SPE 168243 和英语翻译配套

SPE 168243

Electric Line Tractor-Based Conveyance in High Temperature Wells: A Collection of Local Case Stories

Matt Peoples, Tim Hammill, Olivier Alferez and Gary Murrill, Welltec?

Copyright 2014, Society of Petroleum Engineers

This paper was prepared for presentation at the SPE/ICoTA Coiled Tubing & Well Intervention Conference & Exhibition held in The Woodlands, Texas, USA, 25-26 March 2014.

This paper was selected for presentation by an SPE program committee following review of information contained in an abstract submitted by the author(s). Contents of the paper have not been reviewed by the Society of Petroleum Engineers and are subject to correction by the author(s). The material does not necessarily reflect any position of the Society of Petroleum Engineers, its officers, or members. Electronic reproduction, distribution, or storage of any part of this paper without the written consent of the Society of Petroleum Engineers is prohibited. Permission to reproduce in print is restricted to an abstract of not more than 300 words; illustrations may not be copied. The abstract must contain conspicuous acknowledgment of SPE copyright. Abstract

Texas and Louisiana are not typically thought of as extreme environments, but the Haynesville and the Eagle Ford do have some hot and deep areas that are being developed. High temperature environments require specialized, robust intervention tools designed to withstand longer periods of extreme heat.

The industry’s definition for ‘high temperature’ ranges from 300°F to 400°F. Working in this environment requires careful preparation, as well as proven, reliable service providers and equipment. Established electric line tractor-based technologies running on AC power, as well as DC equipment have proven their application in these harsh and unforgiving environments. They offer additional benefits like reduced personnel and less heavy lifting, making these technologies inherently safer.

This paper will share the learnings from a number of local operations in which this electric line technology has been deployed, including advances with DC electronics and some examples of AC electronics cases ranging from conveyance of logging tools to plug and perforating for fracture stimulations.

In addition, this paper will examine the differences between AC and DC electric line equipment, their application in high-temperature environments, as well as discuss current trends within electronics for electric line equipment and future outlook for high-temperature equipment.

Unique HP/HT Challenges in Texas and Louisiana

Two of the most potentially productive regions in the United States today are the Haynesville and Eagle Ford shale. To reach these lucrative plays, tools must often be conveyed through extreme environments. Recently, tractors conveyed on electric line (e-line) have proven capable of handling these well conditions.

The Eagle Ford is thought to contain a total recoverable resource of roughly 3 billion barrels of liquid, both oil and natural gas, with proved reserves estimated at 1.3 billion barrels, making it one of the biggest potential producing regions in the country (Gerbrekidan 2011; US Energy Information Administration 2013). Making the region more lucrative, the formation itself can be accessed at less than 4,000 ft. (Schaefer). The rather shallow geology promotes the often false misconception that wells in the Eagle Ford and Eaglebine—the newer northeast extension of the Eagle Ford that shares similar geological features—are rarely extreme. Though the play is initially found at a shallow depth, wells are often drilled down to 12,000 ft. true vertical depth (TVD) in the Eagle Ford (Shaefer; Railroad Commission of Texas 2013). More extreme well temperatures naturally occur at these greater depths.

The Haynesville region has recently emerged as one of the most productive natural gas plays in the United States with proved reserves at 29.5 trillion cubic ft. (US Energy Information Administration 2013). Unlike the Eagle Ford, Haynesville is known to be unconventional. Kaiser and Yu (2011) call the Haynesville shale the “deepest, hottest, and highest pressured shale among the big four plays (the others being Barnett, Fayetteville and Marcellus) in the

2 SPE

168243

U.S.”. The Haynesville lies at a depth greater than 10,000 ft. below the surface (Railroad Commission of Texas

2013). Wells are typically drilled between 11,000 ft. and 12,500 ft., but 20 percent of Haynesville wells have been

drilled between 12,500 ft. and 14,000 ft. TVD (Kaiser and Yu 2011). This greater depth, along with the play’s low

permeability and high porosity, routinely results in significant high-pressure/high-temperature (HP/HT) wells

(Colwell et. al. 2011). Pressures in the Haynesvilles are abnormally high, ranging from 0.72 psi/ft. to 0.90 psi/ft.—

many providers routinely encounter pressures greater than 12,000 psi—as are the temperatures, which are

greater than 300°F (Kaiser and Yu 2011).

Industry definitions for ‘high temperature’ have not been officially established, but it is widely accepted that any

bottom hole temperature (BHT) greater than 300°F is a harsh, hot well environment. Regarding pressure, the UK

defines a high pressure well as having a pore pressure greater than 0.8 psi/ft. and requiring a blowout preventer

rated for pressures in excess of 10,000 psi. At these temperatures and pressures, tools’ electronics systems can

fail quickly, and careful planning and preparation must be taken to accommodate their constraints. In the past,

heavy operations such as coiled tubing (CT) were required when working in such environments. Those solutions,

though, are expensive, time consuming, and present greater risk to humans and environment. More recently,

tractors conveyed on e-line, running on both alternating current (AC) and direct current (DC) power, have proven

capable in these extreme conditions.

The purpose of this paper is to provide several case stories that show the efficacy of e-line tractor-based

technologies running on both AC and DC power in extreme conditions in the Haynesville and Eagle Ford regions.

Tractors are presented as high temperature alternatives to costlier heavy operations like CT. Prior to discussing

the case stories, the differences between AC and DC e-line equipment and applications are discussed. After

reviewing the case stories, current trends within electronics for e-line equipment options are examined, and the

future of high-temperature equipment is considered.

Differences Between AC/DC Electric Line Equipment

Regarding e-line tractors, AC or DC refers to the power applied at surface through the e-line cable to energize the

tool(s) downhole. DC powered tools offer several advantages to AC powered tools and are preferred in most

applications.

DC powered tools can accommodate much higher e-line cable resistance than AC powered tools and have a

lower initial start-up amperage downhole. The traditional AC powered tractor start-up procedure requires a field

technician to manually apply voltage at the surface using a large transformer. Once the tool is started and

running, surface power is regulated by the field technician and increased or decreased as needed to keep the

motor running as efficiently as possible.

Figure 1: Tractor Start Up Times

AC Powered Tractors

In general, AC powered tools are preferred for higher BHT applications. AC powered tools are more robust and have a higher BHT rating due to components, capacitors in particular, used in the tool’s electronics cartridge or “tool brain”. AC electronics cartridges are less complicated by nature and have fewer possible failure points than equivalent DC versions, allowing them to operate at higher temperatures. Specifically, AC powered equipment runs on one frequency with a single capacitor, which lowers the risk of failure due to fewer advanced and sensitive components. Similar components within DC powered equipment, especially sensors within the diagnostic tools, tend to fail under high pressure. DC electronics also require a microprocessor to control the

equipment. These microprocessors have problems at high temperatures.

Figure 2: AC Power Box

DC Powered Tractors

DC powered equipment provides more adaptability than AC tools. Unlike AC powered tools, DC tools allow the technician to control the frequency on which the tools run. This ability allows technicians to drive tools faster on DC electronics, making them more adaptive to the stresses of the well environment.

Relatively recent advancements in DC electronics components have allowed for increasingly higher BHT jobs to be performed without the need for AC powered tools. DC powered tractors have an automated start-up using a laptop computer and software designed to factor in values entered for cable resistance, length, tool configuration, etc. and eliminate the risk of human error. The software and surface equipment continuously adjust the tool’s power supply based on the load placed on the tractor motor. DC powered tractors also allow for better control of the tool’s electric motor by making on the fly adjustments to the tractor tool speed and power possible. DC tractors can offer better surface read-out (real-time tool data) and complimentary tool pairing (running multiple tools simultaneously) capabilities than AC powered tools.

DC powered tractor tools are expected to eventually catch and surpass AC powered tools in respect to maximum temperature rating with the development of high temperature rated components, eventually reaching 392°F. As that transition happens, though, AC powered tools will be maintained by many service providers for use in extreme BHT situations.

Figures 3a & 3b: DC Power Box

Local Case Stories

The following case stories from the Haynesville and Eagle Ford regions detail, first, AC powered tractors that were used in uniquely harsh well environments. Both operations that ran AC powered tractors were used in perforation jobs. Case Story 2 was doubly unique, though, with both a high BHT and a high bottom hole pressure. Following the case stories about AC powered tractors, two more case stories that describe high temperature operations in which DC powered tractors were successfully used, also in the Haynesville and Eagle Ford regions, are reviewed. These successful operations show the efficacy and reliability of tractors run on e-line in high temperature well environments and provide proven alternatives to heavier, more laborious and expensive operations like CT.

Case Stories 1 and 2: AC Powered Operations

AC powered tractors are still used by service providers when conditions necessitate more endurable electronic equipment as the following two case stories show.

SPE 168243 5 High-Temperature Perforating in East Texas

This first case story is an example of the use of AC power for e-line tools in a high temperature well. An operator in East Texas was preparing the toe stage of an extended lateral, cased hole, high temperature well for fracture stimulation. This well was located in Haynesville shale on the border between Texas and Louisiana, an area in which the shale formation lies deep and the wells, thus, are very hot.

The toolstring was run in hole to the hang up depth at 14,766 ft. where a three-wheel section tractor was activated. It worked through obstructions to deliver the payload successfully, conveying the perforation gun string over 7,300 ft. into the lateral to an ultimate measured depth (MD) of 22,082 ft. After this depth was reached, the four guns were activated in sequence with no misfires. The BHT was recorded with a temperature strip in the tractor, which showed approximately 385°F.

Figure 4: Tension and Depth of Tractor in Case Story 1

6 SPE 168243

Figure 5: Measured Depth of Tractor in Case Story 1

The tractor and perforation gun string were exposed to the high temperature for five hours and 45 minutes. The tools handled the temperature without experiencing problems. Following the success of this job, the operator dispatched the same unit across the border to a drilling rig in Louisiana, where two more successful perforation runs for a casing recovery operation were made. These operations ultimately saved the operator considerable rig time and related costs by using tractors conveyed by e-line in these high-temperature wells.

HP/HT Perforating with AC Tractor

As mentioned earlier, AC powered tractors are still more dependable in many extreme environments. September 2012, in the Eaglebine section of the Eagle Ford region, an operator conducting a perforation job during a multi-stage fracture stimulation encountered a BHT of 380°F and bottom hole pressure of 20,295 psi at a MD of 20,875 ft. In the middle of a fracking stage, there were not enough perforations to fracture, and the operator continued pumping down the toolstring in an attempt to fire another round of perforations. The HP/HT environment in the well pressured up even more when the operator attempted to pump down the toolstring. The elevated pressure in the well prevented the toolstring from reaching the desired depth.

An emergency call-out job was ordered for the HP/HT well. An AC tractor run on e-line was used. The tractor travelled a distance of nearly 4,500 ft. through the harsh well environment, conveying the perforation guns in place of the failed pump down stage. The successful operation allowed the operator to resume the stimulation schedule without rigging down and bringing in heavier equipment like CT or a snubbing unit.

Case Stories 3 and 4: DC Powered Operations

While AC powered tractors are still necessary for extreme cases like the previous stories, DC tractors are becoming increasingly capable of handling high temperature well environments as the following two case stories show.

High Temperature Logging with DC Tractor

In January 2013, an operator needed to perform a casing inspection log for scale build-up across the perforations of a high temperature, cased hole, horizontal well in the Haynesville shale. The operator decided to deploy a tractor conveyance solution that had recently been used in similar and higher temperatures than this case of 335°F.

For this job, a tractor with new, high-temperature DC electronics was proposed. Prior to the job, it was successfully tested at surface in combination with the e-line provider’s equipment and cable. A temperature strip

SPE 168243 7 was inserted into the electronics’ housing to record the maximum temperature reached in the well. The toolstring was run in hole with the tractor and logging tool to the kick-off point at about 11,581 ft. At this point, the operator began pumping well fluid at approximately one bpm to help keep the temperature within limits. The tractor was engaged. It conveyed the toolstring approximately 1,000 ft. farther before activating the ultrasonic tool for the caliper and bond information required around the perforations.

The operator was able to meet his objective and acquire data across the perforations to gain a better understanding of the downhole conditions and the scale build-up levels. The tractor and DC electronics handled the high temperatures (the temperature strip recorded 335°F) with no complications, demonstrating applicability in extreme environments.

High Temperature Perforating with DC Tractor

Another example of the growing versatility of DC tractors in harsh well environments occurred in October 2013 in the Eagle Ford shale in South Texas. An operator needed to convey perforation guns into a high-temperature well for a toe perforation.

A tractor with new, high temperature DC electronics was used. As in the previous case story, a temperature strip was inserted into the electronics’ housing to record the maximum temperature experienced by the tractor while in well. The tractor conveyed the perforation guns for over 4,500 ft. to a measured depth of 17,250 ft., allowing the operator to successfully prepare the first stage of a multi-stage plug and perforation for fracture stimulation. The temperature strip recorded a BHT of 335°F.

The operator saved considerable time and money while also lessening risk to personnel and environment by employing tractor conveyance run on e-line instead of costlier CT.

Current Trends and Future Outlook

As the activity in these higher temperature regions, like the Eagle Ford and Haynesville shales, continues to grow, so too will the need for high temperature capable e-line equipment. With the cost-effectiveness of e-line over heavier operations like CT, it is imperative that tractor technology, particularly electronic components, continue to improve performance in extreme environments. Furthermore, the industry trend is to continue transitioning to wholly DC powered fleets due to their ease of use, so DC powered components must especially continue advancing.

Currently, high temperature tractor services are primarily limited to basic conveyance. Some of the logging tools that these tractors convey now boast temperature ratings up to 500°F, which further necessitate the technology’s continued improvement in high temperatures. Other services are expected to become available soon, though. Milling services in HP/HT environments are now possible by some tractor models. Cleaning services are also not far behind; testing is underway to see if cleaning tools can operate at lower RPMs. It is important that tractors be able to expand and improve these complimentary services and others such as stroking (mechanical manipulation) offered in HP/HT wells.

To address some of the challenges presented to electronics in HP/HT environments, certain improvements are already being implemented or developed. Temperature-specific hydraulic oils designed to maintain required viscosity are used when a high-temperature well environment is expected. Specialty seals and O-rings that are less susceptible to deformation and failure due to heat are now installed in tractors to prevent fluid invasion and loss of hydraulic pressure downhole. Electronics components being developed with high temperature ceramic and silicon-on-insulator are making it possible to build complete electronics with all components qualified to operate at 392°F. As mentioned above, some logging tools are rated to work in 500°F, and it is thought that these higher rated electronic components will soon make it possible to close the gap between logging equipment and the tractors that convey them downhole.

On the near horizon, active cooling systems can provide extended period protection to the sensitive diagnostic tools contained within DC powered tools. Moreover, integrated temperature and pressure sensors within the tractor tools are being developed to provide real-time data to onsite engineers. This data will provide a more detailed picture of the conditions that the tools are experiencing downhole, allowing immediate action to be taken if needed to protect the toolstring.

8 SPE 168243 Conclusions

E-line interventions have been proven to provide great versatility in a remarkably wide range of environments. From high latitudes, in sub-zero conditions (Sidle et. al. 2013) to the uniquely HP/HT wells in East and South Texas presented in this paper, tractors conveyed via e-line have provided operators a cheaper, lighter and safer method to perform many varying downhole needs as opposed to CT or heavy rig alternatives.

These case stories have shown some of the ways in which e-line conveyed tractors running on AC and DC power have recently been used in some of the deeper, hotter wells in both the Haynesville and Eagle Ford regions. DC powered tractors have come a long way in recent years and will soon be able to perform all conveyance services as service providers continue phasing out AC powered tools. While tractors are currently limited to basic conveyance in temperatures up to approximately 400°F, innovations are being sought and tested to improve their performance in high-temperature wells and expand the range of services they offer.

E-line tractor technology is well suited to the HP/HT local regions like the Haynesville and especially the Eagle Ford where production continues to grow. Tractors offer a growing value proposition to operators because of their speed, cost-effectiveness and, as these case stories show, durability and reliability in harsh well environments. Acknowledgements

The authors wish to thank the Welltec management for permission to publish this paper. We also thank Marie Ravnholt Sannes and Brandon C. Strubberg for their assistance in preparing this paper.

References

Colwell, C., Crenshaw, C., and Bland, B. 2011. Haynesville Drilling Challenges Addressed Through MPD. World Oil. October 2011: 47-54. https://www.wendangku.net/doc/8918333228.html,/October-2011-Haynesville-drilling-challenges-addressed-through-MPD.html

Gebrekidan, S. 2011. Analysis: 100 Years After Boom, Shale Makes Texas Oil Hot Again. Published by Reuters, https://www.wendangku.net/doc/8918333228.html,/article/2011/05/03/us-pipeline-eagle-ford-idUSTRE7426A220110503 (downloaded 18 November 2013).

Kaiser, M. J. and Yu, Yunke. 2011. Haynesville Shale Well Performance. Natural Resources Research 20 (4): 217-229. DOI: 10.1007/s11053-011-9147-z

Railroad Commission of Texas. 2013. Eagle Ford Information, https://www.wendangku.net/doc/8918333228.html,/eagleford/ (accessed 21 November 2013).

Railroad Commission of Texas. 2013. Haynesville/Bossier Shale Information,

https://www.wendangku.net/doc/8918333228.html,/bossierplay/ (accessed 21 November 2013).

Schaefer, K. The New Texas Oil Boom: The Eagle Ford and Eaglebine. Published by Oil and Gas Investments Bulletin, https://www.wendangku.net/doc/8918333228.html,/report/download/EagleFord.pdf (downloaded 18 November 2013). Sidle, B., Crist, R., Kirsanov, K. et. al. 2013. Case Studies: E-line ‘Heavy’ Workovers in high Latitude Environments. Paper SPE 166922 presented at SPE Arctic and Extreme Environments Conference & Exhibition, Moscow, Russia, 15-17 October.

United States Energy Information Administration. 2013. US Crude Oil and Natural Gas Proved Reserves,

https://www.wendangku.net/doc/8918333228.html,/naturalgas/crudeoilreserves/ (accessed 20 November 2013).

Nomenclature

current

AC =

alternating

BHT = bottom hole temperature

bpm = barrels per minute

CT = coiled tubing

SPE 168243 9 current

direct

DC =

e-line = electric line

feet

ft. =

HP/HT = high-pressure/high-temperature

depth

measured

MD =

psi = pressure per square inch

psi/ft. = pressure per square inch per foot

TVD = true vertical depth

4英语翻译技巧-直、音、意译

英语翻译方法：直译与意译 这里所讲翻译方法是指通过英、汉两种语言特点对比，分析其异同，阐述表达原文的一般规律。英、汉语结构有相同一面，汉译时可照译，即所谓“直译”——既忠实原文内容，又符合原文结构形式,能传达原文意义，体现原文风格等。但这两种语言之间还有许多差别，如完全照译，势必出现“英化汉语”，这时就需要“意译”，在忠实原文内容前提下，摆脱原文结构束缚，使译文符合汉语规范。特别要注意是：“直译”不等于“死译”，“意译”也不等于“乱译”。试比较： 1、直译与死译 原文结构与汉语结构是一致，照译即可。但如果原文结构与汉语不一致，仍然采取直译方法，就成“死译”了。如： ①、In some automated plants electronic computers control the entire production line. 在某些自动化工厂，电子计算机控制整个生产线。（直译） ②、The earth acts like a big magnet．地球作用着像一块大磁铁。（死译） ③、Manganese has the same effect on the strength of steel as silicon. 锰有同样影响在强度上像硅。（死译） 例②、例③既不忠实原意，又不符合汉语表达方式。因此，必须运用“词类转换”广成分转换”、“词（语）序调整”等手段使译文通顺。例②、例③应分别译为：“地球作用像一块大磁铁。”…“锰像硅一样会影响钢强度。” 2、意译和乱译 只有在正确理解原文基础上，运用相应翻译方法以调整原文结构，用规范汉语加以表达，这才真正做到“意译”。翻译实践证明，大量英语句子汉译都要采取“意译法”。 如果把“意译”理解为凭主观臆想来理解原文，可以不分析原文结构，只看词面意义，自己编造句子，势必造成“乱译”。如： It is easy to compress a gas，it is just a matter of reducing the space between the molecules. Like a liquid a gas has no shape，but unlike a liquid it will expand and fill any container it is put in.气体是很容易压缩，这正是压缩分子之间距离根据。气体和液体一样没有形状，但又不同于液体，气体膨胀时会充满任何盛放它容器。（乱译） 例句中“乱译”是由主观臆想（不正确选择词义、任意转换成分）造成。在这里，将matter译成“根据”在物理学上是讲不通，因为“压缩气体也就是减少分子之间距离”，两者是一回事。matter应作“事情”、“问题”解。 将will expand任意转换为时间状语，致使不符合原义。will expand and fill应译为“会扩张并充满”。综上所述，原译文可改为“气体很容易压缩，那只不过是缩小分子之间距离而已。气体和液体一样没有形状，但又不同于液体，因为气体会扩张并充满任何盛放它容器。” 就翻译方法而论，总来说，就是“直译法和意译法相结合”，又可细分为“照译”、“词义引伸”、“成分转换”、“句转成分”等译法。 英语翻译训练方法-直译 直译是一种重要的翻译方法，它有不少优点，例如能传达原文意义，体现原文风格等。据估算，大约70%的句子要用直译方法来处理，所以直译广为译者采用，由此可见直译法之重要。但是，直译具有一定的局限性。例如译文有时冗长罗唆，晦涩难懂，有时不能正确传达原文意义，有时甚至事与愿违。所以，如果不顾场合条件，不顾中外两种语言的差异，一味追求直译，就必然闯红灯，进入误区，造成误译。直译之所以有误区，是因为语言的形式与内容，句子的表层结构与深层意义有时不统一；另一方面，中外文化历史背景不同，造成了不同的思维方式和不同的语言表达形式。不少人批评过直译硬译，指出过直译有局限性，但是直译到底有哪些局限性，它都表现在什么地方。英语直译至少有五大误区，明确这些误区，就要在翻译中避免一些错误，就可在直译行不通的地方采用意译。 一、否定句型中的直译误区

(英语)英语翻译专项习题及答案解析含解析

（英语）英语翻译专项习题及答案解析含解析 一、高中英语翻译 1．高中英语翻译题：Translate the following sentences into English, using the words given in the brackets. 1．美食是人们造访上海的乐趣之一。（visit） 2．街头艺术家运用创意将鲜艳明亮的色彩带进了老社区。（bring） 3．在你生命中，如果有一个人你需要对他说对不起，那么就去向他道歉吧。（apology）4．这个游戏的独特之处在于它让孩子学会如何应对现实生活中的问题。（what） 5．申请材料需要精心准备，这样你心仪的学校才会对你的能力有全面、准确地了解。（in order that） 【答案】 1．Delicious food is one of the pleasures when people visit Shanghai. 2．Street artists bring bright and vivid colors into older neighborhoods with originality 3．If there is someone to whom you need say sorry in your life, make an apology to him. 4．What makes this game peculiar lies in that it teaches kids how to handle the problems in real life. 5．The applications should be carefully prepared in order that the school you like can have an overall and accurate knowledge of your abilities. 【解析】 【分析】 1．本句重点考察两个知识点。一个是乐趣之一，说明此处的乐趣应该用复数，必须是可数名词，因此选择pleasure。另一个是题目中给出的visit，需要谨慎处理，是用做动词还是名词。此处我们给出一个时间状语从句when people visit Shanghai，同时还可使用其他从句进行处理。所以答案是Delicious food is one of the pleasures when people visit Shanghai. 2．本题难度不大，重点是明亮的色彩的表达，可以使用bright colors, 也可以使用bright and vivid colors. 所以答案是Street artists bring bright and vivid colors into older neighborhoods with originality 3．本题考查there be + 定语从句从而构成条件状语从句。另外考察“道歉”用“make apology to sb.”。所以答案是If there is someone to whom you need say sorry in your life, make an apology to him. 4．本题考察what引导的主语从句，以及“be peculiar to”的用法。所以答案是What makes this game peculiar lies in that it teaches kids how to handle the problems in real life. 5．本题主要考固定词组的掌握，为了使用in order that引导出的目的状语从句。另外也考查 preferred school，have…knowledge/ understanding of…，overall，accurate等。所以答案是The applications should be carefully prepared in order that the school you like can have an overall and accurate knowledge of your abilities. 【考点定位】翻译句子

电子信息与通信工程专业英语王立琦版课文翻译

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