive Yellow 22

Blumel et al.(2002)

Planta

(78)Mentha puligeum

Poly R-478Strycharz and Shetty,2002

(79)Rosmarinus officinalis

Poly S-119Zheng et al.(1999)(80)Wolffia arrhiza Methyl Violet Kanekar et al.(1993)(81)Thymus vulgaris Poly S-119Zheng et al.(1999)(82)Spirodella polyrrhiza

Methyl Violet

Kanekar et al.(1993)

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958

was employed for the removal of an azo dye from waste-water.The removal efficiency of color was91%at pH3. The adsorption followed both the Langmuir isotherm and the Freundlich isotherm and was governed by ion exchange processes between the polar substructures of the azo dye and the hydrophilic adsorption centers of the sorbent(Namasi-vayam and Senthilkumar,1995;Namasivayam et al.,1994). The aninoic dye New Coccine was also effectively adsorbed on sludge particles(Wang et al.,1998).

The findings compiled above suggest that carbon-based supports can be replaced by other,less expensive ones. https://www.wendangku.net/doc/8810598712.html,anic supports

Organic supports have some advantages over inorganic ones.They generally originate from renewable sources and are wastes or by-products of industrial processes without any commercial value.The adsorption capacity of a number of such supports has been determined for synthetic dyes as has their potential of their practical application were evaluated.

Biogas waste slurry was dried,powdered and used for the extraction of Rhodamine B from the wastewater of a textile plant.It was found that adsorption followed the Freundlich isotherm and the efficiency increased at acidic pH(optimum pH2.3)(Namasivayam and Yamuna,1992). Efficient removal of the direct dye Brilliant Yellow from aqueous media with cross-linked chitosan fiber was also detected(Yoshida and Takemori,1997).The application of orange peel(cellulosic waste)for the adsorption of Congo Red,Procion Orange and Rhodamine B has also been assessed.It was determined that the adsorption can be described by Langmuir and Freundlich isotherms and fol-lows first-order kinetics.Acidic pH condition promoted adsorption while alkaline pH condition enhanced the de-sorption of dyes(Namasivayam et al.,1996).

The application of pasteurized wastewater solids was assessed for the adsorption of Methylene Blue.It has been established that elimination of the biological activity of the solids was a prerequisite for effective adsorption(Dobbs et al.,1995).Bagasse pith was tested as a sorbent for the adsorption of dyes.The adsorption process was described by a three resistance number mass transfer model(external mass transport,macropore and micropore diffusion)(Al Duri et al.,1990).Waste banana pith was used for the removal of Rhodamine B from aqueous solutions.The maximum efficacy(87%)was observed at pH4.It has been concluded from the results that waste banana pith offers an economical resource for the removal of dyes from waste-waters(Namasivayam et al.,1993).The results demonstrat-ed that the rate constants markedly depend on the type of sorbents,with the higher values being attained on cellulosic waste orange peel.

An interesting approach was to use of dead and pulver-ized macrofungus,Fomitopsis carnea as a sorbent for the basic dyes Orlamar Red BG,Orlamar Blue G,and Orlamar Red GTL.Pulverized fungus proved to be a good sorbent for the dyes,the adsorption in creased with increasing pH of the dye wastewater and followed first-order kinetics(Mittal and Gupta,1996).A continuous flow study showed that the non-living roots of water hyacinth can efficiently adsorb Acid Blue25and Reactive Blue2(Lee et al.,1999).

The adsorption methods,independently of the inorganic or organic character of the supports have some drawbacks. Since adsorption processes are generally not selective,the other components of the wastewater can also be adsorbed by the support and the competition among the adsorbates can influence the dye binding capacity of supports in an unpre-dictable manner.Moreover,an adsorption process removes the synthetic dyes from wastewater by concentrating them on the surface retaining their structure practically un-changed.When the support is to be regenerated,the fate of the resulting concentrated solution of dyes presents a problem that is not satisfactorily solved.Even the mineral-ization of dyes on the surface of support cannot be achieved. Large-scale applications based on the adsorption process have to take into consideration the problems discussed above.

2.3.Other physicochemical methods

Adsorptive bubble separation techniques(ion flotation, solvent sublation and adsorbing colloid flotation)resulted in the efficient removal(99%)of Direct Blue from wastewater (Horng and Huang,1993).The application of coagulation processes for the removal of dyes from wastewater has also been assessed.The efficiencies dependent on the type of flocculant and on the pH of the medium(Koprivanac et al., 1993).Electrocoagulation was used for the effective remov-al of Acilan Blue from the wastewater of an operating textile plant in a bipolar packed-bed electrochemical reactor(Ogut-veren et al.,1992).

3.Photocatalytic decolorization and oxidation of synthetic dyes

Commercial dyes are designed to resist photodegrada-tion,so the selection of optimal photocatalytic conditions for the decolorization of dyes requires considerable exper-tise.Because of the significant commercial and environ-mental interest the efficacy of a large number of catalysts and irradiation conditions has been established for the decolorization of various synthetic dyes.

3.1.Photocatalysis and oxidation with hydrogen peroxide

Hydrogen peroxide has been frequently applied to the decolorization of synthetic dyes in waters.Hydrogen per-oxide can effectively decolorize dye wastewaters in the presence of Fe(II)sulfate,with the higher rates of decolor-ization at higher concentrations of the reagents(Kuo,1992).

E.Forgacs et al./Environment International30(2004)953–971959

Iron(III)with hydrogen peroxide were successfully employed for the degradation of the dye intermediate anthraquinone-2-sulfonic acid sodium salt(Kiwi et al., 1993).Not only an iron catalyst but also a UV/H2O2 oxidation process has been used for the decolorization of Reactive Black5in textile wastewaters(Ince and Gonenc, 1997).The degradation of anthraquinone sulfonate dyes was facilitated by H2O2in the presence of TiO2(Kiwi,1994). Iron powder and hydrogen peroxide in combination were employed in the decolorization of Reactive Red120,Direct Blue160and Acid Blue40,in aqueous solutions.The non-biodegradable azo dye Orange II was effectively mineral-ized with iron and hydrogen peroxide,with pH exerting a considerable effect on the decomposition rate(Bandara et al.,1997).Optimal conditions for decolorization were found to be different for each dye,indicating that the development of a general oxidation method for a mixture of dyes would be very difficult.Thus,compromise must be made that is suitable for the decomposition of each dye at a reasonable oxidation rate(Tang and Chen,1996).UV irradiation combined with hydrogen peroxide treatment was used for the decolorization of the mono-azo dyes Acid Red1and Acid Yellow23.Decolorization followed a pseudo first-order rate profile and the rate increased with increasing concentration of H2O2in the solution(Tang et al.,1997). Acetone as a photosensitizer has also been used to facilitate the photocatalytic degradation of Reactive Red2in aqueous solutions.The reaction followed pseudo first-order decay kinetics and involved both dechlorination and reduction (Tsui and Chu,2001).The possibility of UV/H2O2treatment of dyes with different structures has been studied in detail. The results indicated that the method could be successfully used for the decolorization of acid dyes,direct dyes,basic dyes and reactive dyes but it proved to be inadequate for vat dyes and disperse dyes(Yang et al.,1998).

3.2.Ozonation

Ozonation,as an effective oxidation process,has found application in the decolorization of synthetic dyes.The technique employed in the decoloration of Orange II. Oxalate.Formate and benzene sulfonate ions were the most important decomposition products(Tang and An,1995a,b). It was reported that ozone effectively decomposed azo dyes in textile wastewater.The decomposition rate was consid-erably higher at acidic pH.However,the influence of temperature and UV irradiation on the decomposition rate was negligible(Koyuncu and Afsar,1996).The negligible influence of UV irradiation on the decomposition rate of azo dyes by ozone has been supported by other authors.The effect of chemical structure on the decomposition rate has been demonstrated(Davis et al.,1994).The effect of ozonation on the toxicity of wastewater effluents has been investigated using the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. The data indicated that the toxicity highly depended on the type of dye to be decomposed(Hitchcock et al.,1998).The influence of operating parameters on the decolorization of a reactive dye by ozone has been studied in detail.The results indicated that the decomposition rate increased with increas-ing pH and temperature(Wu and Wang,2001).A method employing a combination of membrane filtration with subsequent ozonation of retentates has been developed for the effective purification of colored textile wastewaters(Wu et al.,1998).

3.3.Photodecomposition in the presence of TiO2

It has been proven that the presence of catalysts enhances the rate of photodecomposition.The role of TiO2in oxidation was studied.It was shown that the photodegradation rate of azo dyes under UV irradiation considerably depends on the chemical structure in the presence of TiO2.Monoazo dyes were more easily decomposed than trisazo dyes,disazo dyes were not included in the experiment(Reutergardh and Iang-pashuk,1997).UV irradiation and TiO2catalysis were used for the decomposition of Acid Blue40.The initial step of photocatalytic decomposition was found to be hydroxyl radical attack to the carbon–nitrogen bond of the side chain of anthraquinone(Liakou et al.,1997a).The same system was applied for the study of the decomposition of Acid Blue 40,Basic Yellow15,Direct Blue87,Direct Blue160and Reactive Red120.The data demonstrated that the oxidation mechanism was determined by both the pH and the chemical structure of the dyes(Liakou et al.,1997b).The efficacy of TiO2and cadmium sulfide(CdS)photocatalysts was com-pared in the photocatalytic decomposition of the Reactive Black5.The initial pH had a different impact on CdS and TiO2photocatalysis,the first-order rate constant increased with increasing concentration of the semiconductor and with increasing light intensity and temperature.It was found that the toxicity of wastewater decreased with the presence of TiO2and increased with the presence of CdS(Shu et al., 1994).The azo dye Acid Orange7was successfully decom-posed on titanium oxide particles in visible light in the presence of oxygen.Naphthoquinone and benzene sulfonic acid were identified as main decomposition products (Vinodgopal et al.,1996).Other dyes were also decolorized by TiO2and by irradiation in wastewater and it was found that the temperature did not influence markedly the decomposi-tion rate of dyes(Shu and Huang,1995).

3.4.Other oxidizing systems

The photodecomposition of five dyes(Reactive Red2, Reactive Blue4,Reactive Black8,Basic Red13and Basic Yellow2)under UV irradiation in the presence of trivalent iron-oxalato complexes was also reported(Nansheng et al., 1997a).It has been established that the rate of photodegra-dation is highly dependent on the chemical structure of the dye.The decomposition followed first-order kinetics.The acidic pH enhanced decomposition.The same dyes were subjected to photodegradation,using a trivalent iron-hy-

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droxy catalyst and sunlight.The pseudo first-order decom-position rate was lower than under UV irradiation(Nan-sheng et al.,1997b).The photodegradation kinetics for five synthetic dyes,using Fe3+-hydroxy and Fe3+-oxalate com-plexes indicate that the rate constants were higher for Fe3+-hydroxy complexes except for Reactive Red2.This finding suggests that the Fe3+-hydroxy system is more suitable for activation of the photodegradation of reactive dyes than is the Fe3+-oxalate system.Optimal conditions for the chem-ical oxidation-decolorization process were determined with the help of modified Nernst model by using the NaOCl as oxidant by(Chang et al.,1996).Electrooxidation of Acid Blue113using a RuO2/Ti electrode was reported to be successful(Mohan et al.,2001).It has been demonstrated that the azo dye Remazol Black B can be decomposed in an aqueous solution saturated with oxygen using a high-fre-quency ultrasonic generator(Vinodgopal et al.,1998).

4.Microbiological decomposition of synthetic dyes

The application of microorganisms for the biodegrada-tion of synthetic dyes is an attractive and simole method by operation.However,the biological mechanisms can be https://www.wendangku.net/doc/8810598712.html,rge number of species has been tested(Table 1)for decoloration and mineralization of various dyes. Unfortunately,the majority of these compounds are chem-ically stable and resistant to microbiological attack.The isolation of new strains or the adaptation of existing ones to the decomposition of dyes will probably increase the effi-cacy of bioremediation of dyes in the near future.

The use of microorganisms for the removal of synthetic dyes from industrial effluents offers considerable advantages. The process is relatively inexpensive,the running costs are low and the end products of complete mineralization are not toxic.The various aspects of the microbiological decompo-sition of synthetic dyes have been previously reviewed by Stolz(2001).Besides the traditional wastewater cleaning technologies,other methods have been employed in the microbial decolorization of dyes.For instance,an activated sludge process was developed for the removal of Methyl violet and Rhodamine B from dyestuff effluents,using microorganisms that were derived from cattle dung(Kanekar and Sarnaik,1991).Also in biofilms,efficient biodegradation of Acid Orange7has been demonstrated(Harmer and Bishop,1992;Zhang et al.,1995).Azo dyes did not inhibit the capacity of biofilms in the removal of organics from wastewater(Fu et al.,1994).A multistage rotating biological contactor was used for the biodegradation of azo dyes,where an azo dye assimilating bacterium was immobilized in the system(Ogawa and Yatome,1990).

4.1.Mixed cultures(microorganism consortiums)

The utilization of microbiotic consortiums offers consid-erable advantages over the use of pure cultures in the degradation of synthetic dyes.The individual strains may attack the dye molecule at different positions or may use decomposition products produced by another strain for further decomposition.However,it should be stressed that the composition of mixed cultures may change during the decomposition process,which interferes with the control of technologies using mixed cultures.Moreover,the efficacy of decomposition considerably depends on the chemical character of the synthetic dye and on the biodegradation capacity of the microorganism consortium.The benefits and drawbacks of the use of microbial consortiums for the decomposition and decolorization of various dyes have been previously reviewed by Banat et al.(1996).Optimal con-ditions for the microbial decolorization of dyes show marked diversity both in anaerobic and aerobic as well as mixed anaerobic/aerobic processes.However,it has been observed in a number of cases that the efficacy of aerobic treatment was inferior to that of anaerobic decolorization process.

4.1.1.Anaerobic decolorization of synthetic dyes

The efficacy of various anaerobic treatment applications for the degradation of a wide variety of synthetic dyes has been many times demonstrated(Delee et al.,1998).Experi-ments indicated that chemical reduction by sulphide is partially responsible for the anaerobic conversions of Acid Orange7.Mathematical evaluation of the experimental results pointed out that autocatalysis played an important role where1-amino-2-naphthol accelerated the chemical reduction of azo bond.(Zee van der et al.,2000).The decolorization of reactive water-soluble azo dyes was achieved under anaerobic conditions using glucose as a carbon source(Carliell et al.,1996).The supplement tapioca starch gave also enhanced the color removal efficacy from synthetic blue wastewater(Chinkewitvanich et al.,2000).Mordant Orange1and Azodisalicylate were reduced and decolorized under anaerobic conditions using methanogenic granular sludge(Razo-Flores et al.,1997). Reactive Red141was also decolorized under anaerobic conditions in a conventional sewage treatment technology. The chemical identification of the products of dye degra-dation showed that decolorization was via reduction mech-anism(Carliell et al.,1994).The synthetic dye Tartrazine was found to be readily decolorized in an anaerobic baffled reactor(Bell et al.,2000;Plumb et al.,2001).Disperse Blue79was also reduced in anoxic sediment–water system,the primary decomposition products being N,N-disubstituted1,4azobenzene and3-bromo-6-nitro-1,2-dia-minobenzene(Weber and Adams,1995).Great differences were observed among the decomposition rates of various dyes in anoxic settled bottom sediments.Half-life varied between a few days(Solvent Red1)and some months (Solvent Yellow33)(Baughman and Weber,1994).The reactive azo dye Reactive Red141was decomposed under anaerobic conditions.The azo bonds were reduced and cleaved by the microbial community resulting in the

E.Forgacs et al./Environment International30(2004)953–971961

liberation of2-aminonaphtalene-1,5disulfonic acid(Car-liell et al.,1995).

Much effort have been devoted to the study of the influence of various modern technologies on the decompo-sition rate of dyes and the effect of the presence of other compounds in the media.It has been recently established that the development of high-rate systems,in which hy-draulic retention times are uncoupled from solids retention times,facilitate the removal of dyes from textile processing wastewaters(Lier van et al.,2001).Another study proved the feasibility of the application of anaerobic granular sludge for the total decolorization of20azo dyes(Zee van der et al.,2001a).It was further demonstrated that the application of the redox mediator anthraquinone-2,6-disul-fonic acid highly accelerates the decomposition of azo dyes (Zee van der et al.,2001b).The effect of the presence of salts(nitrate and sulfate)on the decomposition rate of the azo dye Reactive Red141under anaerobic conditions has been studied.The results indicated that nitrate delays the onset of decomposition while sulfate did not influenced the biodegradation process(Carliell et al.,1998).

4.1.2.Anaerobic/aerobic decomposition of synthetic dyes

Although anaerobic reduction of azo dyes is generally more satisfactory than aerobic degradation,the intermediate products(carcinogenic aromatic amines)have to be degrad-ed by an aerobic process.Diverse technologies have been developed for the successive anaerobic/aerobic treatment of dye wastewaters.It has been observed that the removal of dyes from wastewaters in an anaerobic–oxic system in-volved both decomposition by bacteria and adsorption onto the sludge.Decolorization rates were20%,72%,and78% for Acid Yellow17,Basic Blue3,and Basic Red2, respectively(An et al.,1996).This combined method has been successfully employed for the decomposition of bisazo vinylsulphonyl,anthraquinone vinylsulphonyl and anthra-quinone monochlootriazine reactive dyes(Panswad and Luangdilok,2000)and the considerable impact of the molecular structure on the decolorization rate has been demonstrated(Luangdilok and Panswad,2000).Dye waste-waters were also treated using a sequential anaerobic/aero-bic filter system.Results showed that,the Basic Red was removed very efficiently in the anaerobic filter,however,no removal of the Acid Yellow17occurred.(Basibuyuk and Forster,1997).Another two-stage anaerobic/aerobic system successfully decomposed sulfonated azo dyes(Acid Orange 10,Acid Red14,Acid Red18)(FitzGerald and Bishop, 1995).It was further established that an anaerobic/aerobic treatment is suitable for the cleavage of the azo bond in various azo dyes(Seshadri et al.,1994).Moreover,it was found that biofilms degraded aerobically the azo dye Acid Orange8.The azo bond of Acid Orange8,Acid Orange10 and Acid Red14was cleaved only under anaerobic con-ditions(Jiang and Bishop,1994).The efficacy of the removal of reactive diazo Remazol Black B dye by aerobic and anoxic plus anaerobic/aerobic sequencing batch reactor (SBR)activated sludge processes has been assessed.The results indicated that longer anoxic+anaerobic period pro-moted decolorization(Panswad et al.,2001).The azo dye Procion Red H-E7B has been efficiently decolorized in a combined anaerobic–aerobic process(O’Neill et al.,1999) and the beneficial effect of existence of carbohydrate at higher concentration on the decolorization has been proven (O’Neill et al.,2000).

4.2.Pure cultures of white-rot fungus

White-rot fungi produce a wide variety of extracellular enzymes(laccase,lignin peroxidase,phenol oxidase,Mn-dependent peroxidase and Mn-independent peroxidase) that decompose the highly stable natural(lignin,hemicel-lulose,cellulose,etc.).Because of their high biodegrada-tion capacity they are of considerable biotechnological interest,and their application in the decolorization process of wastewaters has been extensively investigated(Young and Yu,1997).Earlier results on decolorization of waste-waters by fungi have been reviewed(Fu and Viraraghavan, 2001).

4.2.1.Pure cultures of Phanerochaete chrysosporium

Because of its high enzyme production,the white rot fungus,P.chrysosporium has been frequently employed for the biodegradation of synthetic dyes.It was applied to the decoloration of Orange II,Tropaeolin0,Congo Red and Azure B under aerobic conditions.The results indicated that the fungus can be used for the removal of these dyes from wastewater(Cripps et al.,1990).Decolorization was achieved in6–9days.Two strains of P.chrysosporium and an isolate of white-rot fungus were used for the decomposition of the azo dyes Amaranth,Orange G and the heterocyclic dye Azure B.The rate of decoloration of dyes depended on the composition of medium and on the dye-microorganism pair.It has been assumed that various extracellular peroxidases(lignin peroxidase and Mn-depen-dent peroxidase)or laccase are involved in the decoloriza-tion process.The data further indicated that the high decomposition rate of dyes can be achieved only by careful selection of the fungi and cultural conditions(Chao and Lee, 1994).The decomposition of Indigo Carmine by the fungus has also been studied and the involvement of ligninolytic enzymes in the process has been demonstrated(Podgornik et al.,2001).The biodegradation of Amaranth,New Coc-cine,Orange G and Tartrazine by P.chrysosporium and Pleurotus sajor-caju was compared.It was suggested that Mn-peroxidase,h-glucosidase and laccase can be involved in the decolorization process(Chagas and Durrant,2001).It has been found that the addition of activators for the production of lignolytic enzymes by P.chrysosporium (Tween80,veratryl alcohol,manganese(IV)oxide)in-creased the decomposition rate of the dye Poly R-478 (Couto et al.,2000a;Couto et al.,2000b).It has been confirmed that the lignin peroxidase of P.chrysosporium

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removes not only dyes but also phenol and chlorophenol from wastewaters(Manamekalai and Swaminathan,2000).

4.2.2.Pure cultures of other white-rot fungus

Other white-rot fungi have been used for the decoloration of different dyes.Thus,Trametes versicolor decomposed anthraquinone,azo and indigo-based dyes(Wang and Yu, 1998),Pycnoporus cinnabarinus rapidly decoloration Rema-zol Brilliant Blue in packed-bed bioreactor(Schliephaje and Lonergan,1996),and Trametes hirsuta was able to decom-pose triarylmethane,indigoid and anthraquinone dyes(Aba-dulla et al.,2000).The degradation capacity of103strains of white-rot fungi has been measured.It has been established that the higher degradation rate was achieved by Irpex lacteus and Pleurotus ostreatus(Novotny et al.,2001).The biodeg-radation capacity of wood-rotting basidiomycete fungi was also determined using14structurally different synthetic dyes. The results indicated that the decomposition rate highly depends on both the chemical structure of the dye and the character of the fungi(Knapp et al.,1995).It has been determined that the presence of azoreductase in the microor-ganism and the permeation of the dye molecule are prereq-uisites of the microbial decolorization of dyes(Yatome et al., 1991a).The decoloration of the phthalocyanine dyes,Reac-tive Blue15and38,by Bjerkandera adusta was studied in detail.It was found that the main metabolites were sulfoph-thalimides(Heinfling-Weidtmann et al.,2001).The potential of some white-rot fungi to decolorize indigo dye has been compared.The decomposition rate was the highest for Phellinus gilvus followed by those achieved P.sajor-caju, Pycnoporus sanguineus and P.chrysosporium(Balan and Monteiro,2001).It has been reported that Phlebia tremellosa decomposes synthetic dyes but complete mineralisation did not occur(Kirby et al.,2000).The decoloration capacity of another set of white-rot fungi has been assessed using industrial dyes as model compounds.The results indicated that Trametes hispida produced lignolytic enzymes at higher rate than was achieved Pleurotus ostreatus in solid state cultures on whole oats(Rodriguez et al.,1999).

The assays carried out on another set of white rot fungi indicated that Coriolus versicolor showed the highest de-composition capacity(Knapp and Newby,1999).An inter-esting combined method has been described for the decolorisation of Acid Violet7.Pellets have been prepared form the mycelium of T.versicolor and activated carbon powder and their decoloration rate has been shown to be higher than those of the individual components(pure mycelium or activated carbon)(Zhang and Yu,2000).

4.3.Other pure cultures

Although the capacity of white rot fungi to remove synthetic dyes from waters has been frequently demonstrat-ed the search for other dye-decomposing microorganisms proceeds.Pure cultures other than white rot fungi have also found application in the decolorization of synthetic dyes.The potential of fungi from marine habitats to degrade synthetic dyes(Azure B,Brilliant Green,Congo Red, Crystal Violet,Poly-R,Poly-B,Remazol Blue R)has been revealed(Raghukumar,2000).Reactive azo dyes have been effectively removed from water by the fungus Aspergillus foetidus.However,the measurements indicated that the dyes were not decomposed,they were only adsorbed in the fungal biomass(Sumathi and Manju,2000).

The ability of a Kurthia sp.to decolorize Magenta, Crystal Violet,Malachite Green,Pararosaniline and Bril-liant Green has been reported(Sani and Banerjee,1999). Pure culture of Bacillus subtilis can degrade p-amino-azobenzene under anoxic conditions,producing aniline and p-phenylenediamine as main decomposition products (Zissi and Lyberatos,1996).The biodegradation of anthra-quinone dyes by B.subtilis in industrial wastewater was also observed.The first step of biodegradation was the reduction of dyes to the leuko form(Itoh et al.,1993).It was reported that B.subtilis could decompose the triphe-nylmethane dye Crystal Violet at low concentrations below 7.10à6mol/l,while Escherichia coli was ineffective.The main decomposition product was identified as4,4V-bis(di-methylamino)benzophenone(Yatome et al.,1991b).The capacity of Pseudomonas strains for the decolorization of various dyes has also been studied in detail(Yu et al., 2001).The azo dyes(Acid Violet7,Acid Red151and Reactive Black5)were degraded at higher extent(>90%) than Indigo Carmin,Acid Red183(chromium complex) and antraquinones(Reactive Blue2and Acid Green27).It has been demonstrated that P.mendocina could effectively decolorize Methyl Violet in textile wastewater,with the use of a fixed-film reactor(Kanekar and Sarnaik,1995; Kanekar et al.,1996).Decolorization of wastewaters con-taining reactive azo dyes was achieved by a culture of the bacteria P.luteola.Bacteria reduced the azo bond in Red G and biodegraded the other dyes(Hu,1994).The capacity of Klebsiella pneunomoniae to decolorize Methyl Red under aerobic conditions was compared with that of Acetobacter liquefaciens in another study and the higher activity of K.pneunomoniae has been demonstrated(Wong and Yuen,1996).It has been found that the sulfate reducing bacteria Desulfovibrio desulfuricans can also decolorize Reactive Orange96and Reactive Red120 under anaerobic conditions(Yoo et al.,2000).

Food-borne bacteria are also capable for the reduction of dyes.The reduction of seven redox dyes by13food spoilage bacterial strains was determined.The results clearly show that the rate of reduction markedly varies among dye/ organism pairs,proving the different reduction capacity of bacteria and the different sensitivity of dyes to reductases (Learoyd et al.,1992).

The biodegradation of azo dyes by the algae(Chlorella pyrenoidosa,C.vulgaris and Oscillatoria tenuis)has been also assessed.According to the data,the azo reductase of the algae is responsible for degrading azo dyes into aromatic amines by breaking the azo linkage.In addition,the algae

E.Forgacs et al./Environment International30(2004)953–971963

can play a direct role in degradation of azo dyes (Liu and Liu,1992).

The application of microorganisms for the biodegrada-tion of synthetic dyes is an attractive and simple method.Unfortunately,the majority of dyes are chemically stable and resistant to microbiological attack.The isolation of new strains or the adaptation of existing ones to the decompo-sition of dyes will probably increase the efficacy of micro-biological degradation of dyes in the near future.

5.Enzymatic decomposition of synthetic dyes

The character of enzymes and enzyme systems in micro-organisms that are suitable for the decomposition of dyes has been extensively investigated.Effort has been devoted to the separation,isolation and testing of these enzymes.Exact knowledge of the enzymatic processes governing the decomposition of dyes is important in the environmental protection both from theoretical and practical points of view.Lignin peroxidase isoenzymes were isolated from P .chrysosporium and purified by chromatofocusing.The ac-tivity of isoenzymes towards decoloring triphenylmethane dyes,heterocyclic dyes,azo dyes and polymer dyes was compared with that of a crude enzyme preparation.Opti-mum pH values for the decolorization of dyes by various isozymes were markedly different.According to the results,the decomposition capacity of crude enzyme preparation

and purified isoenzymes showed marked differences while variations in the structure of dyes exerted slight influence (Ollikka et al.,1993).Horseradish peroxidase has been successfully employed for the decomposition and the pre-cipitation of azo dyes.The degradation rate was dependent on the pH (Bhunia et al.,2001).Another study revealed that the enzymes of white rot fungus degraded Crystal Violet via N -demethylation (Bumpus et al.,1991).Interestingly,lignin peroxidase from B.adusta showed very low degradation capacity towards azo dyes and phthalocyanine dyes.How-ever,veratryl alcohol considerably increased the decompo-sition rate (Heinfling et al.,1998).Similar investigations proved that pure laccase was also unable to decolorize Remazol Brilliant Blue R but the decoloration rate was facilitated by the presence of a mediator (violuric acid)(Soares et al.,2001).

The employment of enzyme preparations shows consid-erable benefits over the direct use of https://www.wendangku.net/doc/8810598712.html,mercial enzyme preparations can be easily standard-ized,facilitating accurate dosage.The application is simple and can be rapidly modified according to the character of the dye or dyes to be removed.

6.Future trends

The overwhelming majority of the current publications in the field of the removal of synthetic dyes from waters has

Table 2

Improvement of decolorization activity of organisms by interspecific transfer of genetic elements Organisms Function

References

Donor

Acceptor Prokaryotes

Clostridium perfringens Escherichia coli Azoreductase Rafii and Coleman (1999)Bacillus sp.

E.coli Azoreductase Suzuki et al.(2001)Rhodococcus sp.

E.coli Azoreductase Chang and Lin (2001)Caulobacter subvibrioides E.coli Azoreductase Govind et al.(1993)Xenophilus azovorans E.coli Azoreductase Blumel et al.(2002)Pseudomonas luteola E.coli

Azoreductase Chang et al.(2000)E.coli

Sphingomonas xenophaga

Flavin reductase Russ et al.(2000)

Agrobacterium rhizogenes Mentha puligeum Tolerance to R-478Strycharz and Shetty (2002)Eukaryotes

Geotrichum candidum

Aspergillus oryzae Peroxidase Sugano et al.(2000)Ceriporiopsis subvermispora A.nidulans Peroxidase Larrondo et al.(2001)C.subvermisopra A.oryzae

Peroxidase Larrondo et al.(2001)Coprinus cinereus Saccharomyces cerevisiae Laccase Cherry et al.(1999)C.cinereus

A.oryzae

Laccase Schneider et al.(1999)Coriolus versicolor

Nicotiana tabacum Peroxidase Iimura et al.(2002)Phanerochaete chrysosporium A.nidulans Peroxidase Larrondo et al.(2001)P .chrysosporium

A.oryzae

Peroxidase Larrondo et al.(2001)Pycnoporus cinnabarinus Pychia pastoris Laccase Otterbein et al.(2000)P .cinnabarinus A.niger Laccase Record et al.(2002)Pleurotus sajor-caju P .pastoris Laccase Soden et al.(2002)Trametes versicolor S.cerevisiae Laccase Larsson et al.(2001)T.versicolor P .pastoris Laccase O’Callaghan et al.(2002)T.versicolor

P .pastoris Laccase Hong et al.(2002)Armoracia rusticana

S.cerevisiae

Peroxidase

Morawski et al.(2001)

E.Forgacs et al./Environment International 30(2004)953–971

964

been dealing with the various aspects of the application of microbiological methods and techniques,with the search for new microorganisms providing higher decomposition rates and with the elucidation of the principal biochemical and biophysical processes underlying the decolorization of dyes. This trend unambiguously proves the decisive role of microbiological processes in the future technologies used for the removal of dyes from waters.

The widespread application of combined techniques using microbiological decomposition and chemical or phys-ical treatments to enhance the efficacy of the microbiolog-ical decomposition can be expected in future.

Some new results indicate that gene manipulation;the creation of recombinant strains with higher biodegradation capacity will be applied in the future(Table2).The cloning and expression in E.coli of an’azoreductase’gene from Clostridium perfringens(Rafii and Coleman,1999),from a Bacillus sp.(Suzuki et al.,2001),from Pseudomonas luteola(Hu,1994)have been reported.Furthermore,the feasibility of the use of a recombinant E.coli strain, harboring azo-dye-decolorizing determinants from Rhodo-coccus sp.(Chang and Lin,2001),and recombinant Sphin-gomonas sp.(Russ et al.,2000)for the decolorization of dye wastewater has been demonstrated.The exoenzymes of white-rot fungi have also been objects of genetic engineer-ing.The laccase of various filamentous fungi was success-fully transmitted into yeast.These manipulations enhanced the capacity of microorganisms to decolorize synthetic dyes. The expression of oxidases from higher plants augmented the catabolic potential of microbes(Haudenschild et al., 2000;Morawski et al.,2001)and in turn microbial genes straightened the tolerance of higher plant to Poly R-487 (Strycharz and Shetty,2002;Iimura et al.,2002).Polymeric dye-tolerant plants may be useful in phytoremediation because they could provide a rhizosphere that was suitable for colonization by microbes that are efficient degraders of aromatic structures.The plant derived compounds can induce production of fungal redox enzymes(Curreli et al., 2001).Reductive cleavage of the azo bond dissipates the electron deficiency of the aromatic nuclei so that the aromatic amino compounds generated may be subject to subsequent oxidation and mineralization.The C-hydroxyl-ation of aromatic rings by mammalian monoxygenases facilitates subsequent microbial degradation.Human cyto-chrome P450enzymes are now routinely expressed as recombinant proteins in many different systems(Gillam, 1998;Sakaki and Inouye,2000).The capacity of such recombinants to catabolize dyes has been tested(Stiborova et al.,2002).It is clear that complexity of association involved in the complete degradation should be increased with increasing complexity of the chemical structure of synthetic dyes.The genetically engineered microorganisms can accomplish degradation of synthetic dyes,which persist under normal natural conditions.In natural habitats,com-plex microbial/macrobial communities carry out biodegra-dation.Within them,a single organism may interact through interspecific transfer of metabolites.This co-metabolic po-tential may be complementary so that extensive biodegra-dation or even mineralization of xenobiotics can occur (Rieger et al.,2002).In this respect,deterioration of dyestuff effluents in constructed wetlands with multisite catabolic potential is a promising possibility.Mobilizing specific genes,encoding nonspecific multifunctional degradative sequences,may decisively increase the degradative potential of natural synthropic community against synthetic dyes.The use of recombinants that harbor dye-decolorizing determi-nants from other species can essentially enhance the capac-ity of waste remediation technologies.

References

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Aksu Z,Donmez G.A comparative study on the biosorption characteristics of some yeasts for Remazol Blue reactive dye.Chemosphere2003;50: 1075–83.

Alcalde M,Bulter T,Arnold FH.Colorimetric assays for biodegradation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons by fungal laccases.J Biomol Screen 2002;7:547–53.

Al Duri B,McKay G,El Geundi MS,Abdul Wahab MZ.Three-resistance transport model for dye adsorption onto bagasse pith.J Environ Eng (ASCE)1990;116:487–502.

An H,Qian Y,Gu X,Tang WZ.Biological treatment of dye waste-waters using an anaerobic–oxic system.Chemosphere1996;33: 2533–42.

An SY,Min SK,Cha IH,Choi YL,Cho YS,Kim CH,et al.Decolorization of triphenylmethane and azo dyes by Citrobacter sp.Biotechnol Lett 2002;24:1037–40.

Azmi W,Sani RK,Banerjee UC.Biodegradation of triphenylmethane dyes.

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控制软件说明书

控制软件说明书 PC端软件FTM 安装及应用 系统运行环境： 操作系统中英文Windows 98/2000/ NT/XP/WIN7/ Vista， 最低配置 CPU：奔腾133Mhz 内存：128MB 显示卡：标准VGA，256色显示模式以上 硬盘：典型安装 10M 串行通讯口：标准RS232通讯接口或其兼容型号。 其它设备：鼠标器 开始系统 系统运行前，确保下列连线正常： 1：运行本软件的计算机的RS232线已正确连接至控制器。 2：相关控制器的信号线，电源线已连接正确； 系统运行步骤： 1：打开控制器电源，控制电源指示灯将亮起。 绿色，代表处于开机运行状态；橙色代表待机状态。 2. 运行本软件 找到控制软件文件夹，点击FWM.exe运行。出现程序操作界面：

根据安装软件版本不同，上图示例中的界面及其内容可能会存在某些差别，可咨询我们的相关的售后服务人员。 上图中用红色字体标出操作界面的各部分的功能说明： 1. 菜单区：一些相关的菜单功能选择执行区。 2. 操作区：每一个方格单元代表对应的控制屏幕，可以通过鼠标或键盘的点选，拖拉的方式选择相应控制单元。 3.功能区：包含常用的功能按钮。 4.用户标题区：用户可根据本身要求，更改界面上的标题显示 5.用户图片区：用户可根据本身要求，更改界面上的图片显示，比如公司或工程相关LOGO图片。 6.附加功能区：根据版本不同有不同的附加项目。 7.状态区：显示通讯口状态，操作权限状态，和当前的本机时间，日期等。 如何开始使用 1. 通讯设置 单击主菜单中“系统配置”――》“通讯配置” 选择正确的通讯端口号，系统才能正常工作。 可以设置打开程序时自动打开串口。 2.系统配置

The way常见用法

The way 的用法 Ⅰ常见用法： 1)the way+ that 2)the way + in which（最为正式的用法） 3)the way + 省略（最为自然的用法） 举例：I like the way in which he talks. I like the way that he talks. I like the way he talks. Ⅱ习惯用法： 在当代美国英语中，the way用作为副词的对格，“the way+ 从句”实际上相当于一个状语从句来修饰整个句子。 1)The way =as I am talking to you just the way I’d talk to my own child. He did not do it the way his friends did. Most fruits are naturally sweet and we can eat them just the way they are—all we have to do is to clean and peel them. 2）The way= according to the way/ judging from the way The way you answer the question, you are an excellent student. The way most people look at you, you’d think trash man is a monster. 3）The way =how/ how much No one can imagine the way he missed her. 4）The way =because

用造句子大全

路上的垫脚石，踏着它，走向成功。 12、初三让我受益匪浅，她让我明白了珍惜时间才不会虚度此 生的真谛，她让我懂得了珍爱人生就要去拼搏去奋斗的道理。如醉 如痴，她让我用**吮吸着知识的甘露；豁然开朗，她让我用真诚去 探寻着做人的美好。 13、普里尼曾说过：“在希望与失望的决斗中，如果你用勇气 与坚决的双手紧握着，胜利必属于希望。”的确啊，生活正需要这 种坚持不懈，永不放弃的精神。 14、十月国庆节，我又去外婆家，此时凤仙花的花瓣都凋落了，取而代之的是，枝上都挂满一个个鼓鼓的对象，爸爸汇报我那是凤 仙花的果子，内里有一粒粒的种子。我用手轻轻一捏，果子溘然 “爆炸”了，内里的种子像弹片一样。 15、大地啊，你是多么平反而有多么伟大，你用你的博爱征服 了无数的人们，让他们心甘情愿的像你一样无私奉献。 16、蚕宝宝还是天生的“歌唱家”，我用耳朵听蚕宝宝们吃桑 叶的时候，真的能听见“沙沙”的声音，那有节奏的沙沙声，像一 首百听不厌的乐曲。 17、我们学习的目的，是为了使用，不是知识没有用，而是你 没有使用，说明你没有用。 18、月光下，我用繁冗拖沓的文字祭奠我的青春，纪念我死去 的友情和迟到的爱情。 19、轻负担，高效率，教给学生有用的东西。 20、知识并非对人人都是同样有用的，正象权力不能使卑劣的 人变得高尚；知识也不能成为衡量人们心灵美丑的标准。 21、赏识不是单向的施舍，是智慧与智慧的主动碰撞；赏识不

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肚子中翻腾，他受不了，想把这种苦吐掉，但是这东西刚倒嘴边，又硬生生地咽了回去，空留他一口苦涩。 7、谢谢你，微风，是你用你那曼妙的身姿，舞动树梢，树叶飘零，"沙沙"直响，让我明白了原来的世界万物都有它的生命，它的语言。要用心灵去感受这个世界。 8、人生在世不容易，千万不要把烦恼当菜吃。你的快乐，就是真个的世界。小徒弟问我，师父啊你悟道了什么呢。我告诉他，很多年以后，不许空手来给我上坟，起码要带几个苹果。 9、世界最无私、最伟大、最崇高的爱，莫过于母爱。在我的学习生活中，妈妈给了我无微不至的关爱，在妈妈的关爱中，我健康、快乐地成长着。 10、花儿们竞相怒放，红的像火，白的像雪、粉的像霞，五光十色。山上的桃花远远望去像云霞。花儿们给世界穿了一件花衣裳，美丽极了。 11、黄昏，像我在佛前点燃的一柱香，心静时的苦苦惆怅，将一个个梦境，爱的心痛，继续燃放。一种感伤从心底抽出，拉长，直到光束无法触摸的地方。让黄昏触摸到自己内心深处的伤，这痛，隐藏在黑色的世界。 12、爱心是一柄撑起在雨夜的小伞，使漂泊异乡的人得到亲情的荫庇；爱心是一道飞架在天边的彩虹，使满目阴霾的人见到世界的美丽；爱心是一杯泼洒在头顶的冰水，使高热发昏的人得能冷静地思索；爱心是一块衔含在嘴里的奶糖，使久饮黄连的人尝到生活的甘甜。

软件操作说明书

门禁考勤管理软件 使 用 说 明 书

软件使用基本步骤

一．系统介绍―――――――――――――――――――――――――――――2二．软件的安装――――――――――――――――――――――――――――2 三．基本信息设置―――――――――――――――――――――――――――2 １）部门班组设置―――――――――――――――――――――――――3 ２）人员资料管理―――――――――――――――――――――――――3 ３）数据库维护――――――――――――――――――――――――――3 ４）用户管理―――――――――――――――――――――――――――3 四．门禁管理―――――――――――――――――――――――――――――4 １）通迅端口设置―――――――――――――――――――――――――4２）控制器管理――――――――――――――――――――――――――4３）控制器设置――――――――――――――――――――――――――6４）卡片资料管理―――――――――――――――――――――――――11 ５）卡片领用注册―――――――――――――――――――――――――12６）实时监控―――――――――――――――――――――――――――13 五．数据采集与事件查询――――――――――――――――――――――――13 六．考勤管理―――――――――――――――――――――――――――――14 1）班次信息设置――――――――――――――――――――――――――14 2）考勤参数设置――――――――――――――――――――――――――15 3）考勤排班――――――――――――――――――――――――――――15 4）节假日登记―――――――――――――――――――――――――――16 5）调休日期登记――――――――――――――――――――――――――16 6）请假/待料登记―――――――――――――――――――――――――17 7）原始数据修改――――――――――――――――――――――――――17 8）考勤数据处理分析――――――――――――――――――――――――17 9）考勤数据汇总―――――――—――――――――――――――――――18 10）考勤明细表—―――――――――――――――――――――――――18 11）考勤汇总表――――――――――――――――――――――――――18 12）日打卡查询――――――――――――――――――――――――――18 13）补卡记录查询—――――――――――――――――――――――――19

(完整版)the的用法

定冠词the的用法： 定冠词the与指示代词this ,that同源,有“那(这)个”的意思,但较弱,可以和一个名词连用,来表示某个或某些特定的人或东西. (1)特指双方都明白的人或物 Take the medicine.把药吃了. (2)上文提到过的人或事 He bought a house.他买了幢房子. I've been to the house.我去过那幢房子. (3)指世界上独一无二的事物 the sun ,the sky ,the moon, the earth (4)单数名词连用表示一类事物 the dollar 美元 the fox 狐狸 或与形容词或分词连用,表示一类人 the rich 富人 the living 生者 (5)用在序数词和形容词最高级,及形容词等前面 Where do you live?你住在哪? I live on the second floor.我住在二楼. That's the very thing I've been looking for.那正是我要找的东西. (6)与复数名词连用,指整个群体 They are the teachers of this school.(指全体教师) They are teachers of this school.(指部分教师) (7)表示所有,相当于物主代词,用在表示身体部位的名词前 She caught me by the arm.她抓住了我的手臂. (8)用在某些有普通名词构成的国家名称,机关团体,阶级等专有名词前 the People's Republic of China 中华人民共和国 the United States 美国 (9)用在表示乐器的名词前 She plays the piano.她会弹钢琴. (10)用在姓氏的复数名词之前,表示一家人 the Greens 格林一家人(或格林夫妇) (11)用在惯用语中 in the day, in the morning... the day before yesterday, the next morning... in the sky... in the dark... in the end... on the whole, by the way...

博思软件操作步骤

开票端操作说明 双击桌面“博思开票”图标，单击“确定”，进入开票界面： 一、开票： 日常业务——开票——选择票据类型——增加——核对票号无误后——单击“请核对票据号”——输入“缴款人或缴款单位”——选择”收费项目”、“收入标准”——单击“收费金额”。 （如需增加收费项目，可单击“增一行”） （如需加入备注栏（仅限于收款收据）），则在右侧“备注”栏内输入即可） 确认无误后，单击“打印”——“打印” 二、代收缴款书： 日常业务——代收缴款书——生成——生成缴款书——关闭——缴款——输入“专用票据号”——保存——缴款书左上角出现“已缴款”三个红字即可。 三、上报核销： 日常业务——上报核销——选择或输入核销日期的截止日期——刷新——核销。 （注意：“欠缴金额”处无论为正或为负均不可核销，解决方法见后“常见问题”）

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财政票据(网络版)电子化系统 开票端 操 作 说 明 福建博思软件股份有限公司

目录 1.概述 业务流程 流程说明：

1.单位到财政部门申请电子票据，由财政把单位的基本信息设置好并审核完后，财政部门给用票单位发放票据，单位进行领票确认并入库。 2.在规定时间内，单位要把开据的发票带到财政核销，然后由财政进行审核。 系统登录 登入系统界面如图： 登录日期：自动读取主服务器的日期。 所属区划：选择单位所属区划编码。【00安徽省非税收入征收管理局】 所属单位：输入单位编码。 用户编码：登录单位的用户编码【002】 用户密码：默认单位密码为【123456】 验证码：当输入错误时，会自动换一张验证码图片； 记录用户编码：勾选系统自动把用户编码保存在本地，第二次登录不需要重新输入。 填写完正确信息，点【确定】即可登入系统。 进入系统 进入系统界面如图： 当单位端票据出现变动的时候，如财政或上级直管下发票据时，才会出现此界面:

出现此界面后点击最下方的确认按钮，入库完成。 当单位端票据无变动时，直接进入界面： 2.基本编码人员管理 功能说明：对单位开票人员维护，修改开票人名称。 密码管理 修改开票人员密码，重置等操作。 收发信息 查看财政部门相关通知等。

3.日常业务 电脑开票 功能说明：是用于开票据类型为电子化的票据。 在电脑开票操作界面，点击工具栏中的【增加】按钮，系统会弹出核对票号提示框，如图： 注意：必须核对放入打印机中的票据类型、号码是否和电脑中显示的一致，如果不一致打印出来的票据为无效票据，核对完后，输入缴款人或缴款单位和收费项目等信息，全部输入完后，点【增加】按钮进行保存当前票据信息或点【打印】按钮进行保存当前票据信息并把当前的票据信息打印出来；点电脑开票操作界面工具栏中的【退出】则不保存。 在票据类型下拉单框中选择所要开票的票据类型，再点【增加】进行开票。

三年级用果然造句大全

小学三年级造句例句 三年级上册造句例句三 一、常见关联词： 1.因为...所以...、2.不但...而且...、3.一...就...、4.不是...而是...、5.尽管...但 (6) 从不…也不…、7.如果…就…、8.只要…就…、 9.既…又…、10.即使…也…、11.无论…总是…、12无论…都…、13.不论…还…、 14.不仅…而且…、15.不但…还…、16.虽然…但是…、 17.不是…而是…、18、一会儿…一会儿、19、…是…20、有的…有的…还有的、 23、…像…一样… 二、例句 1.…因为…所以… 因为我们共同努力，所以竞赛取得胜利。 因为我考了一百分，所以妈妈带我去欢乐谷玩。 因为我们付出了努力，所以我们取得了成功。 2.不但…而且… 张叔叔不但书法写得好,下象棋更是一流. 王师傅不但会开车，而且会修车。 苹果不但很大，而且很甜。 小红不但聪明，而且能干。 3、一…就… 你一进来，我就知道你想要说什么了！ 他一紧张就结巴。 他一起床就去看书。 不是我偷了你的东西，而是小明嫁庄于我的。 不是凭你的实力就可以拿到奖学金，而是你爸爸用钱换来的。 不是一个人就可以战胜困难的，而是要我们大家团结协作才可以战胜困难。 5、尽管…但… 尽管这件事很难完成，但他还是做到了。 尽管我们尽了最大的努力，但这个方案还是失败了。 6、从不…也不… 我上学从不迟到，上课也不乱讲话。 他对待任何事都从不气馁，也不怀有侥幸心理。 7、如果…就… 如果我们共同努力，竞赛就能取得胜利。 如果我们齐心协力，就能把这件事情办好。 8、只要…就… 只要我们共同努力，竞赛就能取得胜利。 只要我一开口，他就会答应我的任何请求。 9、既…又… 劳动既是付出,又是回报,还能得到无限快乐! 阅读课外书既可增长知识与阅历，又能丰富我们的业余生活，还能从中体会他人的感受。 10、即使…也… 即使前面的路有多么艰险，也要向前冲。 即使你成功了，也不能骄傲。

控制软件操作说明书

创维液晶拼接控制系统 软件操作指南 【LCD-CONTROLLER12】 请在使用本产品前仔细阅读该用户指导书

温馨提示:: 温馨提示 ◆为了您和设备的安全，请您在使用设备前务必仔细阅读产品说明书。 ◆如果在使用过程中遇到疑问,请首先阅读本说明书。 正文中有设备操作的详细描述,请按书中介绍规范操作。 如仍有疑问,请联系我们,我们尽快给您满意的答复。 ◆本说明书如有版本变动,恕不另行通知,敬请见谅！

一、功能特点 二、技术参数 三、控制系统连接示意图 四、基本操作 五、故障排除 六、安全注意事项

一、功能特点创维创维--液晶液晶拼接拼接拼接控制器特点控制器特点 ★采用创维第四代V12数字阵列高速图像处理技术 视频带宽高达500MHZ，应用先进的数字高速图像处理算实时分割放大输入图像信号，在多倍分割放大处理的单屏画面上，彻底解决模/数之间转换带来的锯齿及马赛克现象，拼接画面清晰流畅，色彩鲜艳逼真。 ★具有开窗具有开窗、、漫游漫游、、叠加等功能 以屏为单元单位的前提下，真正实现图像的跨屏、开窗、画中画、缩放、叠加、漫游等个性化功能。 ★采用基于LVDS 差分传送技术差分传送技术，，增强抗干扰能力 采用并行高速总线连接技术，上位控制端发出命令后，系统能快速切换信号到命令指定的通道，实现快速响应。 采用基于LVDS 差分传送技术，提高系统抗干扰能力，外部干扰对信号的影响降到了最低，并且，抗干扰能力随频率提高而提升。★最新高速数字阵列矩阵通道切换技术 输入信号小于64路时，用户不需要再另外增加矩阵，便可以实现通道之间的任意换及显示。 ★断电前状态记忆功能 通过控制软件的提前设置，能在现场断电的情况下，重启系统后，能自动记忆设备关机前的工作模式状态。 ★全面支持全高清信号 处理器采用先进的去隔行和运动补偿算法，使得隔行信号在大屏幕拼接墙上显示更加清晰细腻，最大限度的消除了大屏幕显示的锯齿现象，图像实现了完全真正高清实时处理。纯硬件架构的视频处理模块设计，使得高清视频和高分辨率计算机信号能得到实时采样，确保了高清信号的最高视频质量，使客户看到的是高质量的完美画质。

工会经费收入专用收据(1)

工会经费收入专用收据(1) 福州博思软件开发有限公司 2010年6月 目录 第一部分初始安 装 ....................................................... (1) 1.1系统 安装 (1) 1.2系统登录 ............................................................ (4) 第二部分组成模块介 绍 ................................................... (4) 2.1模块组 成 (4) 2.1.1票据资料 .......................................................... (5) 2.1.2用户管 理 .......................................................... (5) 2.1.3 票据领用 (6) 2.1.4电脑开票 .......................................................... (6) 2.1.5手工开 票 .......................................................... (7) 2.1.6 手工批开票 (7) 2.1.7票据查询 .......................................................... (8) 第三部分软件操 作 ....................................................... (9) 3.2用户 管理 (10)