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语言学 第四章 树形图 句法

语言学 第四章 树形图 句法
语言学 第四章 树形图 句法

Chapter 4 From word to Text (Syntax)

Syntax (grammar)

?Syntax refers to the study of the rules governing the way different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.

4.1 Syntactic relations

?Syntactic relations can be analyzed into three kinds:

–4.1.1 positional relation

–4.1.2 relations of substitutability

–4.1.3 relations of co-occurrence

4.1.1 Positional Relation

?For language to fulfill its communicative function, it must have a way to mark the grammatical roles of the various phrases that can occur in a clause.

?The boy kicked the ball

NP1 NP2

Subject Object

?Positional relation, or WORD ORDER, refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language.

?If the words in a sentence fail to occur in a fixed order required by the convention of a language, one tends to produce an utterance either ungrammatical or nonsensical at all. For example, The boy kicked the ball

–*Boy the ball kicked the

–*The ball kicked the boy

?The teacher saw the students

?The students saw the teacher

?Positional relations are a manifestation of one aspect of Syntagmatic Relations observed by F. de Saussure.

–They are also called Horizontal Relations or simply Chain Relations.

?Word order is among the three basic ways (word order, genetic and areal classifications) to classify languages in the world.

?There are 6 possible types of language:

–SVO, VSO, SOV, OVS, OSV, and VOS.

–English belongs to SVO type, though this does not mean that SVO is the only possible word order.

4.1.2 Relation of Substitutability

?The Relation of Substitutability refers to classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically in sentences with the same structure.

–The ______ smiles.

man

boy

girl

?It also refers to groups of more than one word which may be jointly substitutable

grammatically for a single word of a particular set.

strong man

–The tallest boy smiles.

pretty girl

yesterday.

–He went there last week.

the day before.

?This is also called Associative Relations by Saussure, and Paradigmatic Relations by Hjemslev. ?To make it more understandable, they are called Vertical Relations or Choice Relations.

4.1.3 Relation of Co-occurrence

?It means that words of different sets of clauses may permit, or require, the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence.

?For instance, a nominal phrase can be preceded by a determiner and adjective(s) and followed by a verbal phrase.

?Relations of co-occurrence partly belong to syntagmatic relations, partly to paradigmatic relations.

4.2 Grammatical construction and its constituents

4.2.1 Grammatical Construction

?Any syntactic string of words ranging from sentences over phrasal structures to certain complex lexemes.

–an apple

–ate an apple

–Mary ate an apple

4.2.2 Immediate Constituents

?Constituent is a part of a larger linguistic unit. Several constituents together form a construction:

–the girl (NP)

–ate the apple (VP)

–The girl ate the apple (S)

Immediate Constituent Analysis

(IC Analysis)

In the case of the above example, if two constituents B (the girl) and C (ate the apple) are jointed to form a hierarchically higher constituent A (here a sentence S), then B and C are said to be the immediate constituents of A. To dismantle a grammatical construction in this way is called IC analysis.

A (Sentence)

B C

The boy ate the apple

Two ways: tree diagram and bracketing

Tree diagram:

Bracketing

?Bracketing is not as common in use, but it is an economic notation in representing the constituent/phrase structure of a grammatical unit.

?(((The) (girl)) ((ate) ((the) (apple))))

?[S[NP[Det The][N girl]][VP[V ate][NP[Det the][N apple]]]]

4.2.3 Endocentric and Exocentric Constructions

?Endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable centre or head.

–Usually noun phrases, verb phrases and adjective phrases belong to endocentric types because the constituent items are subordinate to the Head.

?Exocentric construction refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable “Centre” or “Head” inside the group, usually including

–the basic sentence,

–the prepositional phrase,

–the predicate (verb + object) construction,

–the connective (be + complement) construction.

?The boy smiled.

(Neither constituent can substitute for the sentence structure as a whole.)

?He hid behind the door.

(Neither constituent can function as an adverbial.)

?He kicked the ball .

(Neither constituent stands for the verb-object sequence.)

?John seemed angry.

(After division, the connective construction no longer exists.)

4.2.4 Coordination and Subordination

?Endocentric constructions fall into two main types, depending on the relation between constituents:

1) Coordination

?Coordination is a common syntactic pattern in English and other languages formed by grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, but and or .

–These two or more words or phrases or clauses have equivalent syntactic status, each of the separate constituents can stand for the original construction functionally.

?Coordination of NPs:

–[NP the lady] or [NP the tiger]

?Coordination of VPs:

–[VP go to the library] and [VP read a book ]

?Coordination of PPs:

–[PP down the stairs] and [PP out the door ]

?Coordination of APs:

–[AP quite expensive] and [AP very beautiful]

?Coordination of Ss:

–[S John loves Mary] and [S Mary loves John too].

2) Subordination

?Subordination refers to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other.

–The subordinate constituents are words which modify the head. Consequently, they can be called modifiers.

?two dogs

Head

?(My brother) can drink (wine).

Head

?Swimming in the lake (is fun).

Head

?(The pepper was) hot beyond endurance.

Head

3) Subordinate clauses

?Clauses can be used as subordinate constituents. There are three basic types of subordinate clauses:

–complement clauses

–adjunct (or adverbial) clauses

–relative clauses

?John believes [that the airplane was invented by an Irishman].

(complement clause)

?Elizabeth opened her presents [before John finished his dinner].

(adverbial clause)

?The woman [that I love] is moving to the south.

(relative clause)

4.3. Syntactic Function

?The syntactic function shows the relationship between a linguistic form and other parts of the linguistic pattern in which it is used.

–Names of functions are expressed in terms of subjects, objects, predicators, modifiers, complements, etc.

4.3.1 Subject

?In some languages, subject refers to one of the nouns in the nominative case(主格). ?The typical example can be found in Latin, where subject is always in nominative case, such as pater and filius in the following examples.

–pater filium amat (the father loves the son)

–patrum filius amat (the son loves the father)

?In English, the subject of a sentence is often said to be the agent, or the doer of the action, while the object is the person or thing acted upon by the agent.

–This definition seems to work for these sentences:

–Mary slapped John.

■ A dog bit Bill.

?but is clearly wrong in the following examples:

–John was bitten by a dog.

–John underwent major heart surgery.

?In order to account for the case of subject in passive voice, we have two other terms “grammatical subject” (John) and “logical subject” (a dog).

?Another traditional definition of the subject is “what the sentence is about” (i.e., topic). ?Again, this seems to work for many sentences, such as

–Bill is a very crafty fellow.

?but fails in others, such as

–(Jack is pretty reliable, but) Bill I don’t trust.

–As for Bill, I wouldn’t take his promises very seriously.

?All three sentences seem to be “about” Bill; thus we could say that Bill is the topic of all three sentences.

?The above sentences make it clear that the topic is not always the grammatical subject.

What characteristics do subjects have?

A. Word order

?Subject ordinarily precedes the verb in the statement:

–Sally collects stamps.

–*Collects Sally stamps.

B. Pro-forms

?The first and third person pronouns in English appear in a special form when the pronoun is a subject, which is not used when the pronoun occurs in other positions:

–He loves me.

–I love him.

–We threw stones at them.

–They threw stones at us.

C. Agreement with the verb

?In the simple present tense, an -s is added to the verb when a third person subject is singular, but the number and person of the object or any other element in the sentence have no effect at all on the form of the verb:

–She angers him.

–They anger him.

–She angers them.

D. Content questions

?If the subject is replaced by a question word (who or what), the rest of the sentence remains unchanged, as in

–John stole the Queen’s picture from the British Council.

–Who stole the Queen’s picture from the British council?

–What would John steal, if he had the chance?

–What did John steal from the British Council?

–Where did John steal the Queen’s picture from?

E. Tag question

?A tag question is used to seek confirmation of a statement. It always contains a pronoun which refers back to the subject, and never to any other element in the sentence.

–John loves Mary, doesn’t he?

–Mary loves John, doesn’t she?

–*John loves Mary, doesn’t she?

4.3.2 Predicate

?Predicate refers to a major constituent of sentence structure in a binary analysis in which all obligatory constituents other than the subject were considered together.

?It usually expresses actions, processes, and states that refer to the subject.

–The boy is running. (process)

–Peter broke the glass. (action)

–Jane must be mad! (state)

?The word predicator is suggested for verb or verbs included in a predicate.

4.3.3 Object

?Object is also a term hard to define. Since, traditionally, subject can be defined as the doer of the action, object may refer to the “receiver” or “goal” of an action, and it is further classified into Direct Object and Indirect Object.

–Mother bought a doll.

–Mother gave my sister a doll.

IO DO

?In some inflecting languages, object is marked by case labels: the accusative case (受格) for direct object, and the dative case (与格)for indirect object.

–In English, “object” is recognized by tracing its relation to word order (after the verb and preposition) and by inflections (of pro-nouns).

–Mother gave a doll to my sister.

–John kicked me.

?Modern linguists suggest that object refers to such an item that it can become subject in a passive transformation.

–John broke the glass. → The glass was broken by John.

–Peter saw Jane. → Jane was seen by Peter.

?Although there are nominal phrases in the following, they are by no means objects because they cannot be transformed into passive voice.

–He died last week.

–The match lasted three hours.

–He changed trains at Manchester. (*Trains were changed by him at Manchester.)

4.4. Category

?The term category refers to the defining properties of these general units:

–Categories of the noun: number, gender, case and countability

–Categories of the verb: tense, aspect, voice

4.4.1 Number

?Number is a grammatical category used for the analysis of word classes displaying such contrasts as singular, dual, plural, etc.

–In English, number is mainly observed in nouns, and there are only two forms: singular and plural, such as dog: dogs.

–Number is also reflected in the inflections of pronouns and verbs, such as He laughs: They laugh, this man: these men.

?In other languages, for example, French, the manifestation of number can also be found in adjectives and articles.

–le cheval royal (the royal horse)

–les chevaux royaux (the royal horses)

4.4.2 Gender

?Such contrasts as “masculine : feminine : neuter”, “animate : inanimate”, etc. for the analysis of word classes.

–Though there is a correlation between natural gender and grammatical gender, the assignment may seem quite arbitrary in many cases.

–For instance, in Latin, ignis‘fire’ is masculine, while flamma ‘flame’ is feminine.

?English gender contrast can only be observed in pronouns and a small number of nouns, and, they are mainly of the natural gender type.

–he: she: it

–prince: princess

–author: authoress

?In French, gender is manifested also both in adjectives and articles.

–beau cadeau (fine gift)

–belle maison (fine house)

–Le cadeau est beau. (The gift is good.)

–La maison est belle. (The house is beautiful.)

?Sometimes gender changes the lexical meaning as well, for example, in French:

–le poele (the stove)

–la poele (the frying pan)

–le pendule (the pendulum)

–la pendule (the clock)

4.4.3 Case

?The case category is used in the analysis of word classes to identify the syntactic relationship between words in a sentence.

–In Latin grammar, cases are based on variations in the morphological forms of the word, and are given the terms “accusative”, “nominative”, “dative”, etc.

–There are five cases in ancient Greek and eight in Sanskrit. Finnish has as many as fifteen formally distinct cases in nouns, each with its own syntactic function.

?In English, case is a special form of the noun which frequently corresponds to a combination of preposition and noun, and it is realized in three channels:

–inflection

–following a preposition

–word order

?as manifested in

–teacher : teacher’s

–with : to a man

–John kicked Peter : Peter kicked John

4.4.4 Agreement

?Agreement (or concord) may be defined as the requirement that the forms of two or more words of specific word classes that stand in specific syntactic relationship with one another shall

also, be characterized by the same paradigmatically marked category (or categories). ?This syntactic relationship may be anaphoric (照应), as when a pronoun agrees with its antecedent,

–Whose is this pen? --Oh, it’s the one I lost.

?or it may involve a relation between a head and its dependent, as when a verb agrees with its subject and object:

–Each person may have one coin.

?Agreement of number between nouns and verbs:

–This man runs. The bird flies.

–These men run. These birds fly.

Sentence

Clause

Phrase

Word

?the three tallest girls (nominal phrase)

?has been doing

(verbal phrase)

?extremely difficult

(adjectival phrase)

?to the door (prepositional phrase)

?very fast

(adverbial phrase)

?The best thing would be to leave early.

?It’s great for a man to be free.

?Having finished their task, they came to help us.

?John being away, Bill had to do the work.

?Filled with shame, he left the house.

?All our savings gone, we started looking for jobs.

?It’s no use crying over spilt milk.

?Do you mind my opening the window?

Sentence: (traditional approach)

simple

Sentence complex

non-simple

compound

Sentence: (functional approach)

Yes/no

Interrogative

Indicative wh-

Declarative

Sentence

Jussive

Imperative

Optative

Basic sentence types: (Bolinger)

?Mother fell.

(Nominal + intransitive verbal)

?Mother is young.

(Nominal + copula + complement)

?Mother loves Dad.

(Nominal + transitive verbal + nominal).

?Mother fed Dad breakfast.

(Nominal + transitive verbal + nominal + nominal)

?There is time.

(There + existential + nominal)

Basic sentence types: (Quirk)

?SVC Mary is kind.

a nurse.

?SV A Mary is here.

in the house.

?SV The child is laughing.

?SVO Somebody caught the ball.

?SVOC We have proved him wrong.

a fool.

?SVOA I put the plate on the table.

?SVOO She gives me expensive presents.

4.6 Recursiveness

?Recursiveness mainly means that a phrasal constituent can be embedded within another constituent having the same category, but it has become an umbrella term such important linguistic phenomena as coordination and subordination, conjoining and embedding, hypotactic and paratactic.

–All these are means to extend sentences.

–How long can a sentence be?

?Theoretically, there is no limit to the embedding of one relative clause into another relative clause, so long as it does not become an obstacle to successful communication.

?The same holds true for nominal clauses and adverbial clauses.

–I met a man who had a son whose wife sold cookies that she had baked in her kitchen that was fully equipped with electrical appliances that were new …

?John’s sister

?John’s sister’s husband

?John’s sister’s husband’s uncle

?John’s sister’s husband’s uncle’s daughter, etc.

?that house in Beijing

?the garden of that house in Beijing

?the tree in the garden of that house in Beijing

?a bird on the tree in the garden of that house in Beijing

4.6.1 Conjoining 连接

?Conjoining: coordination.

?Conjunctions: and, but, and or.

–John bought a hat and his wife bought a handbag.

–Give me liberty or give me death.

4.6.2 Embedding嵌入

?Embedding: subordination.

?Main clauses and subordinate clauses.

?Three basic types of subordinate clauses:

–Relative clause: I saw the man who had visited you last year.

–Complement clause: I don’t know whether Professor Li needs this book.

–Adverbial clause: If you listened to me, you wouldn't make mistakes.

4.7. Beyond the sentence

(Text and discourse)

?The development of modern linguistic science has helped push the study of syntax beyond the traditional sentence boundary.

?Linguists are now exploring the syntactic relation between sentences in a paragraph or chapter or the whole text, which leads to the emergence of text linguistics and discourse analysis.

4.7.1 Sentential Connection

?Hypotactic 主次(subordinate clauses):

–You can phone the doctor if you like. However, I very much doubt whether he is in.

–We live near the sea. So we enjoy a healthy climate.

?Paratactic 并联(coordinate clauses):

–In Guangzhou it is hot and humid during the summer. In Beijing it is hot and dry.

–He dictated the letter. She wrote it.

–The door was open. He walked in.

4.7.2 Cohesion衔接

?Cohesion is a concept to do with discourse or text rather than with syntax. It refers to relations of meaning that exist within the text, and defines it as a text.

?Discoursal / textual Cohesiveness can be realized by employing various cohesive devices:

–Conjunction 连接

–Ellipsis 省略

–lexical collocation 词汇搭配

–lexical repetition 词汇重复

–Reference 指称

–Substitution 替代, etc.

?“Did she get there at six?”

“No, (she got there) earlier (than six).”

(Ellipsis)

?“Shall we invite Bill?”

“No. 1 can’t stand the man.”

(Lexical collocation)

?He couldn’t open the door. It was locked tight.

(Reference)

?“Why don’t you use your own recorder?”

“I don't have one.”

(Substitution)

?I wanted to help him. Unfortunately it was too late.

(Logical connection)

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八 Det N the argume nt aga inst the proposals

语言学第四单元课后答案 synta 树状图 the s rule

syntax 1. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences. a) The old lady suddenly left. Det A N Qual V b) The car stopped at the end of the road. Det N V P Det N P Det N c) The snow might have blocked the road. Det N Aux Aux V Det N d) He never appears quite mature. N Qual V Deg A 2. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each. a) full of people AP A P N full of people b) a story about a sentimental girl NP NP PP Det A N a story about a sentimental girl c) often read detective stories VP Qual V NP

A N often read detective stories d) the argument against the proposals NP NP PP Det N the argument against the proposals e) move towards the window VP V PP P Det N move towards the window 3. Draw phrase structure trees for each of the following sentences. a) The jet landed. InflP(=S) NP Infl VP Det N Pst V The jet landed b) Mary became very ill. InflP(=S) NP Infl VP N Pst V AP

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耍是名词的范畴,包括两种形式:单数和复数。数述体现在代词和动词的屈折变化上。 (2)性指的是依照性别把名词分成不同类别的语法范畴。性主要也是名词和代词的范畴。在英语中,性的差别是自然的,由动物木身的生理性别决定。然而准确地讲,性在这里指的是语法性,语法性主要有阴性、阳性和屮性三种。 (3)格主要是名词的屈折范畴,它典型地标识着它们和句子其他部分之间的关系。在英语屮,代词一般有三种格。即:主格、宾格和属格;名词只有两种格: 普通格和屈格。 2.时态与体 时态与体是动词的两个重要范畴,传统语法没有对它们加以区分。时态与体之间的区别在于:时态是指示性的,也就是说指明的时间与说话的时间相关;休则不是指示性的,指明的时间与说话的时间没有关系,却与叙述屮描写或暗示的另一个事件的时间和关。 3.一致关系与支配关系 一致关系是指在一个给定的语言结构中,词和短语之间利用至少它们中的一个所携带的屈折形式互相匹配的句法关系。 支配关系是指句法结构中某些词的形式受另一种其他类型词的控制。它与一致关系有所不同,就某个范畴而言,它是指某类词决定其他词形式的关系。 III.结构主义学派 结构主义学派的创始人索绪尔认为语言单位在结构(或系统)之中是互相关联的,不是孤立的单位。 1.组合关系和聚合关系 (1)组合关系是指一个词项和同一序列屮的其他词项之间的关系或者说是共现的所冇成分之间的关系。这些处于组合关系中的词,必须满足一些句法和语义

教你如何画语言学树型图

树形图详细讲解 1、 Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences、 a) The old lady suddenly left、 Det A N Qual V b) The car stopped at the end of the road、 Det N V P Det N P Det N c) The snow might have blocked the road、 Det N Aux Aux V Det N d) He never appears quite mature、 N Qual V Deg A 2、 The following phrases include a head, a plement, and a specifier、 Draw the appropriate tree structure for each、 a) full of people AP A P N full of people b) a story about a sentimental girl NP NP PP Det N P NP Det A N a story about a sentimental girl c) often read detective stories VP Qual V NP A N often read detective stories d) the argument against the proposals NP NP PP Det N P NP Det N the argument against the proposals e) move towards the window VP

语言学课后习题树形图

8.(c)the argument against the proposals PP NP P NP Det N Det N against the (d)already above the windows PP AdvP P NP Adv Det N already above the window

NP Infl VP Det AP N pst V PP A P NP Det AP N A huge moon hung in the black sky (C) The man examined his car carefully yeseterday S NP Infl VP Det N pst V NP AdvP Det N AdvP Adv Adv A man examined his car carefully yesterday 10.(b)Helen put on her clothes and went out S

N pst V PP Con V PP P NP P Det N Helen put on her clothes and went out c)Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics. S NP Infl VP N Pre V AP Con AP A PP A PP P NP P NP N Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics 11.(b) Gerry belives the fact that Anna fluncked the English exam. S NP Infl VP

英语语言学教程_考试精华

Chapter 1 1、What is language?语言 Language is a means of verbal communication.It is instrumental in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act. It is social and conventional in that language is a social semiotic and communication can only take place effectively if all the users share a broad understanding of human interaction including such associated factors as nonverbal cues, motivation, and socio-cultural roles. 2、Design features of language语言结构特征 The features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication. such as arbitrariness, duality, creativity (the most important feature of language), displacement(It means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts, which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.) 3、Function of language语言的功能 The use of language to communicate, to think ,etc. Language functions include informative function信息(the major role of language), interpersonal人际function(people establish their relationship with the help of language), performative行事function(by Austin and Searle in pragmatics), emotive表情function, phatic寒暄communion(some routine expressions), recreational娱乐function(taking pleasure from language)and metalingual元语言function(Language can be used to talk about itself). 4、Definition of linguistics语言学 The scientific study of human language. It studies not just one language of any one community, but the language of all human beings. 5、main branches of linguistics Phonetics语音学:studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, that is how speech sounds are actually made, transmitted and received, the description and classification of speech sounds, words and connected speech。 Phonology音系学:studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. It deals with the sound system of a language by treating phoneme as the point of departure. Morphology形态学:is concerned with the internal organization of words. It studies the minimal units of meaning —morphemes and word-formation processes. Syntax句法:is about principles of forming and understanding correct sentences. Semantics语义学:examines how meaning is encoded in a language. Pragmatics语用学:is the study of meaning in context. 6、phoneme:音素音位is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference in meaning. 7、important distinctions in linguistics语言学中的重要区分 1)descriptive vs. prescriptive描写vs规定:The first is a prescriptive command, while the second is a descriptive statement. The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are. 2)synchronic vs. Diachronic共时和历时:A synchronic description takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present) as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind. Diachronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history.

语言学教程[第十一章语言学与语言教学]山东大学期末考试知识点复习

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主要有两个变量影响语言成分在“关注语言形式”中的顺从性,即普遍语法(UG)的相关度和语言结构的复杂度。“关注语言形式”的支持者们认为,如果二语中的某个结构是普遍语法的一部分,它的顺从性就高;否则,顺从性则低。在“关注语言形式”的教学中,我们会根据语言结构顺从性的高与低来采取不同的措施。 2.输入和语言学习 当学习者接受了足够的目的语输入时,语言学习自然而然就会发生。输入可以是口头语言,也可以是书面语言。口头语言输入可能发生在交互活动中 (即如学习者与母语者、教师或者是其他学习者的对话),或者出现一个没有交互的语境中 (例如听音乐或者看电影)。 (1)真实性输入 那些更强调意义的语言教学者主张提供真实性输入。即输入要与现实生活紧密相连,这种输入通常忽略语法。 (2)可理解的输入 可拉申的语言输入假说认为,学习者掌握语言是理解了输入的结果。他提出了“i+1”的概念:学习者所接触到的语言应该和学习者的水平保持一定的距离,大部分的内容可以理解但仍然有一些对他们来说是具有挑战性的。输人对学习者来说,既不应该太难也不应该太容易。 虽然输入在语言学习中的作用是不言而喻的,但输入理论及其应用仍然有很多问题值得研究。问题之一就是我们对不同的输入类型还缺少语言学的分析。不同类型的语言输入很有可能对语言学习产生不同效果,但是我们并不知道不同的输入在语言上究竟有哪些区别。 3.中介语和语言学习 正处于学习过程的二语或外语学习者构建的语言通常被称为中介语。中介语通常被理解为介于目的语和学习者母语之间的语言。与目的语相比,中介语还不

三年级数学春第三讲字典排列法和树形图法

第三讲字典排列法和树形图法

先分类:1、2、3 再有序:1 2 3 所以,一共有6个没有重复的三位数:123,132,213,231,312,321。 记住:不重复,不回头。 先分类:不重复,三个数字相同,两个数字相同,分前面两个相同,后面两个相同,一前一后相同。 再有序:不重复:如(1)一共有6个没有重复的三位数:123,132,213,231,312,321。 三个重复:111,222,333一共有3个。 两个重复:前面:112,113 后面:211,311 一前一后:121,131 221,223 122,322 212,232 331,332 133,233 313,323 一共6×3=18个。 三种一起:6+3+18=27(个) 2 3 3 2 1 3 3 1 1 2 2 1

1分、2分、4分、8分各一枚 先分类,可以分取1枚,2枚,3枚,4枚4种取法。 再有序: 1枚:1分,2分,4分,8分共4种 2枚:1分-2分,1+2=32分-4分,2+4=64分-8分,4+8=128分-无,不可取了1分-4分,1+4=52分-8分,2+8=10 1分-8分,1+8=9 所以:3+2+1=6种 记住:不回头,不重复。 3枚:1分-2分-4分1+2+4=7 1分-2分-8分1+2+8=11 1分-4分-8分1+4+8=13 2分-4分-8分2+4+8=14 所以:3+1=4种 4枚:1分-2分-4分-8分1+2+4+8=15 只有1种 所以:一共有4+6+4+1=15种不同的钱数。

分析:可以将7拆成三个整数,每个数分别对应三个人每人分得书的数量,找出所有的情况。 每个数最小是1,最大是7-1-1=5,而且可以相同,而且人的顺序也可以变化。故可以列举如下: 1-1-5,1-2-4,1-3-3,1-4-2,1-5-1 5种 2-1-4,2-2-3,2-3-2,2-4-1 4种 3-1-3,3-2-2,3-3-1 3种 4-1-2,4-2-1 2种 5-1-1 1种 所以,5+4+3+2+1=15种。有15种不同的情况。

胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记第四章

Chapter 4 Syntax 1. Immediate Constituent Analysis (直接成分分析法) Definition It may be defined as: the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents---word groups (or phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached. However, for the sake of convenience, in practice we usually stop at the level of word. The immediate constituent analysis of a sentence may be carried out with brackets or with a tree diagram. 直接成分分析法先把句子分析为直接成分---词组(或短语),再把这些直接成分依次切分,得到各自的直接成分,层层切分,直到最终成分为止。实际操作中,为了方便,通常切到词为止。直接成分分析法可以用括弧或树形图表示。 Advantages: Through IC analysis, the internal structure of a sentence may be demonstrated clearly, ambiguities, if any, will be revealed. 通过IC分析法,句子的内在结构可以清晰地展示出来,如果有歧义,也会被揭示出来。 Problems ①At the beginning, some advocators insisted on binary divisions. Any construction, at any level, will be cut into two parts. But this is not always possible. 开始的时候,一些提倡者坚持二元切分。任何结构体在任何层面都分为两个部分。但实际上并不总是如此。 ②Constructions with discontinuous constituents will pose technical problems for tree diagrams in IC analysis. The most serious problem is that there are structural ambiguities which cannot be

英语语言学教程课后

What is linguistics? Linguistics is the scientific study of language. ----A person who studies linguistics is known as a linguist. Prescriptive &Descriptive规定性&描写性(定义、区别) Prescriptive ---- If a linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct” linguistic behavior in using language (traditional grammar) Descriptive ---- If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use (modern linguistic) Synchronic & Diachronic 共时性对历时性(定义) Synchronic study---- description of a language at some point of time in history (modern linguistics) Diachronic study---- description of a language as it changes through time (historical development of language over a period of time) Langue &Parole (F. de Saussure) 语言对话语 Langue ---- the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community. Parole ---- the realization of langue in actual use. Saussure takes a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions. Competence &Performance (Chomsky) 语言能力对语言运用(定义) Competence ---- the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of this language Performance ---- the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual. Traditional grammar & Modern linguistics 传统语法对现代语言学(区别) Traditional grammar ---- prescriptive, written, Latin-based framework Modern linguistics ----- descriptive, spoken, not necessarily Latin-based framework The design features of human language (Charles Hockett) Arbitrariness(任意性)声音和事物之间的关联 Productivity/Creativity(能产性) Duality(双层性) Displacement(移位性) Cultural transmission(文化传承) Phonetics语音学(定义和分类) Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language, it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s language. Three branches of phonetics(发音语音学,听觉语音学,声学语音学) Articulatory phonetics----from the speakers’ point of view, “how speakers produce speech sounds” Auditory phonetics----from the hearers’ point of view, “how sounds are perceived” Acoustic phonetics----from the physical way or means by which sounds are transmitted from one to another. Classification of vowels(元音) Monophthongs or pure/single vowels(单元音) Diphthongs or gliding vowels (双元音) According to which part of the tongue is held highest in the process of production, the vowels can be distinguished as: 。 Phone(音素), phoneme(音位), and allophone(音位变体)(区分判断) A phone---- a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones.Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning, some do, and some don’t。 A phoneme---- is a phonological unit; it is a unit of distinctive value; an abstract unit, not a particular sound, but it is represented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context Allophones ---- the phones that can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments. Phonemic contrast(音位对立), Complementary distribution(互补分布)and Minimal pair(最小对

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