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环境保护专业英语第十六章课文翻译

环境保护专业英语第十六章课文翻译
环境保护专业英语第十六章课文翻译

Type and Sources of Air Pollutants

空气污染物的类型和来源

What is air pollution?Air pollution is normally defined as air that contains one or more chemicals in high enough co ncentration to harm humans,other animals,vegetation or mate rials.什么是空气污染?空气污染通常是指那种包含一种或多种化学物质富集到高浓度并足以伤害人类、其他动物、植物或材料的空气。

There are two major types of air pollution.主要有两种类型的空气污染。

A primary air pollution is a chemical added directly to the air that occurs in a harmful concentration.初级空气污染是指有害的浓度直接进入到空气中的化学物质。It can be a natural air component,such as carbon dioxide, that rise above its normal concentration,or something not usually found in the air,such as a lead compound emitted by cars burning leaded gasoline.这种化学物质可以是一个自然的空气成分,如超过了正常浓度的二氧化碳,,或通常不会在空气中发现的,如汽车燃烧含铅汽油所排放出来的主要尾气。

A secondary air pollution is a harmful chemical formed in t he atmosphere through a chemical reaction among air component s.次生空气污染是指在大气中由气体成分之间发生化学反应的有害化学物质。Serious air pollution usually results over a city or other area that is emitting high levels of pollutants during a pe riod of air stagnation.严重的空气污染通常是因为一个城市或其他地区在空气流动停滞期间排放了高浓度污染物。The geographic location of some heavily populated cities,suc h as Los Angeles and Mexico City,makes them particularly s usceptible to frequent air stagnation and pollution buildup.一些人口稠密的城市的地理位置,例如洛杉矶和墨西哥城,使他们特别容易受到频

繁的空气停滞和空气污染累积的影响。

We must be careful about depending solely on concentration v alues in determining the severity air pollutants.在仅从浓度来决定严重空气污染物方面,我们必须十分小心。By themselves,measured concentrations tell us nothing about the danger caused by pollutants,because threshold levels,synergy,and biological magnification are also deter mining factors.通过测出的浓度自身并不能告知我们有关污染物所带来的危险的信息,因为临界浓度、协同作用还有生物放大效应都是决定因素。In addition,we run into the issue of conflicting views of what constitutes harm.除此之外,我们碰到关于什么才构成危害的问题的争论。

Major air pollutants following are the11major types of air pollutants.以下11个主要类型的空气污染物是主要空气污染物:1.Carbon oxides:carbon monoxide,carbon dioxide.

1.碳氧化物:一氧化碳,二氧化碳。

2.Sulfur oxides:sulfur dioxide,sulfur trioxide.

2.硫氧化物:二氧化硫,三氧化硫。

3.Nitrogen oxides:nitrous oxide,nitric oxide,nitrogen dio xide. 3.氮氧化物:一氧化二氮,一氧化氮,二氧化氮.

4.Hydrocarbons(organic compounds containing carbon and hydro gen):methane,butane,benzene. 4.碳氢化合物(有机含有碳氢化合物):甲烷丁烷苯。

5.Photochemical oxidants:ozone,PAN, and various aldehydes. 5.光化学氧化剂:臭氧,一组过氧酰基硝酸酯和各种醛。

6.Particulates(solid particles or liquid droplets suspended in air):smoke,dust,soot,asbestos,metallic particles(s

uch as lead,beryllium cadmium),oil,salt spray,sulfate sa lts. 6.颗粒(在空气中的固体颗粒或液滴悬浮):烟雾,尘埃,烟尘,石棉,金属粒子(例如铅,镉铍),石

油,盐雾,盐硫酸。Type and Sources of Air Pollutants

空气污染物的类型和来源

What is air pollution?Air pollution is normally defined as air that contains one or more chemicals in high enough co ncentration to harm humans,other animals,vegetation or mate rials.什么是空气污染?空气污染通常是指那种包含一种或多种化学物质富集到高浓度并足以伤害人类、其他动物、植物或材料的空气。There are two major types of air pollution.主要有两种类型的空气污染。

A primary air pollution is a chemical added directly to the air that occurs in a harmful concentration.初级空气污染是指有害的浓度直接进入到空气中的化学物质。It can be a natural air component,such as carbon dioxide, that rise above its normal concentration,or something not usually found in the air,such as a lead compound emitted by cars burning leaded gasoline.这种化学物质可以是一个自然的空气成分,如超过了正常浓度的二氧化碳,,或通常不会在空气中发现的,如汽车燃烧含铅汽油所排放出来的主要尾气。

A secondary air pollution is a harmful chemical formed in t he atmosphere through a chemical reaction among air component s.次生空气污染是指在大气中由气体成分之间发生化学反应的有害化学物质。Serious air pollution usually results over a city or other area that is emitting high levels of pollutants during a pe riod of air stagnation.严重的空气污染通常是因为一个城市或其他地区在空气流动停滞期间排放了高浓度污染物。The geographic location of some heavily populated cities,suc

h as Los Angeles and Mexico City,makes them particularly s usceptible to frequent air stagnation and pollution buildup.一些人口稠密的城市的地理位置,例如洛杉矶和墨西哥城,使他们特别容易受到频繁的空气停滞和空气污染累积的影响。

We must be careful about depending solely on concentration v alues in determining the severity air pollutants.在仅从浓度来决定严重空气污染物方面,我们必须十分小心。By themselves,measured concentrations tell us nothing about the danger caused by pollutants,because threshold levels,synergy,and biological magnification are also deter mining factors.通过测出的浓度自身并不能告知我们有关污染物所带来的危险的信息,因为临界浓度、协同作用还有生物放大效应都是决定因素。In addition,we run into the issue of conflicting views of what constitutes harm.除此之外,我们碰到关于什么才构成危害的问题的争论。

Major air pollutants following are the11major types of air pollutants.以下11个主要类型的空气污染物是主要空气污染物:1.Carbon oxides:carbon monoxide,carbon dioxide.

1.碳氧化物:一氧化碳,二氧化碳。

2.Sulfur oxides:sulfur dioxide,sulfur trioxide.

2.硫氧化物:二氧化硫,三氧化硫。

3.Nitrogen oxides:nitrous oxide,nitric oxide,nitrogen dio xide. 3.氮氧化物:一氧化二氮,一氧化氮,二氧化氮.

4.Hydrocarbons(organic compounds containing carbon and hydro gen):methane,butane,benzene. 4.碳氢化合物(有机含有碳氢化合物):甲烷丁烷苯。

5.Photochemical oxidants:ozone,PAN, and various aldehydes. 5.光化学氧化

剂:臭氧,一组过氧酰基硝酸酯和各种醛。

6.Particulates(solid particles or liquid droplets suspended in air):smoke,dust,soot,asbestos,metallic particles(s uch as lead,beryllium cadmium),oil,salt spray,sulfate sa lts. 6.颗粒(在空气中的固体颗粒或液滴悬浮):烟雾,尘埃,烟尘,石棉,金属粒子(例如铅,镉铍),石

油,盐雾,盐硫酸。

7.Other inorganic compounds:asbestos,hydrogen fluoride,hyd rogen sulfide,ammonia,sulfur acid,nitric acid.7.其他无机化合物:石棉,氟化氢,硫化氢,氨气,硫酸,硝酸。

8.Other organic compounds:pesticides,herbicides,various al cohols,acids,and other chemicals.

8.其他有机化合物:杀虫剂,除草剂,各种醇,酸和其他化学品。

9.Radioactive substances:tritium,radon,emissions from foss il fuel and nuclear power plants9.放射性物质:氚,氡,矿物燃料排放物和核能发电厂。10.Heat.10.热。Forest fires and decaying organic matter;incomplete combustio n of fossil fuels(about two-thirds of total emissions)and other organic matter in cars and furnaces;cigarette smoke 森林火灾和腐烂的有机物质;不完全燃烧矿物燃料(约占三分之二的总量)和其他来自汽车和炉的有机质;香烟烟雾

Carbon dioxide(CO2):Natural aerobic respiration of living organisms;burning of fossil fuels

自然有氧呼吸的生物体;燃烧化石燃料

Sulfur oxides(SO2and SO3):Combustion of sulfur-containing coal and oil in homes,indust ries and Power plants;

smelting of sulfur-containing ores;volcanic eruptions家庭、工厂和发电厂燃烧含硫的煤和石油;冶炼含硫矿石;火山爆发

Particulates dust soot and oil:煤烟粉尘颗粒物和石油

forests fires,wind erosion,and volcanic eruptions;coal b urning;farming,mining construction,road building,and other land-clearing activities;chemical reactions in the atmospher e;dust stirred up by automobiles;automobile exhaust;coal-b urning electric power and industrial plants森林火灾,风蚀,和火山爆发;燃煤;农业,采矿工程,道路建设,以及其他土地清理活动;大气中的化学反应;汽车引发的粉尘;汽车尾气;燃煤电力厂房和工业厂房Nitrogen oxides(NO and NO2):

High-temperature fuel combustion in motor vehicles and industr ial and fossil fuel power plants;lighting高温燃料燃烧机动车辆,工业和矿物燃料发电厂;照明Photochemical oxidants光化学氧化剂

Sunlight acting on hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides碳氢化合物和氮氧化物在阳光下反应Hydrocarbons碳氢化合物

Incomplete combustion fossil fuels in automobiles and furnaces ;evaporation of industrial solvents and oil spills;tobacco smoke;forest fires;plant decay(about85percent of emis sions)不完全燃烧化石燃料的汽车和火炉;蒸发的工业溶剂和石油泄漏;烟草烟雾;森林火灾;植物的腐烂(大约百分之85的排放)Pesticides and herbicides:

Agriculture;forestry;mosquito control农业;林业;蚊虫控制Asbestos:石棉Asbestos mining;spraying of fireproofing insulation in buildi ngs;deterioration of brake linings石棉

开采;防火隔热建筑的喷漆;制动片的变质

Metals and Metal Compounds:金属和金属化合物

化学专业英语(修订版)翻译

01 THE ELEMENTS AND THE PERIODIC TABLE 01 元素和元素周期表 The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is referred to as the atomic number, or proton number, Z. The number of electrons in an electrically neutral atom is also equal to the atomic number, Z. The total mass of an atom is determined very nearly by the total number of protons and neutrons in its nucleus. This total is called the mass number, A. The number of neutrons in an atom, the neutron number, is given by the quantity A-Z. 质子的数量在一个原子的核被称为原子序数,或质子数、周淑金、电子的数量在一个电中性原子也等于原子序数松山机场的总质量的原子做出很近的总数的质子和中子在它的核心。这个总数被称为大量胡逸舟、中子的数量在一个原子,中子数,给出了a - z的数量。 The term element refers to, a pure substance with atoms all of a single kind. T o the chemist the "kind" of atom is specified by its atomic number, since this is the property that determines its chemical behavior. At present all the atoms from Z = 1 to Z = 107 are known; there are 107 chemical elements. Each chemical element has been given a name and a distinctive symbol. For most elements the symbol is simply the abbreviated form of the English name consisting of one or two letters, for example: 这个术语是指元素,一个纯物质与原子组成一个单一的善良。在药房“客气”原子的原子数来确定它,因为它的性质是决定其化学行为。目前所有原子和Z = 1 a到Z = 107是知道的;有107种化学元素。每一种化学元素起了一个名字和独特的象征。对于大多数元素都仅仅是一个象征的英文名称缩写形式,一个或两个字母组成,例如: oxygen==O nitrogen == N neon==Ne magnesium == Mg

电气工程及其自动化专业英语第二章课文翻译

第二章第一篇 To say that we live in an age of electronics is an understatement. From the omnipresent integrated circuit to the equally omnipresent digital computer, we encounter electronic devices and systems on a daily basis. In every aspect of our increasingly technological society— whether it is science, engineering, medicine, music, maintenance, or even espionage—the role of electronics is large, and it is growing. 谈论关于我们生活在一个电子学时代的论调是一种空泛的论调。从无处不在的集成电路到同样无处不在的数字计算机,我们在日常活动中总会遇到电子设备和电子系统。在我们日益发展的科技社会的方方面面——无论是在科学、工程、医药、音乐、维修方面甚至是在谍报方面——电子学的作用是巨大的,而且还将不断增强。 In general, all of the tasks with which we shall be concerned can be classified as "signal-processing“tasks. Let us explore the meaning of this term 一般说来,我们将要涉及到的工作被归结为“信号——处理”工作,让我们来探究这个术语的含义吧。 A signal is any physical variable whose magnitude or variation with time contains information. This information might involve speech and music, as in radio broadcasting, a physical quantity such as the temperature of the air in a room, or numerical data, such as the record of stock market transactions. The physical variables that can carry information in an electrical system are voltage and current. When we speak of "signals", therefore, we refer implicitly to voltages or currents. However, most of the concepts we discuss can be applied directly to systems with different information-carrying variables. Thus, the behavior of a mechanical system (in which force and velocity are the variables) or a hydraulic system (in which pressure and flow rate are the variables) can often be modeled or represented by an equivalent electrical system. An understanding of the behavior of electrical systems, therefore, provides a basis for understanding a much broader range of phenomena. 信号就是其与时间有关的量值或变化包含信息的任何物理变量。这种信息或许像无线电广播的演讲和音乐,或许是像室内温度的物理量,或许像股市交易记录的数字数据。在电气系统中能够载有信息的物理变量是电压和电流。因此当我们谈到“信号”,我们不言而喻指的是电压和电流,然而,我们要讨论的大多数概念是可以被直接应用于载有不同信息的变量的系统,因此,一个机械系统(在这个系统中力和速度是其变量)或者液压系统(在这个系统中压力和流速是其变量)的性能通常可以用一个等效的电气系统来模拟或表示。因此,我们对于电气系统性能的理解为理解更宽领域的现象打下了一个基础。 A signal can carry information in two different forms. In an analog signal the continuous variation of the voltage or current with time carries the information. An example, in Fig.2-l, is the voltage produced by a thermocouple pair when the two junctions are at different temperatures. As the temperature difference between the two junctions varies, the magnitude of the voltage across the thermocouple pair also varies. The voltage thus provides an analog representation of the temperature difference. 一个信号可以以两种形式来承载信息。在一个模拟信号中电压或电流随时间而产生的连续变化载有信息。在图2-1中,当一对热电偶的接头处于不同的温度时由热电偶所产生的电压就是一个例子。当两个接头之间的温度差改变时,一对热电偶两端的电压也将改变。于是电压就提供了温度差的模拟表现形式 The other kind of signal is a digital signal. A digital signal is one that can take on values within two discrete ranges. Such signals are used to represent ON-OFF or YES-NO information. An ordinary household thermostat delivers a digital signal tocontrol the furnace. When the

化学专业英语翻译1

01.THE ELEMENTS AND THE PERIODIC TABLE 01元素和元素周期 表。 The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is referred to as the atomic number, or proton number, Z. The number of electrons in an electrically neutral atom is also equal to the atomic number, Z. The total mass of an atom is determined very nearly by the total number of protons and neutrons in its nucleus. This total is called the mass number, A. The number of neutrons in an atom, the neutron number, is given by the quantity A-Z. 原子核中的质子数的原子称为原子序数,或质子数,卓电子数的电中性的原子也等于原子序数Z,总质量的原子是非常接近的总数量的质子和中子在原子核。这被称为质量数,这个数的原子中的中子,中子数,给出了所有的数量 The term element refers to, a pure substance with atoms all of a single kind. To the chemist the "kind" of atom is specified by its atomic number, since this is the property that determines its chemical behavior. At present all the atoms from Z = 1 to Z = 107 are known; there are 107 chemical elements. Each chemical element has been given a name and a distinctive symbol. For most elements the symbol is simply the abbreviated form of

《化学工程与工艺专业英语》课文翻译 完整版

Unit 1 Chemical Industry 化学工业 1.Origins of the Chemical Industry Although the use of chemicals dates back to the ancient civilizations, the evolution of what we know as the modern chemical industry started much more recently. It may be considered to have begun during the Industrial Revolution, about 1800, and developed to provide chemicals roe use by other industries. Examples are alkali for soapmaking, bleaching powder for cotton, and silica and sodium carbonate for glassmaking. It will be noted that these are all inorganic chemicals. The organic chemicals industry started in the 1860s with the exploitation of William Henry Perkin‘s discovery if the first synthetic dyestuff—mauve. At the start of the twentieth century the emphasis on research on the applied aspects of chemistry in Germany had paid off handsomely, and by 1914 had resulted in the German chemical industry having 75% of the world market in chemicals. This was based on the discovery of new dyestuffs plus the development of both the contact process for sulphuric acid and the Haber process for ammonia. The later required a major technological breakthrough that of being able to carry out chemical reactions under conditions of very high pressure for the first time. The experience gained with this was to stand Germany in good stead, particularly with the rapidly increased demand for nitrogen-based compounds (ammonium salts for fertilizers and nitric acid for explosives manufacture) with the outbreak of world warⅠin 1914. This initiated profound changes which continued during the inter-war years (1918-1939). 1.化学工业的起源 尽管化学品的使用可以追溯到古代文明时代,我们所谓的现代化学工业的发展却是非常近代(才开始的)。可以认为它起源于工业革命其间,大约在1800年,并发展成为为其它工业部门提供化学原料的产业。比如制肥皂所用的碱,棉布生产所用的漂白粉,玻璃制造业所用的硅及Na2CO3. 我们会注意到所有这些都是无机物。有机化学工业的开始是在十九世纪六十年代以William Henry Perkin 发现第一种合成染料—苯胺紫并加以开发利用为标志的。20世纪初,德国花费大量资金用于实用化学方面的重点研究,到1914年,德国的化学工业在世界化学产品市场上占有75%的份额。这要归因于新染料的发现以及硫酸的接触法生产和氨的哈伯生产工艺的发展。而后者需要较大的技术突破使得化学反应第一次可以在非常高的压力条件下进行。这方面所取得的成绩对德国很有帮助。特别是由于1914年第一次世界大仗的爆发,对以氮为基础的化合物的需求飞速增长。这种深刻的改变一直持续到战后(1918-1939)。 date bake to/from: 回溯到 dated: 过时的,陈旧的 stand sb. in good stead: 对。。。很有帮助

电气工程及其自动化专业英语第五章课文翻译

Most people can formulate a mental picture of a computer, but computers do so many things and come in such a variety of shapes and sizes that it might seem difficult to distill their common characteristics into an all-purpose definition. At its core, a computer is a device that accepts input, processes data, stores data, and produces output, all according to a series of stored instructions. Computer input is whatever is put into a computer system. Input can be supplied by a person, by the environment, or by another computer. Examples of the kinds of input that a computer can accept include the words and symbols in a document, numbers for a calculation, pictures, temperatures from a thermostat, audio signals from a microphone, and instructions from a computer program. An input device, such as a keyboard or mouse, gathers input and transforms it into a series of electronic signals for the computer. In the context of computing, data refers to the symbols that represent facts, objects, and ideas. Computers manipulate data in many ways, and we call this manipulation processing. The series of instructions that tell a computer how to carry out processing tasks is referred to as a computer program, or simply a "program." These programs form the software that sets up a computer to do a specific task. In a computer, most processing takes place in a component called the central processing unit (CPU), which is sometimes described as the"brain" of the computer. A computer stores data so that it will be available for processing. Most computers have more than one location for storing data, depending on how the data is being used. Memory is an area of a computer that temporarily holds data that is waiting to be processed, stored, or output. Storage is the area where data can be left on a permanent basis when it is not immediately needed for processing. Output is the results produced by a computer. Some examples of computer output include reports, documents, music, graphs, and pictures. An output device displays, prints, or transmits the results of processing. Computers are versatile machines, which are able to perform a truly amazing assortment of tasks, but some types of computer are better suited to certain tasks than other types of computers. Computers can be categorized as personal computer, handheld computers, workstations, mainframes, supercomputers , and servers. 大多数人可以制订一个电脑精神的图片,但电脑做很多事情,出现这样的形状和大小不同,它似乎难以提炼成一个全能的定义,它们的共同特点。在其核心,一台计算机是一种装置,它接受输入,处理数据,存储数据,并产生输出,根据对所有存储一系列指示。 什么是计算机输入到计算机系统的压力。输入可提供的一人,由环境,或由另一台计算机。对输入的各种例子,一个计算机可以接受包括文字和符号的文件,规定计算,图片,从恒温器的温度数字,音频信号从一个麦克风,从电脑程序指令。一个输入设备,如键盘或鼠标,集输和转换成一个电子信号的计算机的一系列。 在计算中,数据是指以符号代表的事实,对象和想法。计算机操作在很多方面的数据,我们称之为操作处理。一系列的指令,告诉计算机如何进行处理任务,被称为一个计算机程序,或只是一个“程序”。这些方案形成了软件,建立了计算机做特定的任务。在计算机中,大部分处理发生在一个组件的地方称为中央处理单元(CPU),有时为“大脑的计算机”来形容。 计算机存储数据,以便它会被用作处理可用。大多数计算机有多个用于存储数据的位置,这取决于数据如何被使用。内存是计算机的一个领域,数据是暂时持有等待处理,存储或输出。在数据存储,是可以在一个地区长期离开时,没有立即处理所需。 输出是由电脑产生的结果。电脑输出的一些例子包括报告,文件,音乐,图形,图片。输出设备显示,打印,或传送的处理结果。 电脑是多功能机,它能够执行各种各样的任务十分惊人,但某些类型的计算机更适合比其他类型的计算机的某些任务。计算机可以被归类为个人电脑,掌上电脑,工作站,大型机,超级计算机和服务器。

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中英文对照外文翻译文献 (文档含英文原文和中文翻译) By integration of machinery development The modern science and technology unceasing development, impelled different discipline intersecting enormously with the seepage, has caused the project domain technological revolution and the transformation, in mechanical engineering domain, because the microelectronic technology and the computer technology rapid development and forms to the mechanical industry seepage the integration of machinery, caused the mechanical industry the technical structure, the product organization, the function and the constitution, the production method and the management system has had the huge change, caused the industrial production to enter into “the integration of machinery” by “the machinery electrification” for the characteristic development phase. First, the integration of machinery outline Integration of machinery is refers in the organization new owner function, the power function, in the information processing functio n and the control function introduces the electronic technology, u nifies the system the mechanism and the computerization design and the software which constitutes always to call.

《化学工程与工艺专业英语》课文翻译

Unit1化学工业的研究和开发 One of the main发达国家化学工业飞速发展的一个重要原因就是它在研究和开发方面的投入commitmen t和投资investmen t。通常是销售收入的5%,而研究密集型分支如制药,投入则加倍。要强调这里我们所提出的百分数不是指利润而是指销售收入,也就是说全部回收的钱,其中包括要付出原材料费,企业管理费,员工工资等等。过去这笔巨大的投资支付得很好,使得许多有用的和有价值的产品被投放市场,包括一些合成高聚物如尼龙和聚脂,药品和杀虫剂。尽管近年来进入市场的新产品大为减少,而且在衰退时期研究部门通常是最先被裁减的部门,在研究和开发方面的投资仍然保持在较高的水平。 化学工业technology industry是高技术工业,它需要利用电子学和工程学的最新成果。计算机被广泛应用,从化工厂的自动控制a utomatic control,到新化合物结构的分子模拟,再到实验室分析仪器的控制。 Individual manufacturing一个制造厂的生产量很不一样,精细化工领域每年只有几吨,而巨型企业如化肥厂和石油化工厂有可能高达500,000吨。后者需要巨大的资金投入,因为一个这样规模的工厂要花费2亿5千万美元,再加上自动控制设备的普遍应用,就不难解释为什么化工厂是资金密集型企业而不是劳动力密集型企业。 The major大部分化学公司是真正的跨国公司multinational,他们在世界上的许多国家进行销售和开发市场,他们在许多国家都有制造厂。这种国际间的合作理念,或全球一体化,是化学工业中发展的趋势。大公司通过在别的国家建造制造厂或者是收购已有的工厂进行扩张。 Unit 2工业研究和开发的类型 The applied通常在生产中完成的实用型的或有目的性的研究和开发可以分为好几类,我们对此加以简述。它们是:(1)产品开发;(2)工艺开发;(3)工艺改进;(4)应用开发;每一类下还有许多分支。我们对每一类举一个典型的例子来加以说明。在化学工业的不同部门内每类的工作重点有很大的不同。 (1)产品开发。product development产品开发不仅包括一种新药的发明和生产,还包括,比如说,给一种汽车发动机提供更长时效的抗氧化添加剂。这种开发的产品已经使(发动机)的服务期限在最近的十年中从3000英里提高到6000、9000现在已提高到12000英里。请注意,大部分的买家所需要的是化工产品能创造出来的效果,亦即某种特殊的用途。,或称聚四氟乙烯()被购买是因为它能使炒菜锅、盆表面不粘,易于清洗。(2)工艺开发process development。工艺开发不仅包括为一种全新的产品设计一套制造工艺,还包括为现有的产品设计新的工艺或方案。而要进行后者时可能源于下面的一个或几个原因:新技术的利用、原材料的获得或价格发生了变化。氯乙烯单聚物的制造就是这样的一个例子。它的制造方法随着经济、技术和原材料的变化改变了好几次。另一个刺激因素是需求的显著增加。因而销售量对生产流程的经济效益有很大影响。早期的制造就为此提供了一个很好的例子。 The ability of能预防战争中因伤口感染引发的败血症,因而在第二次世界大战(1939-1945)中,pencillin的需求量非常大,需要大量生产。而在那时,只能用在瓶装牛奶表面发酵的方法小量的生产。英国和美国投入了巨大的人力物力联合进行研制和开发,对生产流程做出了两个重大的改进。首先用一个不同的菌株—黄霉菌代替普通的青霉,它的产量要比后者高得多。第二个重大的流程开发是引进了深层发酵过程。只要在培养液中持续通入大量纯化空气,发酵就能在所有部位进行。这使生产能力大大地增加,达到现代容量超过5000升的不锈钢发酵器。而在第一次世界大战中,死于伤口感染的士兵比直接死于战场上的人还要多。注意到这一点不能不让我们心存感激。 Process development for a new product对一个新产品进行开发要考虑产品生产的规模、产生的副产品以及分离/回收,产品所要求的纯度。在开发阶段利用中试车间(最大容量可达100升)获得的数据设计实际的制造厂是非常宝贵的,例如石油化工或氨的生产。要先建立一个中试车间,运转并测试流程以获得更多的数据。他们需要测试产品的性质,如杀虫剂,或进行消费评估,如一种新的聚合物。 Note that by-products注意,副产品对于化学过程的经济效益也有很大的影响。酚的生产就是一个有代表性的例子。早期的方法,苯磺酸方法,由于它的副产品亚硫酸钠需求枯竭而变的过时。亚硫酸钠需回收和废置成为生产过程附加的费用,增加了生产酚的成本。相反,异丙基苯方法,在经济效益方面优于所有其他方法就在于市场对于它的副产品丙酮的迫切需求。丙酮的销售所得降低了酚的生产成本。 A major part对一个新产品进行工艺开发的一个重要部分是通过设计把废品减到最低,或尽可能地防止可能的污染,这样做带来的经济利益和对环境的益处是显而易见的。 Finally it should be noted that最后要注意,工业开发需要包括化学家、化学工程师、电子和机械工程师这样一支庞大队伍的协同合作才能取得成功。 (3)process improvement工艺改进。工艺改进与正在进行的工艺有关。它可能出现了某个问题使生产停止。在这种情形下,就面临着很大的压力要尽快地解决问题以便生产重新开始,因为故障期耗费资财。 然而,更为常见的commonly,工艺改进是为了提高生产过程的利润。这可以通过很多途径实现。例如通过优化流程提高产量,引进新的催化剂提高效能,或降低生产过程所需要的能量。可说明后者的一个例子是在生产氨的过程中涡轮压缩机的引进。这使生产氨的成本(主要是电)从每吨6.66美元下降到0.56美元。通过工艺的改善提高产品质量也会为产品打开新的市场。 然而,近年来in rencent years,最重要的工艺改进行为主要是减少生产过程对环境的影响,亦即防止生产过程所引起的污染。很明显,有两个相关连的因素推动这样做。第一,公众对化学产品的安全性及其对环境所产生影响的关注以及由此而制订出来的法律;第二,生产者必须花钱对废物进行处理以便它能安全地清除,比如说,排放到河水中。显然这是生产过程的又一笔费用,它将增加所生产化学产品的成本。通过减少废物数量提高效益其潜能是不言而喻的。 然而,请注意note,with a plant对于一个已经建好并正在运行的工厂来说,只能做一些有限的改变来达到上述目的。因此,上面所提到的减少废品的重要性应在新公厂的设计阶段加以考虑。近年来另一个当务之急是保护能源及降低能源消耗。 (4)application development应用开发。显然发掘一个产品新的用处或新的用途能拓宽它的获利渠道。这不仅能创造更多的收入,而且由于产量的增加使单元生产成本降低,从而使利润提高。举例来说,早期是用来制造唱片和塑料雨衣的,后来的用途扩展到塑料薄膜,特别是工程上所使用的管子和排水槽。 我们已经强调emphasis了化学产品是由于它们的效果,或特殊的用途、用处而得以售出这个事实。这就意味着化工产品公司的技术销售代表与顾客之间应有密切的联系。对顾客的技术支持水平往往是赢得销售的一个重要的因素。进行研究和开发的化学家们为这些应用开发提供了帮助。33的制造就是一个例子。它最开始是用来做含氟氯烃的替代物作冷冻剂的。然而近来发现它还可以用作从植物中萃取出来的天然物质的溶解剂。当它作为制冷剂被制造时,固然没有预计到这一点,但它显然也是应用开发的一个例子 。 Unit3设计 Based on the experience and data根据在实验室和中试车间获得的经验和数据,一组工程师集中起来设计工业化的车间。化学工程师的职责就是详细说明所有过程中的流速和条件,设备类型和尺寸,制造材料,流程构造,控制系统,环境保护系统以及其它相关技术参数。这是一个责任重大的工作。 The design stage设计阶段是大把金钱花进去的时候。一个常规的化工流程可能需要五千万到一亿美元的资金投入,有许多的事情要做。化学工程师是做出很多决定的人之一。当你身处其位时,你会对自己曾经努力学习而能运用自己的方法和智慧处理这些问题感到欣慰。 设计阶段design stage的产物是很多图纸: (1)工艺流程图flow sheets。是显示所有设备的图纸。要标出所有的流线和规定的条件(流速、温度、压力、构造、粘度、密度等)。 (2)管道及设备图piping and instrumentation。标明drawings所有设备(包括尺寸、喷嘴位置和材料)、所有管道(包括大小、控制阀、控制器)以及所有安全系统(包括安全阀、安全膜位置和大小、火舌管、安全操作规则)。 (3)仪器设备说明书equipmen specification sheet s。详细说明所有设备准确的空间尺度、操作参数、构造材料、耐腐蚀性、操作温度和压力、最大和最小流速以及诸如此类等等。这些规格说明书应交给中标的设备制造厂以进行设备生产。 3.建造construction After the equipment manufactures当设备制造把设备的所有部分都做好了以后,这些东西要运到工厂所在地(有时这是后勤部门颇具挑战性的任务,尤其对象运输分馏塔这样大型的船只来说)。建造阶段要把所有的部件装配成完整的工厂,首先要做的就是在地面打洞并倾入混凝土,为大型设备及建筑物打下基础(比如控制室、流程分析实验室、维修车间)。 完成了第一步initial activities,就开始安装设备的主要部分以及钢铁上层建筑。要装配热交换器、泵、压缩机、管道、测量元件、自动控制阀。控制系统的线路和管道连接在控制室和操作间之间。电线、开关、变换器需装备在马达上以驱动泵和压缩机。生产设备安装完毕后,化学工程师的职责就是检查它们是否连接完好,每部分是否正常工作。

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