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Visible light Cr (VI) reduction and organic chemical oxidation by TiO2 photocatalysis

Visible light Cr (VI) reduction and organic chemical oxidation by TiO2 photocatalysis
Visible light Cr (VI) reduction and organic chemical oxidation by TiO2 photocatalysis

Visible Light Cr(VI)Reduction and Organic Chemical Oxidation by TiO2 Photocatalysis

B O S U N,E T T I R E D D Y P.R E D D Y,A N D

P A N A G I O T I S G.S M I R N I O T I S*

Chemical and Material Engineering Department,University of Cincinnati,Cincinnati,Ohio45221-0012

Here we report the simultaneous Cr(VI)reduction and

4-chlorophenol(4-CP)oxidation in water under visible light (wavelength>400nm)using commercial Degussa P25 TiO2.This remarkable observation was attributed to a synergistic effect among TiO2,Cr(VI),and4-CP.It is well known that TiO2alone cannot remove either4-CP or Cr-(VI)efficiently under visible light.Moreover,the interaction between Cr(VI)and4-CP is minimal if not negligible.However, we found that the combination of TiO2,Cr(VI),and4-CP together can enable efficient Cr(VI)reduction and4-CP oxidation under visible light.The specific roles of the three ingredients in the synergistic system were studied parametrically.It was found that optimal concentrations of Cr(VI)and TiO2exist for the Cr(VI)reduction and4-CP oxidation.Cr(VI)was compared experimentally with other metals such as Cu(II),Fe(III),Mn(IV),Ce(IV),and V(V). Among all these metal ions,only Cr(VI)promotes the photocatalytic oxidation of4-CP.The amount of4-CP removed was directly related to the initial concentration of Cr(VI).The system was also tested with four other chemicals (aniline,salicylic acid,formic acid,and diethyl phospho-ramidate).We found that the same phenomenon occurred for organics containing acid and/or phenolic groups.Cr-(VI)was reduced at the same time as the organic chemicals being oxidized during photoreaction under visible light. The synergistic effect was also found with pure anatase TiO2and rutile TiO2.This study demonstrates a possible economical way for environmental cleanup under visible light.

Introduction

Chromium is widely used in industry and has resulted in a tremendous contamination(1-3).Cr(VI)and Cr(III)are the two primary oxidation states found in the environment.The concentration of Cr(VI)has been regulated because Cr(VI) is mutagenic and carcinogenic and can inflict many health problems(2).The toxicity of Cr(III)is relatively low.Therefore, Cr(VI)is usually reduced to Cr(III)in order to minimize environmental pollution(1-2).Cr(VI)can be reduced to Cr-(III)by direct electric current(4)or using Fe(II)/Fe(III)(1, 5-7).Moreover,it can be realized by photocatalysis under near-UV light(6-10).Since UV light corresponds to only4% of the sunlight,a more efficient and economic method is needed for reducing the pollution of Cr(VI)brought by industry.

Groundwater contamination by organics can also increase human contact with toxic organic chemicals(11,12),and thus decontamination of these organics is of a high inter-national priority.TiO2is the most studied semiconductor widely used for environmental decontamination for its high activity,chemical inertness,and low cost.Degussa P25is reported to be one of the best titania photocatalysts(11).

We seek an economical solution under visible light for eradiating both Cr(VI)and toxic organic chemicals simul-taneously by adding only commercial TiO2.We selected three different kinds of titania for our study.The synergistic effect among TiO2,Cr(VI),and4-CP under visible light was studied for both Cr(VI)reduction and4-CP oxidation.The rates of Cr(VI)reduction and4-CP oxidation were found to be dependent on the concentrations of Cr(VI),TiO2,and4-CP under visible light.More specifically,the critical role of Cr-(VI)for visible light photocatalysis was studied experimentally by comparing its performance with other transition metal ions.This synergistic system was also tested with other chemicals with different groups.

Experimental Section

Materials.Degussa P25TiO2(P25),Hombikat UV100TiO2 (HK),and HT0100TiO2(HT0100)were obtained from Degussa Company,Sachtleben Chemi GmbH in Germany,and TOTO Titanium Co.in Japan,respectively.Their characteristics were described in Table1.Chromium trioxide(CrO3,99+%),4-CP (99+%),salicylic acid(SA,99+%),aniline(99%),and diethyl phosphoramidate(98%)were from Aldrich.Formic acid(FA, 89.9%)was obtained from Fisher Scientific.Water(18.0M??cm)used in this study was obtained from a NANOPURE water system(Barnsted/Thermolyne,Model#D4754).

Characterizations.P25,HK,and HT0100TiO2were characterized using a Nicolet powder X-ray diffractometer equipped with a Cu K R source to assess their phases with2θchanging from20to50°with a step size of0.05°.(see Figure S1,Supporting Information)Their Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET)surface areas were measured under77K using Mi-cromeritics Gemini apparatus.

Photocatalytic Performance Tests.Measured amounts of CrO3,4-CP,and500mL of water were stirred together at room temperature for30min.A measured amount of P25 was mixed with the above solution.The resulted suspension was used in the photoreaction experiments.

The photocatalytic oxidation of4-CP and reduction of Cr(VI)under visible light was carried out in a reactor used in previous studies(14).The UV radiation source was a450-W medium-pressure mercury vapor quartz lamp(Jelight, J05PM1HGC2).A double Acrylic OP-2(Museum quality)sheet was placed between the light source and the reactor for the purpose of excluding ultraviolet radiation.(see Figure S2, Supporting Information)The cooling jacket around the reactor allowed to preclude the IR part of the spectrum from penetrating into the reaction solution and cooled the lamp. The temperature for reaction was kept at25.0(0.5°C.The

*Corresponding author phone:1-513-556-1474;fax:1-513-556-3473;e-mail:Panagiotis.Smirniotis@https://www.wendangku.net/doc/8a10946246.html,.TABLE1.TiO2Used in This Study

catalyst TiO2purity form

BET surface

area d(m2/g) P25>99.5%a75%anatase+25%rutile a50

HK99%b anatase b,c334

HT0100>99.9%b rutile b,c1

a From ref13.

b From manufacture’s specifications.

c Characterize

d by XRD.d Measured on Gemini instrument(Micromeritics)at77K.

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10.1021/es0480872CCC:$30.25?2005American Chemical Society VOL.39,NO.16,2005/ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE&TECHNOLOGY96251 Published on Web07/07/2005

pH of the reaction suspension was not adjusted.The aqueous system of suspended catalyst was oxygenated(Wright Broth-ers,99.9%)at500mL/min to ensure the complete saturation. The samples of reaction suspension were taken with a syringe at different intervals and filtered with a Cameo25P polypro-pylene syringe filter(OSMONICS,Cat#DDP02T2550).The sample solutions were analyzed with a total organic carbon (TOC)analyzer(TOC-VCSH,Shimadzu).The sample solu-tions filtered were also scanned on UV-vis spectrophoto-meter(Shimazu UV-2501PC)from210to700nm with a step size of0.5nm.

All the experiments from1to23studied below are summarized in Table2.The study of synergistic effect among P25TiO2,Cr(VI),and4-CP was carried out with experiments #1-4.The role of O2was studied with experiments#4-6. The experiments under visible light with the conditions listed as#6-11were used for studying the influence of Cr(VI) concentration.Experiments#6and#12-18were used for study of the influence of TiO2concentration.Experiments#6 and#19-23were used for study of the influence of4-CP concentration.

The adsorption of Cr(VI)and4-CP by P25TiO2in the dark was investigated.The concentrations of TiO2,Cr(VI),and 4-CP in water were2.0g/L,0.468mM,and1mM,respectively. The suspension was stirred vigorously during the experiment. The samples were collected periodically and analyzed in the same way as above.

Different metal compounds,including Cu(NO3)2,Fe-(NO3)3,Fe2(SO4)3,Fe2O3,MnO2,CeO2,and V2O5,were used for comparison with CrO3during photoreaction.The molar concentration of metal ions(0.468mM)was kept the same, the initial concentration of4-CP was1mM,and500mL/min of O2was passed for this comparison study.

Pure HK anatase TiO2and HT0100rutile TiO2(Table1) were selected for illuminating the effect of TiO2form in the reaction system.The performances of the system consisting of pure anatase/rutile TiO2,CrO3,and/or4-CP were tested in the same way as above.The concentration of HK was0.2 g/L,and that of HT0100was1.0g/L.The initial concentrations of CrO3and4-CP were0.468mM and1mM,respectively.

Other chemicals with different functional groups(see Table S1,Supporting Information),namely,FA,SA,aniline, and diethyl phosphoramidate(DEPA),were also used to test the system for its versatility.The concentrations of FA,SA, aniline,and DEPA were6,1,1,and1.5mM,respectively, which were selected for comparable TOC concentrations. The TiO2concentration was1.2g/L,and that of CrO3was 0.468mM.

To test the simultaneous reduction of Cr(VI)and oxidation of4-CP with P25TiO2under the indoor light,another reactor (15)was used.Seven4-W cool white fluorescent lamps (Philips,F4T5/CW,046677-33236-1)were used as the source of light(28W totally).The suspension was made of1000mL of water,0.468mM CrO3,1mM4-CP,and1.0g/L titania.The reaction temperature was27(1°C.The samples were taken and measured in the same way as above.The relative errors of TOC and Cr(VI)concentration measurements are esti-mated to be(5and(10%,respectively.

Results and Discussion

Synergistic Effect among TiO2,CrO3,and4-CP.Experimental #1,2,and4curves in Figure1show the TOC concentration with respect to time during photoreaction under visible light with500mL/min O2,0.2g/L TiO2,and/or0.468mM CrO3. Either P25TiO2,or CrO3alone(experiments#1and2) demonstrated a very low activity toward4-CP degradation under visible light.P25TiO2’s BET surface area is50m2/g, and its primary particle size is25nm(16).TiO2can create electrons and holes under UV light(17,18).In turn,active oxygen species(11,18-21)can be created in the presence of O2.These oxygen species can decompose several families of organic chemicals completely and efficiently.O2is necessary for electron transfer and the creation of active oxygen species in the whole process of organic photo-oxidation under UV light(11,19).P25’s low activity under visible light with the oxygen flow indicated that the active oxygen species were rarely created as those were created under UV light.Interestingly,mixing P25and CrO3together increased the initial4-CP degradation rate by1order of magnitude(Figure1).This indicated a positive interaction between CrO3and TiO2under visible light.X-ray diffraction (XRD,see Figure S1,Supporting Information)proved the existence of both anatase and rutile phases(22)in P25,which is consistent with the literature(11,13).There can be three possible reasons for the positive interaction of TiO2and CrO3 (Cr(VI))for4-CP photo-oxidation under visible light.First, Nakamura et al.(23)showed that it is possible for electrons to be excited under visible light from the valence band to some oxygen vacancy states which are located2.05-2.45eV above the valence band in pure anatase TiO2.Electrons

TABLE2.Experimental Conditions Designed for the Present Study

exp no.TiO2(g/L)CrO3(mM)4-CP(mM) 1a0.468 1.0

2a0.2 1.0

3a0.20.468

4a0.20.468 1.0

5b0.20.468 1.0

60.20.468 1.0

70.20.094 1.0

80.20.234 1.0

90.20.936 1.0

100.2 1.872 1.0

110.2 2.340 1.0

120.050.468 1.0

130.10.468 1.0

140.40.468 1.0

150.60.468 1.0

16 1.20.468 1.0

17 2.00.468 1.0

18 3.00.468 1.0

190.20.4680.5

200.20.468 2.0

210.20.468 4.0

220.20.468 6.0

230.20.4688.0

a With500mL/min O2flow.

b With500mL/min N2

flow.FIGURE1.TOC concentration curves with respect to time during photoreaction with P25,4-CP,CrO3and/or O2(N2)under visible light. The numbers in the legend correspond to the list in Table2.

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excited to the oxygen vacancy states can transfer to Cr(VI) and trigger the synergistic effect.Second,Hurum et al.(24) proposed in EPR studies with Degussa P25that electrons created in rutile under visible light illumination move from rutile to the lower-energy anatase lattice trapping sites. Surface defects and trap states were also found crucial for injection of electrons from dye molecules to semiconductor surfaces(25).Some electron trapping sites have been shown to be present at about0.5eV below the conduction band edge for anatase TiO2(26).Cr(VI)may get electrons from these surface traps on anatase TiO2and is reduced during the photoreaction as4-CP is oxidized.Third,it may be due to rutile TiO2,inside which electrons and holes are created under visible light,and electrons can be transferred to Cr(VI) on rutile particles’surface.Linsebigler et al.(27)have determined that oxygen cannot be adsorbed on a defect-free rutile surface from studies on the(110)surface of rutile.The O2hopping rate depends on the number of oxygen vacancies in rutile TiO2,and the latter also determines the density of conduction electrons(28).The low activity of rutile for organic photo-oxidation(18-21)indicates that electrons created in the interior of a rutile particle following light absorption cannot be efficiently transferred to surface O2due to an insufficient concentration of active oxygen vacancies on particle surfaces.Ohno et al.(29)found that rutile TiO2 alone can degrade1-decene under visible light with the presence of H2O2,which obviated the necessity of O2for electron transfer.These mechanisms will be illustrated further with the experiments with pure anatase or rutile titania later.

N2or no gas was used in comparative experiments(#4-6 in Table2)to investigate the role of O2in photocatalysis under visible light.TOC concentration curve during4-CP photodegradation with O2flow overlapped with those with N2or without any gas fed(Figure1).Evidently,oxygen did not play a role in increasing either the reaction rate or conversion.This result was consistent with the very low activity of P25alone under visible light.Therefore,the mechanism for the activity of TiO2,4-CP,and CrO3under visible light differs from that for the activity of TiO2and O2 under UV light(11,16).The trapped electrons at the oxygen vacancies(23)or the lower-energy anatase lattice trapping sites(24-26)under visible light may not have the same ability to reduce O2as those created under UV light.It is proposed that Cr(VI)takes the electrons that are created inside the TiO2and pass on to the TiO2surface.At the same time,4-CP is oxidized by holes with continuous reduction of Cr(VI).

Figure2a shows the UV-vis spectra of the filtered solution samples taken in experiment#4(Table2).The peak at350 nm corresponds to the existence of Cr(VI)species,and the peak at280nm corresponds to the existence of both4-CP (280nm)and Cr(VI)(260nm).The UV-vis spectra of the solution samples of experiments#5and6(Table2)have also these two peaks and the changes of spectra curves with respect to time follow the same trend.The concentrations of the Cr(VI)with respect to time are shown in Figure2b. One can observe that the Cr(VI)concentration was also kept constant during the photoreaction without4-CP.

Therefore,4-CP was also necessary for Cr(VI)reduction.This demonstrates that the electrons created cannot reduce Cr(VI)without holes being transferred from TiO2to some hole acceptor.

The UV-vis spectra curves of the suspension samples taken in experiment#1(Table2)without filtration show that there were particles formed after about23h of reaction (Figure3)since the baseline was leveled up by the particles’diffraction of light.The amount of particles was increasing and became stable at last.The forming of particles is due to the reduction of CrO3into Cr2O3,which is insoluble in water under ambient temperature.The rate of reaction between

CrO3and4-CP is very low without the presence of TiO2as shown in Figure1.With the results obtained from Figures 1-3,we conclude that only with the presence of all three entities(TiO2,CrO3and4-CP)in the reaction system can the Cr(VI)reduction and4-CP oxidation be efficient.The rates of Cr(VI)reduction and4-CP oxidation with respect to the concentrations of CrO3,TiO2,and4-CP are discussed below.

Effect of CrO3Concentration on Photoreaction Rate. Figure4a shows the TOC concentration curves during photoreaction under visible light with0.094,0.234,0.468, 0.936,1.872,or2.340mM CrO3.Deactivation of the

catalyst FIGURE2.(a)UV-vis spectra of samples taken during the photo-reaction with1mM4-CP,0.2g/L P25,0.468mM CrO3,and500mL/ min O2(corresponding to experiment#4in Table2).The curves are offset for clarity.(b)Cr(VI)concentration curves with respect to time.The numbers in the legend correspond to the list in Table

2.

FIGURE3.UV-vis spectra of the samples taken(without filtration if not specified)during4-CP photo-oxidation with only CrO3 (corresponding to experiment#1in Table2).Note:“3398(Filtered)”UV-vis spectrum curve is for the suspension taken at3398min and filtered.

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system was observed during the reaction since no decrease in TOC concentration was observed after a certain time.The Cr(VI)concentration in the suspension (Figure 2)also decreased along with TOC concentration decreasing (Figure 1).Here,we are not discussing about the detailed mechanism for this reaction due to the complexity of the reaction between Cr(VI)and dissolved organic matter (7,8,30,31).The initial TOC removal rate (r initial )is used for assessing the catalyst system’s activity.One can observe that r initial increases with the CrO 3concentration (Figure 4b)when the concentration is less than 0.234mM.r initial decreases with further increasing of the CrO 3concentration.This clearly indicates that the reaction occurs on the TiO 2catalyst surface.Otherwise,r initial would increase monotonically with the CrO 3concentration.The following model for r initial is proposed to explain the above observation.r initial is expressed by following Langmuir -Hinshelwood kinetics as

in which K Cr(VI)and K 4CP are the equilibrium coefficients of Cr(VI)and 4-CP absorbing on TiO 2surface,[Cr(VI)],[4CP],and [TOC]are the concentrations of Cr(VI),4-CP,and TOC in solution,k R is the reaction coefficient.Equation 1can be simplified at two extreme conditions

Accordingly,r initial and 1/r initial are presented with respect to [Cr(VI)]in Figure 4b.The relation between r initial and [Cr-(VI)]is linear with the CrO 3concentration less than 0.234mM.And the relation between 1/r initial and [Cr(VI)]is also linear with the CrO 3concentration higher than 0.234mM.These results correlate well with eqs 2-3,which indicate that too high of a Cr(VI)concentration is not favorable for the reaction.Deactivation occurred faster in the reaction with lower CrO 3concentrations (e 0.936mM)than that with higher concentrations because Cr(VI)as a reactant was reduced along with 4-CP oxidation in the

reaction.

FIGURE 4.(a)TOC concentration curves during 4-CP photo-oxidation with a certain concentration of P25TiO 2and different concentrations of CrO 3.Initial conditions:1mM 4-CP,0.2g/L P25,0.094(0.234,0.468,0.936,1.872,or 2.340)mM CrO 3.(b)Initial TOC removal rates (r initial )and r initial -1corresponding to part a.(c)Cr(VI)concentration curves with respect to time corresponding to part a.r initial )-d[TOC]

d t

)k R

K Cr(VI)[Cr(VI)]1+K Cr(VI)[Cr(VI)]+K 4CP [4CP]K 4CP [4CP]

1+K Cr(VI)[Cr(VI)]+K 4CP [4CP]

)k R K 4CP [4CP]

K Cr(VI)[Cr(VI)]+

(1+K 4CP [4CP])2K Cr(VI)[Cr(VI)]

+2(1+K 4CP [4CP])

(1)

when K Cr(VI)[Cr(VI)],(1+K 4CP [4CP]),r initial ≈

k R K 4CP [4CP]K Cr(VI)

(1+K 4CP [4CP])2

[Cr(VI)](2)

when K Cr(VI)[Cr(VI)].(1+K 4CP [4CP]),

1r initial

K Cr(VI)k R K 4CP [4CP]

[Cr(VI)]+const (3)

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Figure 4c shows the corresponding Cr(VI)concentration curves with respect to time.The curves follow the same trend as those in Figure 4a.More specifically,when CrO 3con-centration is less than 0.936mM,the reaction follows pseudo-first-order kinetics.It appears to be zero order with higher CrO 3concentrations.The initial Cr(VI)reduction rate also follows the same trend as that of TOC removal rate.

Effect of TiO 2Concentration on Photoreaction Rate.Figure 5a shows the curves of TOC concentration vs time during photoreaction under visible light with different concentrations of P25TiO 2.One can observe that r initial increases with the TiO 2concentration (Figure 5b)when the concentration is less than 2.0g/L.More TiO 2surface is available for Cr(VI)and 4-CP reaction with more TiO 2.r initial reaches a plateau with higher TiO 2concentrations.Dead reaction zone that is deprived of light (32)can appear due to the light extinction and absorption by P25particles (21),and this can be the reason for the plateau.Figure 5c shows the corresponding Cr(VI)concentration curves.They follow the same trend as those of the TOC concentration curves shown in Figure 5a.

Adsorption of Cr(VI)and 4-CP by TiO 2in the Dark.Figure 6shows the curves for the adsorption of Cr(VI)and/or 4-CP by P25TiO 2in the dark.The adsorption of Cr(VI)is much faster than that of 4-CP.The Cr(VI)concentration decreased from 0.47to 0.36mM in less than one minute and stabilized at 0.36mM without the presence of 4-CP in the TiO 2suspension.The 4-CP concentration decreased from 1to 0.95mM in a day without CrO 3.Interestingly,the Cr(VI)

concentration was stabilized at 0.33mM when both CrO 3and 4-CP were in the TiO 2suspension.The 4-CP began to adsorb on TiO 2after about 400min with the presence of CrO 3.The TOC concentration measurements show that the 4-CP concentration changed from 1to 0.92mM

after

FIGURE 5.(a)TOC concentration curves with respect to time during photo-oxidation of 4-CP with a certain concentration of CrO 3and different concentrations of P25TiO 2.Initial conditions:1mM 4-CP,0(0.05,0.1,0.2,0.4,0.6,1.2,2.0,or 3.0)g/L P25,0.468mM CrO 3.(b)Initial TOC removal rates (r initial )corresponding to part a.(c)Cr(VI)concentration curves with respect to time corresponding to part

a.FIGURE 6.The curves of TOC and Cr(VI)concentrations with respect to time during 4-CP and CrO 3adsorption with P25TiO 2in the dark.Initial conditions:1mM 4-CP,0.468mM CrO 3,and 2.0g/L P25.The inset figure is the same as the main figure except that the horizontal axis is plotted in logarithm.

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6255

adsorption.The delay of 4-CP adsorption with CrO 3may be explained by the preference of TiO 2surface for Cr(VI)adsorption than 4-CP adsorption.And the results above clearly indicate that Cr(VI)is easier to adsorb on TiO 2than 4-CP.That is,K Cr(VI)is much larger than K 4CP (eq 1).

The concentrations of Cr(VI)and 4-CP stabilized at 0.33and 0.92mM,respectively,in 3days’experiment,which proves that no reaction occurs between Cr(VI)and 4-CP but adsorptions of these two entities by TiO 2happened in the dark.The comparison between parts a and c of Figure 5and Figure 6shows that the simultaneous Cr(VI)reduction and 4-CP oxidation under visible light were due to photocatalysis instead of adsorption.This justifies that the visible light is needed for Cr(VI)reduction and 4-CP oxidation with TiO 2.Effect of 4-CP Concentration on Photoreaction Rate.Figure 7shows the TOC concentration curves during pho-toreaction under visible light with different concentrations of 4-CP with respect to time.The reaction rate increased with 4-CP concentration increasing from 0.5to 8mM.The reaction rate did not decrease as that in the study of CrO 3concentration (Figure 4b).As we analyzed above,K Cr(VI)is much larger than K 4CP (eq 1).Therefore,the corresponding critical 4-CP concentration at which the adsorption of 4-CP can be comparable with that of Cr(VI)on TiO 2surface should be much higher.That is,the 4-CP adsorption on TiO 2surface with 8mM 4-CP still cannot reduce the Cr(VI)adsorption to the extent of reversing the increasing trend of the reaction rate (eq 1).

Cr(VI)in Comparison with Some Other Transition Metals.We studied the role of Cr(VI)in the system of P25TiO 2,CrO 3,and 4-CP by substituting CrO 3with other metal oxides,sulfide,or nitrate (Figure 8).The molar amounts of Cu(II),Fe(III),Mn(IV),Ce(IV),and V(V)used here were the same as that of Cr(VI).None of the substitutes made the system work efficiently for the oxidation of 4-CP.These results were consistent with our earlier reported (33)results of the study with MCM-41as a host for both transition-metal ions and TiO 2.

Test of the Reaction System with Pure Anatase and Rutile Titanias.The performances of the system consisting of pure HK anatase TiO 2,CrO 3,and/or 4-CP are shown in Figure 9a.The initial kinetic results obtained by correlation are sum-marized in Table 3.It can be seen that the Cr(VI)reduction rate (4.2×10-4mM/min)was increased by one order with all three of them in the reaction system in comparison with the rate (5.4×10-5mM/min,max.)with any two components.The TOC removal rate with HK,CrO 3,and 4-CP (4.8×10-2mg/(L ?min))was twice that with any two components (2.4×10-2mg/(L ?min),max.).This shows that the synergistic

effect discussed above also occurs with anatase TiO 2.The band gap of anatase TiO 2is 3.2eV,which corresponds to 387nm in wavelength (22).Therefore,the photons in the visible range do not have enough energy to excite an electron from anatase TiO 2’s valence band to the conduction band.The activity of HK anatase TiO 2and P25TiO 2for the simultaneous Cr(VI)reduction and 4-CP oxidation under visible light indicates the existence of surface defects and electron traps with energies between valence and conduction bands (23-26).The high activity shown by the HK (P25),4-CP,and Cr-(VI)system implies that the surface electron traps can be populated under visible light at room temperature,while the relatively low activity of the TiO 2and 4-CP without CrO 3clearly indicates that the electrons trapped on the surface can reduce Cr(VI)much more efficiently than O 2under visible light.Another observation was that the reactivity of the HK (2.4×10-2mg/(L ?min),max.)for 4-CP oxidation under visible light without the presence of Cr(VI)was 4times as high as that of P25(6.8×10-3mg/(L ?min),max.).This activity order is the reverse of theirs under UV light (16,34),which im-plies from another aspect that the reaction mechanism with TiO 2under visible light is different from that under UV light.

The performances of the system consisting of pure HT0100rutile TiO 2,CrO 3,and/or 4-CP are shown in Figure 9b.The Cr(VI)reduction rate (Table 3)with all three of them (1.7×10-4mM/min)was 2.3times that with any two components (7×10-5mM/min,max.)in the reaction system.The TOC removal rate (1.5×10-2mg/(L ?min))with TiO 2,CrO 3,

and

FIGURE 7.TOC concentration curves with respect to time during photoreaction with different 4-CP concentrations under visible light.Initial conditions:0.5(1,2,4,6,or 8)mM 4-CP,0.2g/L P25,0.468mM CrO 3

.

FIGURE 8.TOC concentration curves with respect to time during 4-CP oxidation with different kinds of metal compounds and P25TiO 2under visible light.Initial 4-CP concentration:1mM,P25)0.2g/L,metal ion concentration )0.468mM (MnO 2is not soluble,Fe 2O 3is partially soluble,and all other materials are soluble in water).

TABLE 3.Initial TOC Removal Rate and Cr Reduction Rate with HK and HT0100TiO 2

exp

initial Cr(VI)reduction rate (×10-5mM/min)r initial

(×10-3mg/(L ?min))

CrO 3+4-CP 5.4(0.3 2.5(0.2HK +4-CP 24(1HK +CrO 3

0.3(0.6HK +CrO 3+4-CP 42(248(2HT0100+4-CP 9(2HT0100+CrO 3

7(2HT0100+CrO 3+4-CP

17(3

15(2

6256

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4-CP was 1.7times that with any two components (0.9×10-2mg/(L ?min)).This clearly indicates that the synergistic effect occurs with rutile TiO 2although the effect here is less prominent than those with P25or HK TiO 2.Rutile TiO 2has a band gap of 3.0eV corresponding to a wavelength of 413nm;thus electrons and holes can be created inside rutile under visible light.The Cr(VI)can adsorb easily on its surface (35-37)although O 2needs defects for adsorption (27)and electrons can transfer from TiO 2to Cr(VI).In balance,holes pass on from TiO 2to 4-CP.These two steps contribute to the charge transfer for the Cr(VI)reduction and 4-CP oxidation.The activity order (HK >P25>HT0100)under visible light indicates that the organic photo-oxidation by TiO 2under visible light is related to the surface area of TiO 2(Table 1),which can be proportional to the density of the defects or active sites on the TiO 2surface for trapping/transferring electrons (23-27).

Test of the TiO 2and CrO 3System with Other Chemicals.We selected organic compounds containing various func-tional groups as reactants for photoreaction under visible

light.SA,FA,aniline,and 4-CP can be degraded (Figure 10a).The system showed deactivation along with time,which was due to the simultaneous reduction of Cr(VI)(Figure 10b).In comparison,DEPA cannot be degraded using the present system.DEPA can be destructed by the active oxygen species created by TiO 2(38).The incapability of the system for oxidizing DEPA under visible light indicates that the oxidation ability of hole was not strong enough to break the DEPA bonds (P s O,P d O,P s N,and chain carbons)or that DEPA cannot adsorb easily on TiO 2surface as other chemicals with acid and/or phenolic groups.

Test under Indoor Light.The application of this system (P25TiO 2,CrO 3,and 4-CP)under the indoor light was tested using seven 4-W cool fluorescent lamps.The performance of 4-CP degradation and Cr(VI)reduction was shown in Figure 11.It took about 8h to remove 40mg/L carbon,which is comparable to what we achieved above.The Cr(VI)is completely reduced in the solution after 1day.Hence,this interesting behavior is a testimony that this system will work under typical conditions of indoor

light.

FIGURE 9.(a)TOC and Cr(VI)concentration curves with respect to time during photoreaction under visible light with HK anatase TiO 2.Initial conditions:1mM 4-CP,0.2g/L HK TiO 2,0.468mM CrO 3.(b)TOC and Cr(VI)concentration curves with respect to time during photoreaction with HT0100rutile TiO 2.Initial conditions:1mM 4-CP,1.0g/L HT0100TiO 2,0.468mM CrO 3

.

FIGURE 10.(a)TOC concentration curves.(b)Cr(VI)concentration curves with respect to time during photo-oxidation of different chemicals with P25TiO 2and CrO 3.Initial conditions:0.468mM CrO 3,1.2g/L P25,and 500mL suspension.The concentrations of FA,SA,aniline,and DEPA were 6,1,1,and 1.5mM,respectively.

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Acknowledgments

The authors wish to acknowledge the US Department of Army for partial support for this work through Grant DAAD 19-00-1-0399.We also acknowledge funding from the Ohio Board of Regents (OBR)that provided matching funds for equipment to the NSF CTS-9619392Grant through the OBR Action Fund No.333.

Supporting Information Available

The functional groups of the organic chemicals used,the XRD of P25,HK,and HT0100titanias,the light spectrum of medium-pressure mercury lamp and the transmittance of the Acrylic OP-2filter are described in Table S1,Figure S1,and Figure S2,respectively.

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SDN及ODL概括性总结

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基本面分析框架介绍(DOC)

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大数据 技术架构解析

大数据技术架构解析 作者:匿名出处:论坛2016-01-22 20:46 大数据数量庞大,格式多样化。大量数据由家庭、制造工厂和办公场所的各种设备、互联网事务交易、社交网络的活动、自动化传感器、移动设备以及科研仪器等生成。它的爆炸式增长已超出了传统IT基础架构的处理能力,给企业和社会带来严峻的数据管理问题。因此必须开发新的数据架构,围绕“数据收集、数据管理、数据分析、知识形成、智慧行动”的全过程,开发使用这些数据,释放出更多数据的隐藏价值。 一、大数据建设思路 1)数据的获得 大数据产生的根本原因在于感知式系统的广泛使用。随着技术的发展,人们已经有能力制造极其微小的带有处理功能的传感器,并开始将这些设备广泛的布置于社会的各个角落,通过这些设备来对整个社会的运转进行监控。这些设备会源源不断的产生新数据,这种数据的产生方式是自动的。因此在数据收集方面,要对来自网络包括物联网、社交网络和机构信息系统的数据附上时空标志,去伪存

真,尽可能收集异源甚至是异构的数据,必要时还可与历史数据对照,多角度验证数据的全面性和可信性。 2)数据的汇集和存储 数据只有不断流动和充分共享,才有生命力。应在各专用数据库建设的基础上,通过数据集成,实现各级各类信息系统的数据交换和数据共享。数据存储要达到低成本、低能耗、高可靠性目标,通常要用到冗余配置、分布化和云计算技术,在存储时要按照一定规则对数据进行分类,通过过滤和去重,减少存储量,同时加入便于日后检索的标签。 3)数据的管理

4)数据的分析

5)大数据的价值:决策支持系统

大数据的神奇之处就是通过对过去和现在的数据进行分析,它能够精确预测未来;通过对组织内部的和外部的数据整合,它能够洞察事物之间的相关关系;通过对海量数据的挖掘,它能够代替人脑,承担起企业和社会管理的职责。 6)数据的使用

OpenDaylight与Mininet应用实战之复杂网络验证(五)

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由pingall显示的结果可看出,主机间能够互相通信,且将数据包的流转发给交换机,并由交换机上报给ODL控制器来下发流表使主机通信。 主机通信过程中可查看交换机的流表信息及本身信息。 由交换机流表信息显示可知,控制器通过策略将流表下发到交换机中,使主机发出的数据包转发到下一目的地址。每个交换机查看信息的端口都不同,从第一个交换机端口号为6634开始,以后每一个交换机依次在之前交换机端口号的基础上加1,如第二个交换机的端口为6635。其他交换机的流表信息及自身设备信息可根据此说明进行查看。 2多控制器的测试 多控制器验证支持测试包括两种情况: ■OpenFlow网络中多个同一类型的控制器; ■OpenFlow网络中多个不同类型的控制器; 2.1多个同一类型的控制器验证 测试OpenFlow网络中多个同一类型的controller,比如OpenDaylight,多个ODL之间通过

OpenFlow1.0协议标准交互。 通过Mininet验证,在Mininet中模拟创建的OvS交换机不能指定连接多个控制器,且在同一个Mininet中创建的多个交换机不能指定不同的控制器。所以在验证交换机被多个同一类型的控制器管控时,不能通过用Mininet来验证,但是可通过真实交换机来验证。 如,在真实交换机中设置连接此文中的ODL控制器及另一个ODL控制器,命令为: 连接两个相同类型的ODL控制器,其中192.168.5.203为上述实验使用的控制器,192.168.5.111为另外安装使用的ODL控制器。通过执行如下命令查看交换机连接的控制器信息。 is_connected:true表示交换机都成功连接上控制器。交换机连接到这两个控制器后,控制器通过设备拓扑管理也可以发现此交换机,同时控制器管控存在主备关系,但控制器都可对交换机进行管控、下发流表等操作。 通过真实OpenFlow交换机连接多个控制器,可以实施,且已经验证,控制器和控制器之间存在主备关系,多控制器都可以对连接的交换机进行管控。 2.2多个不同类型的控制器验证 在OpenFlow网络中多个不同类型的controller,比如同时存在NOX和ODL,它们之间如果遵循OpenFlow协议标准的话,也是能够协作工作的。多个不同类型的控制器管控交换机与2.1小节是同样的道理。 如,在真实交换机中设置连接此文中的ODL控制器及其他另一个不同类型的控制器,如POX,命令为: 连接两个不同控制器,其中192.168.5.203为上述实验使用的控制器,192.168.5.111为另外安装使用的POX控制器。经试验验证,ODL与POX都遵循OF1.0版本的协议标准,所以在复杂网络多控制器情况下,只要控制器遵循相同的标准规范,控制器之间可进行对网络的通信管理等。此处实验结果与2.1节一致。交换机连接这两个控制器后,控制器管控存在主备关系,但控制器都可对交换机进行管控、下发流表等操作。 3总结 本文主要对复杂网络多交换机及多控制器的支持验证。因Mininet现在无法模拟多控制器管控一个交换机的情况,所以本专题还是侧重对多交换机的管控实验。至此,OpenDaylight 与Mininet应用实战专题将结束,有介绍不到位或者有疑问的地方请多多指教,互相交流。谢谢!

菜鸟水平初步设置OpenDaylight-OVSDB-+-Openstack测试环境

菜鸟水平初步设置OpenDaylight OVSDB + Openstack测试环境 Hannibal (SDNAP首发) 刚接触SDN和OpenDaylight两个多月时间,还处于人云亦云照葫芦画瓢的水平,在很多大牛的指导文章帮助下,初步搭建一个很简单的OpenDaylight OVSDB + Openstack调试环境。第一次写技术文章,请多包涵。 一、准备 硬件: 双核Core i7,内存4GB,一个以太网卡的Thinkpad X201t,普通个人用笔记本 Host环境: 64位Ubuntu 13.10,OVS 2.0.90 VM环境: 2个Virtualbox VM,Fedora 19 + OVS 2.0.0 + Devstack 。导入Virtualbox都是缺省配置。两个VM的下载地址: https://https://www.wendangku.net/doc/8a10946246.html,:443/v1/96991703573236/imgs/Fedora19--2node-Devstack.tar.bz2 Size: 4983728003 bytes MD5sum: dfd791a989603a88a0fa37950696608c 二、原理 OpenDaylight(ODL)是一个由Linux基金会支持,多个网络厂商参与的开源SDN控制器项目。Openstack是开源的IaaS项目。如何让两个平台整合以便更好的发挥作用是本环境搭建的目的。 现有的解决方案之一,就是利用Openstack Neutron的ML2 Plugin,将网络复杂性丢到ODL。也就是说,Openstack通过ML2 Plugin,与OpenDaylight的NB API进行会话,具体网络部署的实现交由OpenDaylight Controller来实现。

大数据架构的介绍及分析

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们通常叫做ETL过程,ETL动作和业务进行了强绑定,通常需要一个专门的ETL团队去和业务做衔接,决定如何进行数据的清洗和转换。 随着异构数据源的增加,例如如果存在视频,文本,图片等数据源,要解析数据内容进入数据仓库,则需要非常复杂等ETL程序,从而导致ETL变得过于庞大和臃肿。 当数据量过大的时候,性能会成为瓶颈,在TB/PB级别的数据量上表现出明显的吃力。 数据库的范式等约束规则,着力于解决数据冗余的问题,是为了保障数据的一致性,但是对于数据仓库来说,我们并不需要对数据做修改和一致性的保障,原则上来说数据仓库的原始数据都是只读的,所以这些约束反而会成为影响性能的因素。 ETL动作对数据的预先假设和处理,导致机器学习部分获取到的数据为假设后的数据,因此效果不理想。例如如果需要使用数据仓库进行异常数据的挖掘,则在数据入库经过ETL的时候就需要明确定义需要提取的特征数据,否则无法结构化入库,然而大多数情况是需要基于异构数据才能提取出特征。 在一系列的问题下,以Hadoop体系为首的大数据分析平台逐渐表现出优异性,围绕Hadoop体系的生态圈也不断的变大,对于Hadoop系统来说,从根本上解决了传统数据仓库的瓶颈的问题,但是也带来一系列的问题:从数据仓库升级到大数据架构,是不具备平滑演进的,基本等于推翻重做。 大数据下的分布式存储强调数据的只读性质,所以类似于Hive,HDFS 这些存储方式都不支持update,HDFS的write操作也不支持并行,这些特性导致其具有一定的局限性。 基于大数据架构的数据分析平台侧重于从以下几个维度去解决传统数据仓库做数据分析面临的瓶颈: 分布式计算:分布式计算的思路是让多个节点并行计算,并且强调数据本地性,尽可能的减少数据的传输,例如Spark通过RDD的形式来表现数据的计算逻辑,可以在RDD上做一系列的优化,来减少数据的传输。

Openstack的Ocata版本与opendaylight 的Carbon版本集成详解

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大数据平台技术框架选型资料

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三、选型思路 必要技术组件服务: ETL >非/关系数据仓储>大数据处理引擎>服务协调>分析BI >平台监管 四、选型要求 1.需要满足我们平台的几大核心功能需求,子功能不设局限性。如不满足全部,需要对未满足的其它核心功能的开放使用服务支持 2.国内外资料及社区尽量丰富,包括组件服务的成熟度流行度较高

3.需要对选型平台自身所包含的核心功能有较为深入的理解,易用其API或基于源码开发 4.商业服务性价比高,并有空间脱离第三方商业技术服务 5.一些非功能性需求的条件标准清晰,如承载的集群节点、处理数据量及安全机制等 五、选型需要考虑 简单性:亲自试用大数据套件。这也就意味着:安装它,将它连接到你的Hadoop安装,集成你的不同接口(文件、数据库、B2B等等),并最终建模、部署、执行一些大数据作业。自己来了解使用大数据套件的容易程度——仅让某个提供商的顾问来为你展示它是如何工作是远远不够的。亲自做一个概念验证。 广泛性:是否该大数据套件支持广泛使用的开源标准——不只是Hadoop和它的生态系统,还有通过SOAP和REST web服务的数据集成等等。它是否开源,并能根据你的特定问题易于改变或扩展?是否存在一个含有文档、论坛、博客和交流会的大社区? 特性:是否支持所有需要的特性?Hadoop的发行版本(如果你已经使用了某一个)?你想要使用的Hadoop生态系统的所有部分?你想要集成的所有接口、技术、产品?请注意过多的特性可能会大大增加复杂性和费用。所以请查证你是否真正需要一个非常重量级的解决方案。是否你真的需要它的所有特性? 陷阱:请注意某些陷阱。某些大数据套件采用数据驱动的付费方式(“数据税”),也就是说,你得为自己处理的每个数据行付费。因为我们是在谈论大数据,所以这会变得非常昂贵。并不是所有的大数据套件都会生成本地Apache Hadoop代码,通常要在每个Hadoop 集群的服务器上安装一个私有引擎,而这样就会解除对于软件提供商的独立性。还要考虑你使用大数据套件真正想做的事情。某些解决方案仅支持将Hadoop用于ETL来填充数据至数据仓库,而其他一些解决方案还提供了诸如后处理、转换或Hadoop集群上的大数据分析。ETL仅是Apache Hadoop和其生态系统的一种使用情形。

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