新编简明英语语言学教程-戴炜栋6-12章复习资料

1.Major sense relations

(1)Synonymy:同义关系refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms. ①Dialectal synonyms—synonyms used in different regional dialects. Eg. British English: autumn. American English: fall. ②S tylistic synonyms---Synonyms differing in style. Eg. Start, begin, commence ③Synonyms that different in their emotive or evaluative meaning. Eg. The two words collaborator and accomplice are synonymous inthat they share the meaning of “a person who helps another”, but they differ in that a collaborator helps another in doing something good, while an accomplice helps another ina criminal act. ④S emantically different synonyms. Eg. The two words amaze and astound are very close in meaning to the word surprise, but have very subtle differences. While amaze suggests confusion and bewilderment, astound suggests difficulty in believing. ⑤Collocational s ynonyms. Eg. charge…. With, rebuke….for, sour milk (2).Polysemy:多义现象It refers to different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more than one meaning. Eg. If we look up he word “table” in any dictionary, we will find the following meanings: 1)a piece of furniture, 2)all the people seated at table, 3)the food that is put on the table, 4)a thin flat piece of stone, metal, wood, etc, and so on

(3).Homonymy同音异义refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form. 1)Homophones同音异义—when two words are identical in sound. Eg. Meet/meat; son/sun; night/knight; Homonymy Homographs同形异义—when two words are identical in spelling. Eg. minute n/minute adj; tear v./ tear n ; lead v./lead n. Complete homonyms—when two words are identical in both spelling and sound. Eg. Fast adj./ fast v. scale n./scale v.

(4).Hyponymy下义关系It refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. the word which is more general in meaning is called superordinate上义词, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms下义词. Eg. Superordinate: animal, hyponyms: dog, cat, tiger, lion, fox, bear.

(5)Antonymy 反义关系It’s the term used for oppositeness of meaning. ①Gradable antonyms分级反义词(a matter of degree). Eg.Old—middle-aged—young; hot-warm-cold .

②Complementary antonyms互补反义词(the denial of one member of pair implies the

assertion of the other) . Eg. Alive—dead; male—female; ③Relational opposites关系反义词(Pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items are called relational opposites)Eg. father-son; teacher-pupil; doctor-patient; buy-sell; above-below; north-south

2.Semantics：can be defined as the study of meaning.

3.The naming theory--Plato. words are just names or labels for things. Limitation: 1.this theory seems applicable to nouns only. 2.within the category of nouns, there are nouns which denote things that do not exist in the real world at all.

4.The conceptualist view: there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to; in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind../ semantic triangle语义三角, triangle of significance意义三角

5.Contextualism：J.R.Firth. It’s based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts./ the situational and the linguistic context.

6.Behaviorism: Bloomfield. It refers to the attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the” situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer”.

7.Sense: It’s concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It’s the collection of all the features of the linguistic form, it’s abstract and de-contextualized. (It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compiliers are interested)

8.Reference: It means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world, it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.

A certain sense can be realized by more than one references, a certain reference can be expressed by more than one sense. Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations.

9.sense relation between sentences句子间的意义关系X is synonymous with Y. (同义), X is inconsistent with Y.(不一致)，X entails Y.(X包含于Y中), X presupposes Y. (Y是X的先决条件)，X is a contradiction.(自我矛盾) , X is semantically anomalous. (语义反常)

https://www.wendangku.net/doc/8516702868.html,ponential analysis(CA)成分分析—a way to analyze lexical meaning. It is a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning. The approach is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components,

called Semantic features.

Plus and minimums signs are used to indicate whether a certain semantic feature is present or absent, these feature symbols are usually written in capitalized letters. Eg. Boy=[+HUMAN] [-ADULT] [+MALE] man=[+HUMAN] [+ADULT] [+MALE]

11.Predication Analysis 述谓结构分析—a way to analyze sentence meaning, 由British Linguist G.Leech提出Predication is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence, it applies to all forms of a sentence, including statements, imperative and interrogative. (the meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of the meanings of all its components.)1)grammatical 2)semantic meaning.

Predication consists of Arguments变元and Predicates谓词. An argument is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal elements in a sentence, a predicate is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.one-place predication eg, “Tom smokes” argument:”TOM” predicate: “SMOKE”, the predition: TOM(SMOKE), two-place predication) eg, “Kids like

a pples” KID,APPLE(LIKE), no-place predication eg, “It is hot”(BET HOT).

12.Pragmatics: 语用学Pragmatics is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.

13.Pragmatics VS Semantics: distinguish→context, The publication of Saussure’s work Course of General Linguistics in the early 20th century marked the beginning of modern linguistics.

14.Context:it’s generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer.

15.Sentence meaning and Utterance meaning: If we take it as a grammatical unit and consider it as a seli-contained unit in isolation from context, then we are regarding it as a sentence./ If we take it as something a speaker utters in a certain situation with a certain purpose, then we are taking it to be an utterance. 区别：the meaning of sentence is abstract, and decontextualized, an utterance is concrete, contextualized.联系：The meaning of an utterance is based on sentence meaning, it’s the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.

Eg. Now take the sentence “The room is messy” as an example. Semantic analysis of the

meaning of the sentence results in the one-place predication ROOM(BE MESSY). Then a pragmatic analysis of the utterance will revel what the speaker intend to do with it. For example, it could have been uttered by a mother and her son, when a mother entered into her son’s room, and found his room was in disorder. Thus she said to her son:”The room is messy.” She in fact was blaming him for lazi ness and asked him to clean it.

16.Speech act theory言语行为理论:

(1)首先John Austin. I t’s an important theory in the pragmatic study of language. it’s a philosophical explanation of the nature of linguistic communication. it aims to answer the question ”what do we do when using language?”Austin’s model:Constatives叙事话语：were statements that either state or describe, and were thus verifiable. performatives行事话语:did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable 然后又建立了三种行为理论：locutionary act言内行为→句子词组的表面意义, illocutionary act言外行为→暗含义, perlocutionary act言后行为→执行的动作，以you have left the door wide open为例. Locutionary act:: expressed what each word of this sentence literally mean. illocutionary act: expressed his intention of speaking, asking someone to close the door. Perlocutionary act: someone heard the sentence, and close the door, then this act is successfully performed.语言学家对言外行为illocutionary act最感兴趣

(2).美国哲学语言学家John Searle对言外行为分成了5类1)阐述性Representatives---stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true例词:stating, believing, swearing, hypothesizing最有代表性, 2)指令性Directives---trying to get the hearer to do something 例词:inviting, suggesting ,requesting ,advising ,warning ,threatening, ordering 3)承诺性Commissives--- future例词:promising, undertaking, vowing 4)表达类Expressives---the speaker is expressing his feelings or attitude towards an existing state of affairs.例词:apologizing ,thanking, congratulating 5)宣告类Declaration s---the successful performance of an act of this type brings about the correspondence between what is said and reality. 例句I now declare the meeting open/I appoint you chairman of the committee/I fire you. 这五类differ in their strength or force.

17.Principle of conversation会话原则→Cooperative Principle合作原则: In Grice’s view, to converse with each other, the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate;

otherwise, it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk. This general principle is called the Cooperative Principle(CP) 1) the maxim of Quantity数量原则---你说的话应包含所需内容且不可超过内容要求eg. A: When is Susan’s farewell party? B: Sometime next month. 2）the maxim of Quality 质量原则---不说你认为是假的话或你缺乏足够证据的话. Eg. A:Would you like to join us for the picnic on Sunday? B:I’m afraid I have got a class on Sunday. 3)the maxim of relation关系原则--使你的话与话题相关eg. A:How did math exam go today,Tom? B:We had a Basketball match with the other class and we beat them. 4)the maxim of manner方式原则--避免模糊、歧义，应简明有序。Eg. A: Shall we get something for the kids. B: Yes. But I veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.

18.Addition of new words 1)Coinage创新词：A new word can be coined outright to fit some purpose, mostly for new things and objects. Eg. digital camera, Taikonaut. 2)Clipped words缩略词.Eg: quake—earthquake, script—prescription. 3)Blending 紧缩法：A blending is a word formed by combining parts of other words. Eg:smog=smoke+fog, motel=motor+hotel.4)Acronym首字母Acronyms are words derived from the initials of several words. Eg:IT—information technology, WTO—World Trade Organization.

5)Back-formation逆构词法New words may be coined from already existing words by “subtracting” an affix thought to be part of the old word. eg: to edit(derived from editor on the mistaken assumption that “or” was the agentive) , to beg(derived from beggar) 6)Functional shift:功能转换Words may shift from one part speech to another without the addition of affixes, which s also called conversion. Eg:Noun-verb: to knee, to bug to tape 7)Borrowing 借词When different cultures come into contact, words are often “borrowed” from one language to another. The loan word may label a new concept, or it may replace or become a synonym of a native word. Eg: Chinese: tea, kowtow, sampan

19. Semantic Change. 1)Semantic broadening语义扩大eg:holiday [+specific] →holy day [+general] →any rest day

2)Semantic narrowing语义缩小the word “deer”’, the narrowing of meaning: any animal→a particular kind animal 3)Semantic shift语义转换~elevation of meaning意义的提升：The overworked Modern English word “nice” meant “ignorant” a thousand years ago. ~degradation of meaning意义的降落：lust used to mean simply “pleasure” with no negative or sexual overtones and immoral meant “not customary”.

20. Sociolinguistics:It’s the sub-field of linguistics that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and social structures in which the users of language live.

21.Dialectal varieties方言变体→different user

(1)Regional dialect地域方言: A regional dialect is a linguistic variety used by people living in the same geographical region.

(2)Sociolect社会方言: Sociolect refers to the linguistic variety characteristic of a particular social class.

(3)Language and gender 语言和性别~Male and female speeches are also found to be different in the use of intonations声调~~Gender differentiation is also reflected in the use of certain lexical items.某些词汇项的使用

(4)Language and age (5)Idiolect个人语言: An individual speaker’s regional and social background, his/her gender and age jointly determine the way he/she talks.(6)Ethnic dialect种族方言→Black English

22. Register语域→different use

The type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a register. Field of discourse语场→the area, refers to what is going on. It answers the questions of “why” and “about what”.

Tenor of discourse语旨→refers to the role of relationship.It answers the question of “to whom”. It determines the level of formality and the level of technicality of the language we use.

Mode of discourse语式→refers to the means of communication. It is concerned with “how” 分为speaking and writing

23.Degree of formality正式度.1)intimate 2)casual 3)consultative 4)formal 5)frozen

24.Standard dialect标准语:The standard dialect is a particular variety of a language in that it is not related to any particular group of language users, but it is the variety which any member of a speech community can possibly use regardless of his social and geographical backgrounds, his gender and age.

25.A pidgin洋泾浜is a special language variety that mixes or blends languages and it is used by people who speak different languages for restricted purposes such as trading.

26.Creole克里奥尔语When a pidgin has become the primary language of a speech community, and is acquired by the children of that speech community as their native language, it is said to have become a creole.

27.Bilingualism双语现象It has been observed that in some speech communities, two languages are used side by side each having a different role to play; and language switching occurs when the situation changes, This constitutes the situation of Bilingualism

28.diglossia双语The term diglossia, first used by Ferguson in 1959, refers to a sociolinguistic situation similar to bilingualism. But instead of two different languages, in a diglossia situation two varieties of a language exist side by side throughout the community, with each having a definite role to play.

29.Culture: In a broad sense, means integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief, and behavior that is both a result of and integral to the human capacity for learning and transmitting knowledge to succeeding generations. In a narrow sense, culture may refer to local or specific practice, beliefs or customs, which can be manifested in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture,etc.

30.Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis萨丕尔-沃尔夫假说: different languages offer people different ways of expressing the world around, and so they think and speak differently: this is the well-known linguist ic relativity. Sapir and Whorf believe that language filters people’s perception and the way they categorize their experiences. This interdependence of language and thought is now known as Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis(SWH) 分类: a strong version→determine, a weak version→influences

31.Any linguistic sign may simultaneously have a denotative外延, connotative隐含, or iconic图标（1.greetings and terms of address问候语和称呼语, 2.gretitude and compliments感激语和称赞语, 3.colour words, 4, privacy and taboos,隐私语禁忌语5.rounding off numbers数字处理, 6,words and cultural-specific connotation s词汇在不同语言中的暗含意义, 7.cultural-related idioms, proverbs and metaphors习语，谚语，隐喻）

32.Acculturation文化交流:is a process of changing in material culture, traditional practices, and beliefs that occurs when one group’s cultur al system interferes with that of another, directly or indirectly challenging the latter to adapt to the ways of the former.

33.Assimilation同化作用is the process whereby individuals or groups of differing ethnicity are absorbed into the dominant culture of a society—though not always completely.

https://www.wendangku.net/doc/8516702868.html,nguage acquisition语言习得refers to a child’s acquisition of his mother tongue, i.e. how the child comes to understand and speak the language and his community.

35.A behaviorist view of language acquistion行为主义者眼中的语言习得观→B.F.Skinners

(1) Traditional behaviorists view language as a kind of behavior and believe that language learning is simply a matter of imitation and habit formation. Advantage:The behaviorist theory of child language acquisition offers a reasonable account of how children acquire some of the regular and routine aspects the language. Disadvantage: yet it fails to explain how they acquire more complex grammatical structures of the language.

(2)An innatist view of language acquisition天赋主义

1)Language Acquisition Device: Chomsky proposed that human beings are born with an innate ability known as Language Acquisition Device(LAD) 语言习得机制

2)Universal Grammar(UG): The LAD was described as an imaginary “black box” is said to contain principles that are universal to all human languages. Children need access to the samples of a natural language to activate the LAD which enables them to discover his language’s structure by matching the innate knowledge of basic grammatical system to that particular language. Later Chomsky referred this innate endowment as Universal Grammar(UG)

36.Critical Period Hypothesis(CPH)关键期假说→Eric Lenneberg, a biologist, argued that the LAD, like other biological functions, works successfully only when it is stimulated at the right time—a specific and limited time period for language acquisition—which is referred to as the Critical Period Hypothesis

Two versions of the CPH: (1).the strong one suggests that children must acquire their first language by puberty or they will never be able to learn from subsequent exposure. (2). the weak holds that language learning will be more difficult and incomplete after puberty.

37.Second language acquisition(SLA)第二语言习得refers to the systematic study of how one person acquires a second language subsequent to his native language.

38.Contrastive Analysis(CA)对比分析: Starting with describing comparable features of the native language and the target language(e.g. tense, words or expressions etc.), contrastive analysis compares the forms and meanings across these two languages to locate the mismatches or differences so that people can predict the possible learning difficulty learners may encounter. 分类：positive transfer正迁移→facilitate target language learning促进, negative transfer负迁移→interfere.

39.Error Analysis错误分析→分类:

1）The interlingual errors语际错误: The interlingual errors mainly result from cross-linguistic interference at different levels such as phonological, lexical, grammatical or discoursal,etc.

2）The intralingual errors语内错误mainly result from faulty or partial learning of the target language, independent of the native language.语内错误包括(1)Overgeneralization过度概括:Overgeneralization is defined as the use of previously available strategies in new situations. (2)Cross-association互相联想:In English we sometimes may come across words which are similar in meaning. Their spelling and pronunciation are also alike. The close association of the two often leads to confusion. Such interference is often referred as cross-association

40.Errors defined as unintentional deviants from the target language and not self-corrigible by the learn, suggest failure in competence能力. Mistakes, defined as either intentional or unintentional deviant forms and self-corrigible, suggest failure in performance行为

41.Interlanguage中介语—S.Pit Corder and Larry Selinker 特征:systematicity系统性, permeability渗透性, fossilization语言石化

42. Input hypothesis 输入假说—Krashen assumed that there were two independent means or routes of second language learning: acquisition and learning.

Acquisition is a process similar to the way children acquire their first language. It is a subconscious process without minute learning of grammatical rules. People refer to it as implicit learning, informal learning or natural learning etc. learning refers to conscious efforts to learn the second language knowledge by learning the rules and talking about the rules.

In addition to the distinction, Krashen put forward that learners advance their language learning gradually by receiving “comprehensible input”可理解输入. He defined comprehensible input as “i + 1”: i represents learners’ current state of knowledge, the next stage is the i + 1. By providing comprehensible input which is slightly above the learners’ current level, the learners’ LAD will be activated and contribute to acquisition.

陈新仁《英语语言学实用教程》章节题库(含名校考研真题)-第8~11章【圣才出品】

第8章英语语言的应用（I） I. Fill in the blanks. 1. A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the _____ of, or the _____the utterance. （人大2004研） 【答案】consequence, change brought about by 【解析】言外行为指说话的效果。 2. When a teacher says “The exam this year is going to be really difficult”, the sentence would have an _____force. （清华2001研，清华2000研） 【答案】illocutionary 【解析】言外行为，表达说话人的意图。 3. _____ were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable. 【答案】Performatives 【解析】施为句是用来做事的，既不陈述事实，也不描述情况，且不能验证其真假。 II. Multiple Choices. 1. The speech act theory was developed by _____.（对外经贸2006研) A. John Searle B. John Austin

C. Levinson D. G. Leech 【答案】B 【解析】言语行为理论是哲学家约翰·奥斯丁在他《如何以言行事》一文中提出的。它从哲学意义上对语言交际的本质进行解释，其目的在于回答”用语言干什么”这个问题。 2. Point out which item does not fall under the same category as the rest. (Focus on the type of illocutionary act) （南京大学2007研） A. threaten B. advise C. beseech D. urge 【答案】A 【解析】A为命令性言语行为，而其他三项为指示性言语行为。 3. _____ is using a sentence to perform a function. （西安外国语学院2006研） A. A perlocutionary act B. An illocutionary act C. A locutionary act D. Speech act 【答案】D 【解析】约翰·奥斯丁在他《如何以言行事》一文中提出言语行为理论, 此理论对语言交际的

《语言学教程》中文笔记(完整)

语言学教程笔记 第一章语言学导论 语言的定义特征：从本质上将人类语言与动物语言区分开的人类语言的区别性特点。 1. 任意性：任意性是指语言符号的形式与所表示的意义没有天然的联系，任意性是语言的核 心特征。例如，我们无法解释为什么一本书读作 a /buk/，一支钢笔读作a /pe n/。 任意性具有不同层次：（1）语素音义关系的任意性。（2）句法层面上的任意性。 （3） 任意性和规约性。 2. 二层性：二层性是指拥有两层结构的这种特性，上层结构的单位由底层结构的元素构成， 每层都有自身的组合规则。话语的组成元素是本身不传达意义的语音，语音的唯一作用就是 相互组合构成有意义的单位，比如词。因为底层单位是无意的，而上层单位有明确的意义，所以我们把语音叫做底层单位，与词等上层单位相对。二层性使语言拥有了一种强大的能产 性。 3. 创造性：创造性指语言的能产性，指语言有制造无穷长句的潜力，这来源于语言的二层性 和递归性。利用二重性说话者可以通过组合基本语言单位，无止境地生成句子，大多数都是以前没有过的或没有听过的。 4. 移位性：是指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间上和空间上并不可及的 物体、时间或观点。因此我们可以提及孔子或北极，虽然前者已经去世两千五百五十多年而 后者位置距我们非常之远。语言使我们能够谈及已不存在或还未出现的事物。移位性赋予人 们的概括与抽象能力使人类受益无穷。词在指称具体物体时，并不总是出现在即时、形象化 的语境中。他们通常为了体现指称含义而被使用。 5. 文化传递性：语言不是靠遗传，而是通过文化传递的。 6. 互换性：指人可以是信息的发出者，也可以是信息的接受者，即人作为说话者和听话者的 角色是可以随意更换的。 元语言功能：我们的语言可以用来讨论语言本身。比如说，我可以用“书”指代一本书，也可以用“书这个词”来指代“书”这个词本身。这使语言具有无限的自我反身性：人类可以谈论“说话”，也可以思考“思考"。所以只有人类才能提问：元语言功能对交际、思考及人类的意义是什么？

语言学教程第四版第二章 胡壮麟 主编

Chapter 2 Speech sounds Contents ?How sounds are made? ?Consonants and vowels ?Phonological processes, phonological rules and distinctive features ?Suprasegmentals 超音段 ?Two major areas for studying speech sounds: phonetics and phonology ?Phonetics: it studies how speech sounds are made, transmitted and perceived. ?Three branches of phonetics: ?Articulatory phonetics发声语音学 is the study of the production of speech sounds. ?Acoustic phonetics声学语音学 is the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech. Auditory phonetics听觉语音学 is concerned with the perception of speech sounds ?Phonology：it deals with the sound system of a language by treating phoneme 音素 as the point of departure. ?It studies the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. ?Ultimately it aims to discover the rules that underlie the sound patterns of all languages. How speech sounds are made? ? speech organs 言语器官 ?Speech organs are also known as vocal organs（发音器官）. ?Parts of human body involved in the production of speech sounds: lungs, trachea (windpipe) 气管, throat, nose, mouth ? organs of speech (Figure 2.2, p.26 on our books)

新编简明英语语言学教程何兆熊第五章笔记和习题

Chapter 5 Semantics ?Semantics----the study of language meaning. ?Semantics is defined as the study of meaning. However, it is not the only linguistic discipline that studies meaning. ?Semantics answers the question “what does this sentence mean”. In other w ords, it is the analysis of conventional meanings in words and sentences out of context. ?Meaning is central to the study of communication. ?Classification of lexical meanings. Here are G. Leech’s seven types of meaning. ( British linguist) ? 1. Conceptual meaning (also called denotative or cognitive meaning) is the essential and inextricable part of what language is, and is widely regarded as the central factor in verbal communication. It means that the meaning of words may be discussed in terms of what they denote or refer to. ? 2. Connotative meaning – the communicative value an expression has by virtue of what it refers to, embraces the properties of the referent, peripheral ? 3. Social meaning (stylistic meaning) –what is conveyed about the social circumstances of the use of a linguistic expression ? 4. Affective meaning (affected meaning)– what is communicated of the feeling or attitude of the speaker/writer towards what is referred to ? 5. Reflected meaning – what is communicated through association with another sense of the same expression ?Taboos ? 6. Collocative meaning – the associated meaning a word acquires in line with the meaning of words which tend to co-occur with it ?(2, 3, 4, 5, 6 can be together called associative meaning–meaning that hinges on referential meaning, less stable, more culture-specific ) 7. Thematic meaning—what is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order ?What is meaning?---- Scholars under different scientific backgrounds have different understandings of language meaning. Some views concerning the study of meaning ?Naming theory (Plato) ?The conceptualist view ?Contextualism (Bloomfield) ?Behaviorism Naming theory (Plato): Words are names or labels for things. The linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for; words are just names or labels for things ?Limitations: 1) Applicable to nouns only. 2) There are nouns which denote things that do not exist in the real world, e.g. ghost, dragon, unicorn, phenix… 3) There are nouns that do not refer to physical objects but abstract notions, e.g. joy, impulse, hatred…

(完整版)戴炜栋《简明语言学教程》配套笔记_自己整理版

Chapter 1 Introduction What is linguistics? 什么是语言学 [A] The definition of linguistics Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language (对语言进行的科学研究) Process of linguistic study: ① Certain linguistic facts are observed, generalization are formed; ② Hypotheses are formulated; ③ Hypotheses are tested by further observations; ④ A linguistic theory is constructed. [B] The scope of linguistics General linguistics普通语言学: the study of language as a whole从整体研究 1.Phonetics: the general study of the characteristics of speech sounds (or the study of the phonic medium of language) (How speech sounds are produced and classified) 2.Phonology: is essentially the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language.(How sounds form systems and function to convey meaning) 3.Morphology: the study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words (how morphemes are combined to form words) 4.Syntax: the study of those rules that govern the combination of words to form permissible sentences (how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences) 5.Semantics: the study of meaning in abstraction 6.Pragmatics: the study of meaning in context of use Sociolinguistics: the study of language with reference to society Psycholinguistics: the study of language with reference to the workings of the mind Applied linguistics: the application of linguistics principles and theories to language teaching and learning Anthropological linguistics, neurological linguistics; mathematical linguistics; mathematical linguistics; computational linguistics [C] Some important distinctions in linguistics ① Prescriptive vs. Descriptive 规定性与描写性 ② Synchronic vs. Diachronic 共时性与历时性（现代英语多研究共时性） The description of a language at some point in time; The description of a language as it changes through time. ③ Speech and writing 言语与文字 Spoken language is primary, not the written ④ Langue and parole 语言和言语 Proposed by Swiss linguists F. de Sausse (sociological)

新编简明英语语言学教程戴炜栋第1-3章课后练习题答案

《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版第1-3章练习题参考答案 Chapter 1 Introduction P13 1. How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language？ 答：Linguistics is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, the linguists has to collect and observe language facts first, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. The hypotheses thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity. In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation, that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things. 2. What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study? 答：The major branches of linguistics are: (1) phonetics: it studies the sounds used in linguistic communication; (2) phonology: it studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication; (3) morphology: it studies the way in which linguistic symbols representing sounds are arranged and combined to form words; (4) syntax: it studies the rules which govern how words are combined to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages; (5) semantics: it studies meaning conveyed by language; (6) pragmatics: it studies the meaning in the context of language use. 3. In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar? 答：The general approach thus traditionally formed to the study of language over the years is roughly referred to as “t raditional gramma r.” Modern linguistics differs from traditional g rammar in several basic ways. Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive. Second, modem linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tended to emphasize, maybe over-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence. Then, modem linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework. 4. Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why? 答：In modem linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one. Because people believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development. 5. For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing? 答：Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication. Modem linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language for some obvious reasons. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any langu age is always “invented” by its users to reco rd speech when the need arises. Even in today's world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed. And also, speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school. For modern linguists, spoken language reveals many true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised” record of spe ech. Thus their data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regard as authentic.

胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记1_3章

胡壮麟语言学重难点 Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics 常考考点：1. 语言: 语言的定义；语言的基本特征；语言的功能；语言的起源 2. 语言学：语言学的定义；现代语言学与传统语法学研究的三个显著区别；语言学研究的四个原则及简要说明；语言学中的几组重要区别；每组两个概念的含义、区分及其意义；普通语言学的主要分支学科及各自的研究范畴；宏观语言学及应用语言学的主要分支及各自的研究范畴。 1. 语言的定义特征 1.1. 任意性 1.2. 二重性 1.3. 创造性 1.4. 移位性 1.5. 文化传递性 1.6. 互换性 2. 语言的功能 1.1. 信息功能 1.2. 人际功能 1.3. 施为功能 1.4. 感情功能 1.5. 寒暄功能 1.6. 娱乐功能 1.7. 元语言功能

3. 微观语言学 3.1. 语音学 3.2. 音系学 3.3. 形态学 3.4. 句法学 3.5. 语义学 3.6. 语用学 4. 宏观语言学 4.1. 心理语言学 4.2. 社会语言学 4.3. 应用语言学 4.4. 计算语言学 4.5. 神经语言学 5. 重要概念及其区分 5.1. 描写式&规定式 5.2. 共时&历时 5.3. 语言&言语 5.4. 语言能力&语言应用 5.5. 唯素的&唯位的 5.6. 传统语法&现代语法 5.7. 语言潜势&实际语言行为 Chapter 2 Speech Sounds

常考考点：1. 语音学语音学的定义；发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的定义；发音部位、发音方法和分类；英语元音的定义和分类；基本元音；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；语音标记，国际音标；严式与宽式标音法 2. 音系学音系学的定义；音系学与语音学的联系与区别；音素、音位、音位变体、最小对立体、自由变体的定义；音位理论；自由变异；音位的对立分布于互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音；音高和语调。 1. 语音学及其三大领域 1.1. 语音学定义 1.2. 语音学三大领域 ①发音语音学 ②声学语音学 ③听觉语音学 2. 辅音 2.1. 辅音定义 发音时，声道的某些部位受到压缩或阻碍后，使得气流在口腔里转向、受阻或完全被阻塞，由此产生的音叫做辅音。 2.2. 发音方式 发音方式是指发音器官之间的关系，以及气流经过声道的某些部位的方式 2.3. 发音部位 发音部位是指声道的哪些部位发生气流摩擦、狭窄化或阻碍。 3. 元音

陈新仁《英语语言学实用教程》(第2版)笔记和课后习题详解-第13~15章【圣才出品】

第13章英语语言变体（Ⅰ） 13.1 复习笔记 【本章要点】 1. Regional dialects of English 地域方言 2. Social dialects of English 社会方言 3. Styles of English 英语语体 4. Genres and registers of English 英语语类和语域 【本章考点】 方言的定义；地域方言；社会方言；英语正式语体和非正式语体；英语语类；语域。 【本章内容索引】 Ⅰ. Regional dialects of English Ⅱ. Social dialects of English Ⅲ. Styles of English Ⅳ. Genres and registers of English Ⅰ. Regional dialects of English（地域方言） Dialect: A variety of a language used recognizably in a specific region or by a specific social class is called a dialect.

方言：是指在一个特定的区域或一个特定的社会阶层内所使用的能够识别的语言变体。 Like other languages, English may vary in its use in different places and at different historical times. The former results in regional or geographical dialects. It is worth noting that the social value of a regional dialect or variety reveals the social status of its speakers. 同其他语言一样，在不同区域范围和历史发展阶段中，英语的使用方法可能不同。由于地域不同所产生的语言变体就是地域方言。值得注意的是，地域方言或变体的使用体现语言使用者的社会地位。 Ⅱ. Social dialects of English（社会方言） English also varies with the social attributes of its speakers, resulting in what is called social dialects (also termed “social-class dialects”, “sociolects”, or “class dialects”). Often, they arise from the separation brought about by different social conditions. 社会方言，或社会阶层方言，是指具有某一特定社会阶层特征的语言变体。体现使用者的社会属性。通常，社会方言是由不同社会条件所造成的分离引起的。 Ⅲ. Styles of English（英语语体） English, like Chinese, makes a distinction between two styles: formal style and informal style. 和汉语一样，英语也有两种语体：正式语体和非正式语体。 Formal Style: It occurs in social contexts that are formal, serious, often official in

新编简明英语语言学教程笔记

新编简明英语语言学教程笔记 Chapter one Introduction 一、定义 1.语言学Linguistics Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2.普通语言学General Linguistics The study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics. 3.语言language Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。 4.识别特征Design Features It refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递 ⑴arbitrariness There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions ⑵Productivity Animals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send. ⑶Duality Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels. ⑷Displacement Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. ⑸Cultural transmission Human capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species. 二、知识点 https://www.wendangku.net/doc/8516702868.html,nguage is not an isolated phenomenon, it‘s a social activity carried out in a certain social environment by human beings. 语言不是一种孤立的现象，而是人类在一定的社会环境下进行的一种社会活动。 ⑶曾经对语言概念下过定义的语言学家 Sapir---language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communication ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols. Hall----language is the institution whereby humans communicate and interact with each other by means of habitually used oral-auditory arbitrary symbols. Chomsky---from now on I will consider language to be a set of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements. ⑷U.S.A Linguist Charles Hockett美国语言学家Charles Hockett 提出了语言的识别特征design features

陈新仁《英语语言学实用教程》配套题库【课后练习】(英语语言结构(I))【圣才出品】

第4章英语语言结构（I） 课后习题详解 Check your understanding. State whether each of the following statements is True or False. (1) Word order plays an important role in the organization of English sentences. 【答案】T (2) All ambiguous sentences result from our failure to use proper organization. 【答案】F (3) With transformations, we can organize a sentence the way we like. 【答案】F (4) Like English, modern Chinese is a SVO language. 【答案】T In-Class Activities 1. Natural language is said to differ from animals’ communication systems along many lines. For example, it is characterized by its recursive property; in other words, there is no limit to the potential length of sentences, and the set of sentences of any language is infinite. There are a variety of means that enable recursion. Here are the illustrations for some of them in English: a. Jane visited John’s brother’s wife’s mother’s father’s cousin’s friend’s

戴炜栋《新编简明英语语言学教程》笔记和课后习题(含考研真题)详解(音位学)【圣才出品】

第2章音位学 2.1 复习笔记 本章要点： 1. Speech Organs 发音器官 2. Distinction, Classification and the Criteria of Description between Constants and Vowels 辅音和元音的区别、分类及描写规则 3. Phonemes and Allophones 音位和音位变体 4. Phonological Rules and Distinctive Features 音系规则和区别特征 5. Syllable Structure, Stress and Intonation 音节结构、重音和语调 本章考点： 1. 语音学 语音学的定义；发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的定义、发音部位、发音方法和分类；

英语元音的定义和分类、基本元音；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；语音标记，国际音标；严式与宽式标音法。 2. 音系学 音系学的定义；音系学与语音学的联系和区别；音素、音位、音位变体、最小对立体、自由变体的定义；自由变体；音位的对立分布与互补分布；区别性特征；超语段音位学； 音节；重音(词重音、句子重音)；音高和语调。 本章内容索引： I. The phonic medium of language II. Phonetics 1. The definition of phonetics 2. Three research fields 3. Organs of speech ▼4. Voiceless sounds ▼5. Voiced sounds 6. Orthographic representations of speech sounds—broad and narrow transcriptions 7. Classification of English speech sounds (1) Definition (2) Classification of English consonants (3) Classification of English vowels III. Phonology