萨缪尔森经济学Economics第十八版 18th 课后概念、习题答案16

CHAPTER OVERVIEW AND TEACHING TIPS In most advanced industrial countries, including the United States, government has grown dramatically over the past few decades. Spending is growing; tax receipts are growing (after a brief downturn); income-support programs and regulato-ry intervention into the marketplace have become a way of life. Farm-support payments exploded in the 1980s. Debate within your class may suggest the likely direction that this type of activity will take over the next few years, but every-one should be convinced that the days of anything remotely resembling widespread laissez-faire policy are long https://www.wendangku.net/doc/89881241.html,ernments take an active role in the marketplace.

Much of the text covered thus far has presented the wide range of economic instruments with which government influences the everyday lives of its citizens. Y ou can certainly draw on the material that you have covered in previous chapters for examples and discussion topics as you work through this chapter. (This is, in fact, an excellent if not pain-less way to review.) However, it is not the purpose of this chapter to reiterate. Instead, it is to investigate principles on which government policy actions are founded and to better understand the impact of this taxing and spending.The chapter begins with a discussion of the tools that governments use to achieve policy objectives. Functions of government are outlined, followed by a brief introduction to public choice theory. (Those who have used this book in previous editions will notice that this public choice section has been significantly shortened.) The second section of the chapter addresses government expenditures at the federal, state, and local levels. The third section looks at various aspects of taxation, from principles underlying alternative tax schemes to the particular taxes that are collected at all lev-els in the United States. Finally, difficult issues surrounding tax incidence are explored.LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1.

Define how the three tools of government policy—taxes, expenditures and transfers, and regulation—can be used to affect economic behavior.2.

Chronicle the changes in government spending, taxation, and regulatory activity over the past few decades,particularly in the United States.3.

Explain and provide examples of the four major functions that government must consider: (a) improve economic efficiency, (b) reduce economic inequality, (c) stabilize the economy using macroeconomic policies, and (d) conduct international economic policy.4.

Understand the genesis of public choice —the need to determine whether government is organized in a way that allows it to achieve its objectives.5.

Describe the nature of the patterns of expenditure by local, state, and federal governments in the United States, and outline the recent evolution of those patterns into what we see today. Explain the difference between local and national public goods.6.

Relate, on the basis of the patterns described above, the construction of an efficient system of fiscal federali sm and the blurring that necessarily occurs along the boundaries of the different levels of government. List the most impor-tant types of expenditures made at each level.7.

Describe the conflicting principles of taxation—the benefit approach and the ability-to-pay approach—and the com-promise between the two that has been accomplished in the United States.8.Understand the difference between progressive and regressive taxation, and apply this distinction to differentiate the various taxes employed in the United States.

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78C HAPTER16: G OVERNMENT T AXATION AND E XPENDITURE 9.Describe the character and importance of (a) individual income taxes, (b) sales taxes, (c) excise taxes, (d) payroll

taxes, and (e) corporate income taxes, all paid at the federal level in the United States. Define the terms of the debate surrounding institution of a value-added tax or a flat tax.

10.Describe the character and importance of (a) property taxes, and (b) sales and other taxes, all paid at the state and

local levels in the United States.

11.Describe sources of inefficiency in the tax system. Provide evidence to support the notion that Ramsey taxes are

more efficient than other sorts of tax programs.

12.Define the term tax incidence. Explain why and how a tax might not fall on the economic agent identified in the tax

codes.

SUGGESTED ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS IN THE TEXT

1.Taxes are collected in order to finance the affairs of government. Review the functions of government outlined in

the chapter and discuss the importance of those functions.

2.These are difficult questions. Make your cases on the basis of cost, benefit and likelihood of success. Also, discuss

the secondary incentives that your proposals might generate. High taxes and outright prohibition of these sorts of behaviors create underground economies and may generate illegal activities that have higher costs than the activities themselves.

3.Think of taxes that are the sticks of disincentive designed to discourage certain sorts of behavior. Pollution taxes

are fine examples. Strong lobby groups generally oppose these taxes because they would not be required if the targeted behaviors were not privately profitable. Even when the advocates of social welfare carry the day, lobbyists oppose taxes and favor direct controls. That way their clients get to do some of what they want for free.

Consider, for example, the sulfur polluter. Let 100 tons per week be the target level of emission. With a standard, the polluter gets the first 100 tons free. With a tax designed to elicit 100 tons (say, $10 per ton), the polluter must pay $1000 for those 100 tons.

4.Lump-sum taxes cause no changes in relative prices. That is, the price of apples relative to oranges is not changed,

nor is the opportunity cost of one activity relative to another. One difficulty involved in implementing an endow-ment tax involves equity. Although these lump-sum taxes are efficient in an economic sense, they may make up a much larger portion of one household’s budget compared to another wealthier household. Therefore, it might be considered inequitable to implement such a tax.

5.Progressive federal taxes:personal income tax, death and estate taxes, corporation income tax. Roughly propor-

tional (though mildly regressive due to maximum liabilities): payroll (social security) tax. Regressive: excise taxes, highway tolls, customs duties.

Trading the income tax for a consumption tax would likely be a move toward regressive taxation, since poorer peo-ple spend larger percentages of their incomes on items that carry a sales tax; in response to this observation, some argue that the consumption tax rate could be progressive. A universal sales tax could not incorporate such rate flexi-bility, though, and would be more regressive.

6.This is a thought question for which there are many answers. Some initial ideas are as follows:

a.An AIDS vaccine: Global—subsidize its production and distribution;

b.Pollution controls designed to reduce acid rain: National/global—levy effluent charges or impose standards

[with compensation (?)];

c.Coastal defenses against ocean storms: Local or national—make provision;

d. A program directed at reducing factory noise in New Britain: Local—engage in regulation [based on national

or international standards to maintain competitive position (?)];

e.CFC emissions reductions to prevent ozone depletion in the stratosphere: Global—impose absolute standards

or ban them [substitutes exist (?)].

7. a.Prices increase for consumers, with the tax being shared between consumers and producers. We would expect

consumers to pay more of the tax in the short run, when demand is relatively more inelastic.

b.If labor supply is perfectly inelastic, the workers will bear the entire burden of any new payroll tax. If labor

supply is backward bending, the burden of the tax will depend on the market’s current position on the curve.

c.The corporation will pay the entire tax because any reduction in return will cause capital flight.

8.Correlation does not imply causation. To analyze the experience correctly, you need a model that captures causality,

a complete description of the tax cuts and how they were distributed, and some historical context to evaluate the

impact of changes in other economic variables.

C HAPTER16: G OVERNMENT T AXATION AN

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E XPENDITURE79

9.Average tax rates based on AGI: 0,1.5, 6, 9, 15, and l9 percent.

Marginal tax rates based on the indicated jumps in AGI: 3, 11,11, 20, 21 percent. The tax is progressive on the basis of the adjusted gross income.

Average tax rates based on T7: 0,15, 15, 15, 21, and 24 percent.

Marginal tar rates based on the indicated jumps in TV: 15, 15, 15, 25, and 25 percent.

A flat tax would simplify the tax code and make filing a less arduous task for most taxpayers. However, it would

not provide as progressive a tax scheme, and hence may lead to an increase in inequality in the distribution of income.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

1.Explain the difference between transfer expenditures by government and other expenditures. How should each be

treated in evaluating the size of government?

2.Describe in some detail the budget of the federal government for the current fiscal year. Look at data for the past

few years to determine the time trends of each component. As you construct your review of recent history, be sure to cover at least two presidential administrations. Can you see any changes in the trends through the transitions?

Also, use real, not nominal, figures in your analysis.

3.From a global point of view, defense spending is a waste of resources. From a national point of view, defense

spending might be a necessity. Discuss the distinction. Provide your own normative value judgment.

4.Identify taxes that are important at the federal level and at the state and local levels. Which are progressive and

which are regressive? Evaluate the suggestion by the Reagan administration that revenues for various social pro-grams be collected by the states and not by the federal government from an efficiency perspective. Do the same from an equity standpoint.

5.Discuss the various proposals for tax reform that have surfaced recently. Concentrate particularly on the flat tax

proposal and the value-added proposal. What sort of tax reductions might you have proposed in the 2000 election campaign, and how would you have supported your proposals?

6.Should a citizen of Connecticut be asked to pay taxes to help a citizen of California? Of Rhode Island? Of India?

Why or why not? If you answered “yes,” consider questions of implementation: What type of taxes should be used? Does it matter if the need for assistance elsewhere is related to what goes on in Connecticut? Can you quantify measures of “moral obligation” in terms of tax liability? Does “ability to pay” matter?

7.Suggest how the following taxes are most likely to affect the distribution of income: (a) a regressive tax, (b) a

proportional tax, (c) a corporate income tax, (d) an inheritance or estate tax, (e) a sales tax, or (f) a value-added tax.

8.“Unequals should be taxed unequally” is a dictum that misses the essential questions of designing a tax system.

What are those questions and how do they fit into the unequals dictum?

9.What is meant by tax incidence? Why is it a topic of great interest? Try to reason out the possible incidence of the

corporation tax.

10.What is meant by tax expenditure? Would you be in favor of eliminating these “expenditures?” Why? All of them?

What, for example, would be the effect of eliminating the deductibility of mortgage-interest payments?

11.Generate a list of things that government now does in the economic arena that it did not do 5, 10, or 15 years ago.

Explore the genesis of one of the elements on that list, paying particular attention to its political dimension. Where did it get its support? How was it mobilized? Generate a second list of things that the government no longer does that it used to do, and explore their demise in a parallel fashion.

12.List the various major roles that government plays in a mixed economy and discuss the likely trend of each over the

next half decade or so. Do election-year issues change those trends?

13.What is meant by horizontal equity? Does it necessarily imply that married couples earning the same combined

income should be taxed the same, regardless of whether the household contains one or two workers? Which family is better off? Which family, if any, has a higher income potentially? Why?

ESSAY QUESTIONS

1.List the principal expenditure items in the federal budget, and in the budgets of state and local governments.

Indicate the relative importance of each. Produce a similar list of tax expenditures and compare the distributional aspects of the three lists.

80C HAPTER16: G OVERNMENT T AXATION AND E XPENDITURE 2.Suggest and support a tax reform by which the progressive properties of the corporate income tax can be maintained

while removing the inefficient taxation of corporate investment. (This is a difficult question of considerable con-troversy.)

3.Do some taxes actually promote efficiency? If not, why not? If so, explain how and provide a specific example.

4.Describe an efficient system of fiscal federalism and compare it with (a) the current structure and (b) a structure that

would move much of the tax collection burden to the states.

5.Describe the distributional properties of (a) the present tax structure of the United States, (b) the present expenditure

pattern of the United States, and (c) the two halves of the equation taken together. How do your answers depend on assumptions of incidence and efficiency?

6.With the design of tax systems in mind, contrast the ability-to-pay approach with the benefits approach. Relate both

approaches to the structure of American taxation.

7.“Some taxes serve primarily to pay for public goods. Some serve to raise revenues. Some serve to redistribute

income.” Explain and contrast. Give examples.

https://www.wendangku.net/doc/89881241.html,pute the marginal tax rate for the 1999 federal income tax at different levels of affluence. Does it differ from

the tax/income ratio? How?

9.How do taxes affect the inequality of income distribution? Do government expenditures affect the inequality? Why

or why not? Give examples.

10.Explain what it means for a tax to be progressive, proportional, or regressive. In which category does each of these

types of federal tax receipts fall?

a.Excise taxes—tobacco, liquor, gasoline

b.Payroll taxes

c.Personal income taxes

d.Corporation income taxes

e.Estate and gift taxes

11.What types of taxes predominate at the state and local level? Are state and local taxes more or less progressive than

federal taxes? What effect, then, does revenue sharing have on the overall progression of the tax system in the United States?

12.“Even if the primary purpose of taxation is to finance government expenditures, taxation decisions cannot help

intruding into the realm of income redistribution.” Explain this statement.

13.What does an economist mean by the “final incidence” of a tax? Under what circumstances might the incidence of

the corporate income tax be borne by the consumer? By the stockholder?

14.What effects might a progressive tax structure have on risky investment? Discuss. How might the existence of tax

expenditures alter your conclusions? What expenditures are relevant?

15.It has been said that the sole purpose of taxation is to raise the money needed to pay for government expenditure. Is

that a true statement, or are there more dimensions to the design of a system of taxation in, for example, the United States? Elaborate particulars.

16.Some people have suggested that the growth of the government sector of our economy has been generated mostly

by wars and depressions. If you interpret the statement broadly to include the threat of war and the occurrence of severe recession, is the statement accurate? Which functions of government are caught in this interpretation?

Which are missed?

《曼昆—宏观经济学》 重点总结

第２3章一国收入得衡量—GDP 微观经济学(miｃroeｃonomics)研究个别家庭与企业如何做出决策,以及它们如何在市场上相互交易。宏观经济学（macｒoeconomics）研究整个经济，包括通货膨胀、失业率与经济增长。 一GDP 1 定义：国内生产总值(gｒosｓdomｅstic pｒoduｃｔ,GＤP) 就是在某一既定时期一个国家内生产得所有最终物品与劳务得市场价值。 ２组成:GDP（用Y代表）被分为四个组成部分：消费(C)、投资(I)、政府购买（G）、净出口(NX）: Y = C + I ＋G ＋NX 3 实际GDＰ与名义GＤＰ:实际GＤP＝名义ＧＤＰ－通货膨胀率，衡量得就是生产得变动,而不就是物价得变动。 4 ＧDＰ平减指数: ,就是经济学家用来检测经济平均物价水平，从而监测通货膨胀率得一个重要指标。(GＤＰｄeflａtor) 5 GDＰ与经济福利： ?由于GDP用市场价格来评价物品与劳务，它就没有把几乎所有在市场之外进行得活动得价值包括进来,特别就是，GＤP漏掉了在家庭中生产得物品与劳务得价值。 ?GDP没有包括得另一种东西就是环境质量。 ?GＤP也没有涉及收入分配。 二衡量收入得其她指标: ?国民生产总值（ＧNP):就是一国永久居民(称为国民）所赚到得总收入。它与GDP得不同之处在于：它包括本国公民在国外赚到得收入,而不包括外国人在本国赚到得收入。 ?国民生产净值（NNP):就是一国居民得总收入（GNP）减折旧得消耗. ?国民收入、个人收入、个人可支配收入 第２４章生活费用得衡量—CＰＩ 一CPI 1定义：消费物价指数(consuｍer price iｎｄex，CPI）就是普通消费者所购买得物品与劳务得总费用得衡量标准 2 计算：定义篮子→找出价格→计算费用→选择基年并计算指数→计算通货膨胀率 消费者物价指数=＊１00 3 衡量生活费用过程中存在得问题 替代倾向 新产品得引进

宏观经济学教案：完整版

《宏观经济学》 教案 课程名称：宏观经济学适用专业：经济与管理类规定学时：54学时3学分开课学期：二年级上学期任课教师：曾福生 湖南农业大学经济学院

宏观经济学教案 一、课程说明 宏观经济学是从总体、总量出发，以整个国民经济作为考察对象，研究社会总体的经济行为及其后果，以及相应的经济变量如何决定。宏观经济学主要内容包括：国民收入核算理论、国民收入决定理论（支出－收入模型、IS－LM模型、AD－AS模型）、失业与通货膨胀理论、经济增长与经济周期理论、以及宏观经济政策与实践等。该课程主要介绍西方的基本经济理论，由于我们现在在经济领域中更多的是运用西方的理论，因而该课程是其他专业课的基础。但是宏观经济理论以一些假设为前提，与实际差距较大，比较抽象，有时要运用数学进行推导，因此为了更好地学习这门课程，首先挑选了难度适宜的教材，并主要按教材内容来讲授，适当补充一些内容。其次，还需要用一些难度适宜的习题，来使学生更好地掌握理论，提高分析能力。另外，由于经济理论比较抽象和枯燥，在课堂上可以举一些实例帮助学生理解，也可以培养学生用经济理论分析和解决实际问题的能力。 二、教学内容 宏观经济学是西方经济学的重要组成部分，主要介绍宏观经济学的基本知识、基本理论和基本政策。课程主要讲授国民收入核算理论、简单国民收入决定理论、产品市场和货币市场的一般均衡、宏观经济政策与实践、总需求－总供给模型、失业与通货膨胀理论、经济增长和经济周期理论、宏观经济学在目前的争论等内容。 三、本课程的教案主要包括下列教学活动形式 1、本章的教学目标及基本要求 2、本章各节教学内容及学时分配 3、教学重点与难点 4、本章教学内容的深化和拓宽 5、本章教学方式（手段）及教学过程中应注意的问题 6、本章的主要参考书目 7、本章的思考题和习题 8、教学进程 四、课程教学的基本要求 本课程的教学环节包括：课堂讲授、习题课、课外作业。通过本课程各个教学环节的教学，重点培养学生的学习能力、分析问题解决问题的能力。

曼昆 宏观经济学 练习题及答案

Homework 4 1. The Mundell–Fleming model takes the world interest rate r* as an exogenous variable. Let’s consider what happens when this variable changes. a. What might cause the world interest rate to rise? The Mundell–Fleming model takes the world interest rate r* as an exogenous variable. However, there is no reason to expect the world interest rate to be constant. In the closed-economy model of Chapter 3, the equilibrium of saving and investment determines the real interest rate. In an open economy in the long run, the world real interest rate is the rate that equilibrates world saving and world investment demand. Anything that reduces world saving or increases world investment demand increases the world interest rate. In addition, in the short run with fixed prices, anything that increases the worldwide demand for goods or reduces the worldwide supply of money causes the world interest rate to rise. b. In the Mundell–Fleming model with a floating exchange rate, what happens to aggregate income, the exchange rate, and the trade balance when the world interest rate rises? Figure 12–16 shows the effect of an increase in the world interest rate under floating exchange rates. Both the IS* and the LM* curves shift. The IS* curve shifts to the left, because the higher interest rate causes investment I(r*) to fall. The LM* curve shifts to the right because the higher interest rate reduces money demand. Since the supply of real balances M/P is fixed, the higher interest rate leads to an excess supply of real balances. To restore equilibrium in the money market, income must rise; this increases the demand for money until there is no longer an excess supply. Intuitively, when the world interest rate rises, capital outflow will increase as the interest rate in the small country adjusts to the new higher level of the world interest rate. The increase in capital outflow causes the exchange rate to fall, causing net exports and hence output to increase, which increases money demand.

萨缪尔森经济学Economics第十八版 18th 课后概念、习题答案17

CHAPTER OVERVIEW AND TEACHING TIPS Chapter 17 presents historical and theoretical portraits of regulatory and antitrust activities in the United States. Both are evolving, and your students need to understand that. It may be helpful to review both the competitive benchmark of efficiency and the various ways that markets can fall short of this ideal. Evolution can then be cast in terms of judging the social welfare implications of various types and degrees of market failure. This chapter concentrates on one of government’s primary challenges in exercising its efficiency role: performing a watchdog function to prevent excessive abuse of market power. Also, the chapter focuses your attention on the two major tools employed by the U.S. government to put some “teeth” into its careful monitoring of business activity:regulation and antitrust activity. Regulation is often employed when economies of scale are so significant in a production process that a monopoly is the only efficient solution. Government agencies are organized to monitor the behavior of the monopolist and to protect the interests of consumers. Antitrust legislation is designed to prevent monopolies from forming and to attack anticom-petitive abuses. The Sherman Antitrust Act and the Clayton Act form the backbone of antitrust policies; the Federal Trade Commission Act established the FTC as the agency in charge of monitoring and enforcing the legislation. Of course, as with any laws, the courts ultimately interpret their meaning, and a century of legal precedent defines the meaning of these statutes. LEARNING OBJECTIVES 1. Distinguish between two brands of regulation: economic and social . Explain why government would use either of these types of regulation to alleviate market failure.2. Review the three major public-interest justifications of regulation.3. Provide an overview of the alternative strategies that can be used to regulate natural monopolies .Illustrate these alternatives, and use your illustration to discuss the costs of regulation.4. Explain the significance of the Sherman Antitrust Act, the Clayton Act ,and the Federal Trade Commission Act .5. Understand the differences between conduct and structure as used in the application of antitrust laws.6.Trace the evolution of antitrust activity to its modern formulation, which has focused on improving efficiency and not just on preventing bigness itself. SUGGESTED ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS IN THE TEXT 1. Consider economic regulation and antitrust policies. Some components of each are more direct and allow less flexibility. Others are more indirect and allow correspondingly more flexibility. As you consider strengths and weaknesses, state the objectives of “restraint” explicitly.2.Consult Figure 17-1; it duplicates Figure 17-2 in the text. Note P M P R P I and Q M Q R Q I .Deadweight loss falls as P M converges to P I , but profits turn negative after P R . Beyond P R , therefore, tax revenue from elsewhere is required and brings with it the effects of its own distortions. If P M is not very much different from P I , this tax distortion might cause a larger welfare reduction. Also, different people lose and gain, so different people prefer different approaches. 81 C H A P T E R P r o m o t i n g M o r e E f f i c i e n t M a r k e t s 17

格里高利.曼昆宏观经济学期末试卷

《宏观经济学》模拟试题及参考答案 第Ⅰ部分模拟试题 一、填空题（每空1分，共10分） 1、平均消费倾向表示消费支出与可支配收入之比。 2、在二部门经济中，均衡的国民收入是总支出和国民收入相等时的国民收入。 3、宏观财政政策包括财政收入政策和财政支出政策。 4、交易余额和预防余额主要取决于国民收入，投机余额主要取决于利息率。 5、宏观货币政策的主要内容有调整法定准备金率、公开市场操作、调整贴现率。 二、判断题（下列各题，如果您认为正确，请在题后的括号中打上“√”号，否则请打上“×”号，每题1分，共10分） 1、财政政策的内在稳定器有助于缓和经济的波动。（对） 2、从短期来说，当居民的可支配收入为0时，消费支出也为0。（×）。 3、消费曲线的斜率等于边际消费倾向。（√） 4、当某种商品的价格上涨时，我们就可以说，发生了通货膨胀。（×）， 5、投机动机的货币需求是国民收入的递增函数。（×） 6、当投资增加时，IS曲线向右移动。（对） 7、在IS曲线的右侧，I

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宏观经济学知识要点总结 第一章 一关键概念 1、实证分析：回答“是什么”的问题，建立逻辑框架对经济行为和现象进行分析和解释，推导出的命题要能用经验数据来检验。 2、规范分析：回答“应该是什么的问题”，从理论上探讨某类经济行为应该是什么或某类经济问题应如何解决。 3、均衡分析：研究经济的部分或整体趋向均衡（一种相对静止、稳定不变的状态）的条件、机制和结果。 4、静态分析：研究经济达到某一状态的条件和结果。 5、动态分析：研究经济的实际变动过程。 6、国内生产总值（GDP）和国民生产总值（GNP）比较： （1）GDP是某一时期内（衡量期的长度通常为一年）在一国境内为市场生产的所有最终产品和服务的货币价值的总和。 （2）国民生产总值（GNP）：一国居民拥有的生产要素在某一时期内为市场生产的所有最终产品和服务的货币价值的总和。 （3）GNP与GDP关系：GNP=GDP+NFP，其中NFP是净要素支付，即本国居民拥有的生产要素在国外使用所获得的报酬（工资、利息、股息等）-国外生产要素在本国使用所获得的报酬。 （4）GNP比GDP更能反映国民收入（一国居民拥有的生产要素所获得的

报酬）的变动，并且，一个国家居民的福利水平更直接地反映在GNP而不是GDP上。

7、名义价值：用核算期货币价值衡量的产品和服务的价值量。 8、实际价值：用基期货币价值衡量的产品和服务的价值量，它是经过通货膨胀调整的价值量。 9、流量：一定时期内的增量，如GDP、GNP、NDP、收入、投资和折旧。 10、存量：某一时点上的累积量，如财富和资本。 11、现值：未来某时刻获得的货币折算到当前时刻的价值。 二复习思考题 1、宏观经济学的研究对象是什么？宏观经济学研究经济整体的运行，主要内容是经济活动整体水平（总收入、失业率、物价指数和通货膨胀率等）的决定。 2、宏观经济学的研究方法是什么？总量分析方法，即分析经济活动整体水平（总收入、失业率、物价指数和通货膨胀率等）的决定、变动和相互关系。 3、请谈谈宏观经济学派与宏观经济学的关系。（1）现代宏观经济学的主要学派包括凯恩斯主义学派、新凯恩斯主义学派、货币主义学派、理性预期学派和供给学派等。（2）现代宏观经济学在各学派的争论中不断发展和演变。争论的内容主要是市场机制的有效性以及政府干预的必要性和效应。 4、你认为当前中国宏观经济运行中的主要问题是什么？（1）内需不足；（2）通货膨胀压力大；（3）外汇储备急剧增加；（4）流动性过剩。 5、简要分析宏观经济学的发展趋势。（1）各流派的争论将会持续下去；（2）新古典综合派仍占正统地位；（3）宏观经济学的精密化、实用化与微观化。

《曼昆—宏观经济学》 重点总结

第23章一国收入的衡量—GDP 微观经济学(microeconomics)研究个别家庭和企业如何做出决策，以及它们如何在市场上相互交易。宏观经济学(macroeconomics)研究整个经济，包括通货膨胀、失业率和经济增长。 一GDP 1 定义：国内生产总值(gross domestic product，GDP) 是在某一既定时期一个国家内生产的所有最终物品与劳务的市场价值。 2 组成：GDP（用Y代表）被分为四个组成部分：消费（C）、投资（I）、政府购买（G）、净出口（NX）： Y = C ＋I ＋G ＋NX 3 实际GDP与名义GDP：实际GDP=名义GDP-通货膨胀率，衡量的是生产的变动，而不是物价的变动。 4 GDP平减指数：，是经济学家用来检测经济平均物价水平，从而监测通货膨胀率的一个重要指标。（GDP deflator） 5 GDP与经济福利： ?由于GDP用市场价格来评价物品与劳务，它就没有把几乎所有在市场之外进行的活动的价值包括进来，特别是，GDP漏掉了在家庭中生产的物品与劳务的价值。 ?GDP没有包括的另一种东西是环境质量。 ?GDP也没有涉及收入分配。 二衡量收入的其他指标： ?国民生产总值(GNP)：是一国永久居民(称为国民)所赚到的总收入。它与GDP的不同之处在于：它包括本国公民在国外赚到的收入，而不包括外国人在本国赚到的收入。 ?国民生产净值(NNP)：是一国居民的总收入(GNP)减折旧的消耗。 ?国民收入、个人收入、个人可支配收入 第24章生活费用的衡量—CPI 一CPI 1 定义：消费物价指数(consumer price index，CPI) 是普通消费者所购买的物品与劳务的总费用的衡量标准 2 计算：定义篮子→找出价格→计算费用→选择基年并计算指数→计算通货膨胀率 消费者物价指数=*100 3 衡量生活费用过程中存在的问题 替代倾向 新产品的引进

宏观经济学》第五版教学大纲

《宏观经济学》教学大纲一、课程基本信息

二、课程主要教学内容 第十二章国民收入核算 教学目的和要求：本章主要研究宏观经济中各有关总量的核算。通过本章的学习，要求学生掌握：（1）西方国民收入核算的核心指标；（2）西方国民收入核算的基本原理。 重点及难点：1、GDP的五点含义 2、国民收入核算中的恒等关系 由于第一节“宏观经济学的特点”已在第一章“绪论”中讲授，因此，本章从第二节开始。 第二节国内生产总值 本节主要知识点： 一、国内生产总值的概念（熟练掌握） 国内生产总值是指经济社会在一定时期内运用生产要素所生产的全部最终产品（包括物品与劳务）的市场价值。 二、国民生产总值与国内生产总值（掌握） GNP以人口为统计标准，指本国居民在国内外生产的最终产品的价值总和； GDP以国境为统计标准，指本国与外国居民在本国生产的最终产品的价值总和。 第三节核算国民收入的两种方法 本节主要知识点： 一、支出法的含义（掌握） 支出法是指核算经济社会在一定时期内用于消费、投资、政府购买与净出口这几方面的总和。 二、收入法的含义（掌握） 收入法是用要素收入即企业生产成本核算GDP。 第四节从国内生产总值到个人可支配收入 本节主要知识点： 本节要求学生掌握以下五个指标之间的关系。 一、国内生产总值GDP 二、国内生产净值NDP=GDP-折旧

三、国民收入NI=NDP-间接税和企业转移支付+政府补助金 四、个人收入PI=NI-公司未分配利润-公司所得税与社会保险税+政府给个人的转移支付 五、个人可支配收入DPI=PI-个人所得税 第五节国民收入的基本公式 本节主要知识点： 一、两部门经济的收入构成与储蓄－投资恒等式（掌握） 从支出看：Y=C+I 从收入看：Y=C+S 储蓄-投资恒等式：I≡S 二、三部门经济的收入构成与储蓄－投资恒等式（掌握） 从支出看：Y=C+I+G 从收入看：Y=C+S+T 储蓄－投资恒等式：I+G≡S+T 第六节名义GDP和实际GDP 本节主要知识点： 一、名义GDP的概念（理解） 用生产物品和劳务的当年价格计算的最终产品的市场价值。 二、实际GDP的概念（理解） 用生产物品和劳务的基期价格计算的最终产品的市场价值。 三、GDP折算指数 = 名义GDP/实际GDP（掌握） 第十三章简单国民收入决定理论 教学目的和要求：本章主要介绍简单产品市场上国民收入的决定。通过本章的学习，要求学生掌握：（1）使用消费函数、储蓄函数来决定国民收入的方法；（2）四种乘数的推导及说明。 重点及难点： 1、乘数原理 2、使用消费函数与储蓄函数决定国民收入 第一节均衡产出 本节主要知识点：

曼昆宏观经济学-课后答案-中文版

第一章宏观经济学的课后答案 复习题 1、由于整个经济的事件产生于许多家庭与许多企业的相互作用，所以微观经济学和宏观经济学必然是相互关联的。当我们研究整个经济时，我们必须考虑个别经济行为者的决策。由于总量只是描述许多个别决策的变量的总和，所以宏观经济理论必然依靠微观经济基础。 2、经济学家是用模型来解释世界，但一个经济学家的模型往往是由符号和方程式构成。经济学家建立模型有助于解释GDP、通货膨胀和失业这类经济变量。这些模型之所以有用是因为它们有助于我们略去无关的细节而更加明确地集中于重要的联系上。模型有两种变量：内生变量和外生变量，一个模型的目的是说明外生变量如何影响内生变量。 3、经济学家通常假设，一种物品或劳务的价格迅速变动使得供给量与需求量平衡，即市场走向供求均衡。这种假设称为市场出清。在回答大多数问题时，经济学家用市场出清模型。 持续市场出清的假设并不完全现实。市场要持续出清，价格就必须对供求变动作出迅速调整。但是，实际上许多工资和价格调整缓慢。虽然市场出清模型假设所有工资和价格都是有伸缩性的，但在现实世界中一些工资和价格是粘性的。明显的价格粘性并不一定使市场出清模型无用。首先偷格并不总是呆滞的，最终价格要根据供求的变动而调整。市场出清模型并不能描述每一种情况下的经济，但描述了经济缓慢地趋近了均衡。价格的伸缩性对研究我们在几十年中所观察到的实际GDP增长这类长期问题是一个好的假设。 第二章宏观经济学数据 复习题 1、GDP既衡量经济中所有人的收入，又衡量对经济物品与劳务的总支出。 GDP能同时衡量这两件事，是因为这两个量实际上是相同的：对整个经济来说，收入必定等于支出。这个事实又来自于一个更有基本的事实：由于每一次交易都有一个买者和一个卖者，所以，一个买者支出的每一美元必然成为一个卖者的一美元收入。 2、CPI衡量经济中物价总水平。它表示相对于某个基年一篮子物品与劳务价格的同样一篮子物品与劳务的现期价格。 3、劳工统计局把经济中每个人分为三种类型：就业、失业以及不属于劳动力。一 失业率是失业者在劳动力中所占的百分比，其中劳动力为就业者和失业者之和。一 -I、奥肯定理是指失业与实际GDP之间的这种负相关关系。就业工人有助于生产物品与劳务，而失业工人并非如此。失业率提高必定与实际GDP的减少相关。舆肯定理可以概括为等式：实际GDP变动百分比-3%-2×失业率的变动，印如果失业率保持不变，实际GDP增长3% 左右。这种正常的增长率是由于人口增长、资本积累和技术进步引起的。失业率每上升一个百分比，实际GDP一般减少2个百分比。一 问题和应用一 1、大量经济统计数字定期公布，包括GDP、失业率、公司收益、消费者物价指数及贸易结余。GDP是一年内所有最终产品与劳务的市场价值。失业率是要工作的人中没有工作的人的比例。公司利润是所有制造企业税后会计利润，它暗示公司一般的财务健康情况。消费者物价指数是衡量消费者购买的物品的平均价格，它是通货膨胀的衡量指标。贸易结余是出口物品与进口物品之间的价差。一 2、每个人的增值是生产的物品的价值减去生产该物品所需的原材料的价值。因此，农夫增值是1美元，面粉厂的增值是2美元，面包店的增值是3美元。GDP就是总的增值，即为6 美元，它正好等于最终物品的价值。一 3、妇女与她的男管家结婚，GDP减少量等于男管家的工资。这是由于GDP是衡量经济中所有人

经济学原理-名词解释

A
Absolute advantage
Average standard of living GDP Average total cost
Accounting profit
Average variable cost
Aggregate demand (AD) curve GDP Aggregate supply (AS) curve
B
Basic principles of economics
Aggregation Behavioral economics Alternate goods Black market Automatic stabilizers Bond Autonomous consumption Boom Y Average fixed cost GDP Budget constraint

G-2
INTRODUCTION TO ECONOMICS
Budget deficit
Cartel
Budget line Cash in the hands of the public
Business cycles GDP Business demand for funds curve Change in demand Central bank
Change in quantity demanded Business firm
Change in quantity supplied
C
Change in supply Capital Coase theorem Capital gains tax
Capital per worker
Command or centrally planned economy
Capital stock
Capitalism
Communism