Academic Writing Terms

Terms Related to Academic Writing

1 Research paper

A research paper is an article reporting the results of some academic research. It is often based on previous studies in the same area and on the same topic and is well-documented. It is intended to solve problems unanswered in the literature and aimed at establishing an argument or a hypothesis which is new or has new evidence.

Discussion

“Discussion”is the term for the component part of a piece of empirical academic writing, often used after the report of the results, where the results are compared with those of previous studies, alternative explanations for the results are explained away, and the earlier proposed hypotheses are checked for verification. DOI

A DOI is a unique alphanumeric (consisting of both letters and numbers) string assigned by a registration agency (the International DOI Foundation) to identify a scholarly publication electronically published and provide a persistent link to its location on the Internet.

2 Plagiarism

Plagiarism is the use of a quotation from other people’s works or the use of others’ ideas, facts, evidence, tables, figures, etc. in academic writing without acknowledgment given in generally accepted and expected formats.

3 References

“References” is the term used, follo wing the APA academic writing style, to refer to the list of sources cited in writing a research paper and alphabetically arranged at the end of the paper.

4 Parenthetical documentation

Parenthetic documentation refers to the in-text documentation of works referred to or cited in writing an academic work. Generally, it may include the name(s), especially surname(s), of the author(s), the publication date, and the page number(s), etc. And they are often placed in parentheses immediately after the cited information in the text.

5 Access information

Access information refers to the date on which and the Internet address at which an online text is accessed. Such information is required in the References or Works

Cited list required at the end of a research paper.

6 Block quotation

In academic writing, when a quotation is relatively long (usually with more than 40 words), it is placed in a paragraph independent from the running text and it is indented from the left margin for about five spaces. Such a quotation is called block quotation.

7 CNKI

CNKI is the abbreviation for China National Knowledge Infrastructure. It is a widely used database where electronic texts of most Chinese academic journals are available.

8 Literature Review

A literature review is a review on previous studies in the literature that are closely related to the subject that a researcher is going to investigate. It helps to clarify the rationale for and significance of the research.

9 Hanging indent

Hanging indent is a format of arranging a paragraph so that the first line of a paragraph is set flush left and subsequent lines are indented. It is used in the APA style and the MLA style to format the entries in the References or Works Cited list.

10 Secondary source

In academic writing, a researcher may refer to or cite some information in a source other than the original. What the researcher has actually seen is called a secondary source, which needs to be indicated clearly in parenthetical documentation. The term of secondary source is from the APA style for academic writing.

Indirect Source

An indirect source is a source in which an academic researcher has read about some information from another source and uses it in his own academic writing. The term of indirect source is from MLA style for academic writing.

11 Thesis

A thesis is a long piece of academic writing based on your own ideas and research, especially as a requirement for an academic degree. Although the term can also designate a paper written for a doctoral degree, American usage generally reserves the

name thesis for the master’s paper or the undergraduate honors paper.

12 Works Cited

“Works Cited” is the term used, following the MLA academic writing style, to refer to the list of sources cited in writing a research paper and arranged at the end of the paper.

13 In-text citation

In-text citation is also called parenthetic reference, which refers to the in-text documentation of works referred to or cited in writing an academic work. Generally, they may include the name(s), especially surname(s), of the author(s), the publication date, and the page number(s), etc. And they are often placed in parentheses immediately after the cited information in the text.

14 Retrieval information

Retrieval information, a term used in the APA academic writing style, refers to the date on which and the Internet address at which an online source is retrieved. Such information is required in the References list required at the end of a research paper. The equivalent term in the MLA style is access information.

15 Index

Something that serves to guide, point out, or otherwise facilitate reference, especially an alphabetized list of names, places, and subjects treated in a printed work, giving the page or pages on which each item is mentioned.

16 Method

In research, the section of method is mainly about the sampling and characteristics of subjects, the designing of materials, the operation of the apparatus, and the data collection procedure. It shows how the study is conducted.

17 Co-publishers

Co-publishers are two or more publishers that cooperate in publishing a book, both of which need to be mentioned in the References list.

18 Personal communication

Personal communications, according to the APA style, refer to letters, memos, electronic communications, personal interviews, telephone conversations, etc., which are not recoverable and so are not included in the References list but cited in the text. The in-text citation often includes the words “personal communication”, the initials, surname, and exact date.

19 Indirect source

In academic writing, a researcher may refer to or cite some information in a source other than the original. What the researcher has actually seen is called an indirect source in the MLA academic writing style (its equivalent in the APA style is secondary source), which needs to be indicated clearly in parenthetical documentation.

20 Thesis Proposal

Thesis proposal is a piece of writing in which after a review on previous studies closely related to the proposed research, the writer puts forward his research question and hypothesis, argues for the significance of the proposed study and designs the method for the research.

21 Thesis Statement

It is a single sentence that makes an assertion about a thesis needed to be supported or argued for in an argumentative essay or a research paper.

22 Abstract

It is a condensed version of an article, particularly a journal article. It is presented for readers to have a general idea about what an article is about. Most often, it briefly presents the research purpose, research scope, research method, results, conclusion and recommendations.

23 Footnotes

Footnotes are either content notes with the explanation of some important concepts or terms or bibliographic notes about some cited sources. They are often indicated by some numerals in superscript put after what needs to be explained or documented and arranged at the bottom of that page where the numeral appears.

24 Parenthetical References

Parenthetic references refer to the in-text documentation of works referred to or cited in writing an academic work. Generally, they may include the name(s), especially surname(s), of the author(s), the publication year, and the page number(s), etc. And they are often placed in parentheses immediately after the cited information in the text.

25 Publisher

In the References or Works Cited list required at the end of a research paper, the publisher refers to the publication house or press that published a book, which is preceded by the publication location.

26 Replication

Replication refers to a study that employs materials, subjects, or method similar to those of another study in order to see whether results similar to those in the latter can be obtained.

27 Literature

Literature, in terms of academic writing, refers to previous studies that are closely related to the subject that a researcher is going to investigate.

28 Academic Writing Styles

Academic writing styles are standard approaches to the mechanics of using capitalization, punctuation, indention, pagination, documentation, etc. in doing academic writing. The most widely used academic writing styles are the MLA (Modern Language Association) style, the APA (American Psychological Association) style, and the Chicago style, etc.

29 MLA

MLA is the shortened form for the Modern Language Association of America. MLA proposed an academic writing style called MLA style, which is one of the most frequently used academic writing styles. It is mainly used for humanities disciplines

such as literary, historical, and philosophical studies.

30 APA

APA stands for American Psychological Association. It proposed an academic writing style called APA style, which is one of the most frequently used academic writing styles. It is mainly used for academic writing in social sciences such as psychology, psycholinguistics, language acquisition studies, etc.

31 MLA style

MLA is the shortened form for the Modern Language Association of America. MLA proposed an academic writing style called MLA style, which is one of the most frequently used academic writing styles. It is mainly used for humanities disciplines such as literary, historical, and philosophical studies.

32 APA style

APA stands for American Psychological Association. It proposed an academic writing style called APA style, which is one of the most frequently used academic writing styles. It is mainly used for academic writing in social sciences such as psychology, psycholinguistics, language acquisition studies, etc.

33 Bibliography

Bibliography is a list of works alphabetically arranged at the end of an academic writing work, which documents both works the writer has actually referred to or cited and those the writer has only found relevant to his own writing.

34 Operational definition

An operational definition is a demonstration of a process – such as a variable, term, or object – in terms of the specific process or set of validation tests used to determine its presence and quantity. The term was coined by Percy Williams Bridgman. Properties described in this manner must be sufficiently accessible, so that persons other than the definer may independently measure or test for them at will. An operational definition is generally designed to model a conceptual definition.

操作定义（operational definition）

物理学家布里奇曼1927 年倡导的一类定义。指通过对测量一种变量所需的活动或操作的描述来说明或限定这种变量。将一个变量操作化就是将它从一种概念水平的陈述转变为一种可测量的、客观的操作: 客观性和可重复性是其突出特征。

变量或概念的操作定义可以有两类：（1）测量型，描述对某一变量或概念如何评定或测量。如“智力”被定义为“由韦克斯勒智力量表所测到的东西”。（2）实验型，说明研究者如何操纵某一变量。如“教学的类型”可操作化为“讲座、集体讨论、计算机辅助教学”等。它们不同于词典定义，后者是概念的字面或语

义定义。如词典中定义“焦虑”为“不平静、恐惧或担忧的状态”，这样的定义不利于比较焦虑的程度，不利于在实验研究中进行观察。而操作定义为：“汗湿的手掌、升高的心率、放大的瞳孔，以及其他可观察测量的生理变化。”

研究者所使用的一些操作定义是人为的，且可能只产生某种变量或概念的有限意义。它们仅仅是研究在客观性和可重复性的原则下将之与可观察的特征联系起来的定义。研究者或研究项目不同，一个特定变量或概念的操作定义亦可能不同。

35 Operationalization

Operationalization is the process of defining a fuzzy concept so as to make the concept measurable in form of variables consisting of specific observations. In a wider sense it refers to the process of specifying the extension of a concept.

Even the most basic concepts in science, such as "length," are defined through the operations by which we measure them. This derives from the discovery of Percy Williams Bridgman, whose methodological position is called operationalism. The fact that we in practice measure "length" in different ways (it's impossible to use a measuring rod if we want to measure the distance to the Moon, for example) must mean that "length" logically isn't one concept but many. Each concept is defined by the measuring operations used.

Operationalization in the social sciences

Operationalization is often used in the social sciences as part of the scientific method and psychometrics. For example, a researcher may wish to measure "anger." Its presence, and the depth of the emotion, cannot be directly measured by an outside observer because anger is intangible. Rather, other measures are used by outside observers, such as facial expression, choice of vocabulary, loudness and tone of voice.

If a researcher wants to measure the depth of "anger" in various persons, the most direct operation would be to ask them a question, such as "are you angry", or "how angry are you?". This operation is problematic, however, because it depends upon the definition of the individual. One person might be subjected to a mild annoyance, and become slightly angry, but describe himself as "extremely angry," whereas another might be subjected to a severe provocation, and become very angry, but describe himself as "slightly angry." In addition, in many circumstances it is impractical to ask subjects whether they are angry.

Since one of the measures of anger is loudness, the researcher can operationalize the concept of anger by measuring how loudly the subject speaks compared to his normal tone. However, this must assume that loudness is uniform measure. Some might respond verbally while other might respond physically. This makes anger a non-operational variable.

One of the main critics of operationalism in social science argues that "the original goal was to eliminate the subjective mentalistic concepts that had dominated earlier psychological theory and to replace them with a more operationally meaningful account of human behavior. But, as in economics, the supporters ultimately ended up "turning operationalism inside out" (Green 2001, 49). "Instead of replacing 'metaphysical' terms such as 'desire' and 'purpose'" they "used it to legitimize them by giving them operational definitions." Thus in psychology, as in economics, the initial, quite radical operationalist ideas eventually came to serve as little more than a "reassurance fetish" (Koch 1992, 275) for mainstream methodological practice."

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高考英语写作中常见19种修辞手法详解及人物简洁介绍.doc

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借喻不直接说出所要说的事物,而使用另一个与之相关的事物名称. I.以容器代替内容,例如: 1.The kettle boils. 水开了. 2.The room sat silent. 全屋人安静地坐着. II.以资料.工具代替事物的名称,例如: Lend me your ears, please. 请听我说. III.以作者代替作品,例如: a complete Shakespeare 莎士比亚全集 VI.以具体事物代替抽象概念,例如: I had the muscle, and they made money out of it. 我有力气,他们就用我的力气赚钱. 4.Synecdoche 提喻 提喻用部分代替全体,或用全体代替部分,或特殊代替一般. 例如: 1.There are about 100 hands working in his factory.(部分代整体) 他的厂里约有100名工人. 2.He is the Newton of this century.(特殊代一般) 他是本世纪的牛顿. 3.The fox goes very well with your cap.(整体代部分) 这狐皮围脖与你的帽子很相配.

失物招领和寻物启事 Lost and Found

失物招领和寻物启事 Lost and Found （1）根据下面的汉语提示写一篇寻物启事。 假如你是王利，在十五中工作，今天（2004年6月8日）早晨在上班的路上丢了手提包。提包里面装有一支钢笔，一把钥匙和许多钱。 例文： LOST I lost my handbag on the way to work this morning. There is a pen， a key to the door and a lot of money in it. I wish the finder to return it to me very soon. Will the finder please come to the NO. 15 Middle School or call me？My telephone number is 8675331. My name is Wang Li. I’ll pay him or her for it. Thank you！ 寻物启事 今天早上在上班的路上，我失去了我的手提包。有一支钢笔，一把钥匙和许多钱。希望拾还给我，很快。请您到15号中学或打电话给我吗？我的电话号码是8675331。我的名字是王李。我会给他/她。谢谢你！（2）情根据下面的汉语提示写一篇招领启事。 你于今天（11月8日）上午在学校花园拾到手提包一个，内有钱若干及一个笔记本，请失主前来301室领取。 例文：

FOUND A handbag with some money and a notebook was left in the school garden this morning （ Nov. 18th ） . Will the owner please come to Room 301，Building 14 and get it ？ 失物招领 手提包里有一些钱和一个笔记本，今天上午在学校花园左（十一月十八日）。请失主到301室，14号楼，领取？

关于人物介绍的英语作文精选

三一文库（https://www.wendangku.net/doc/922502016.html,） 〔关于人物介绍的英语作文精选〕 人物介绍类英语作文一直是考试英语作文的一种重要 题型，下面就来看看介绍人物的英语作文怎么写吧。 ▲人物介绍英语作文一 Li Yan, an engineer, was born on February 9, 1965 in Beijing, China. After he graduated from Qinghua University in 1987, he made an important decision in his life. He decided to go to the United States for his further study. After four years' hard work, he mastered new management ideas an advanced technologies in computer field. In 1992, he got his doctor's degree. In 2008, he made another decision that to return

to his motherland and started a company. However, his wife and daughter had got used to the American way of life, so they still stay in the United States. But they still can meet frequently, because of the convenient transportation, and his wife and daughter often visit him in holidays. ▲人物介绍英语作文二 My mother has a pair of keen eyes which can speak. With her eyes,she observed my mood, gave me courage and made me strong. Therefore, I could face difficulties. When I was a baby learning to walk, my mother always lent me a hand and encouraged me to get up while I fell down. As I finally threw myself into her arms, her eyes smiled with praise. Later as I grew up, I met with more difficulties. But whenever I was frustrated, my mother's eyes always

【上海高考概要写作】summary writing1(有解析)

Exercise 1 With only two weeks to go before Christmas, buying presents is a high priority for a lot of people. However, this year not so many people are leaving their homes to go shopping. These days lots of people can do their shopping in the comfort of their own home with the help of the Internet. Online shopping is becoming more and more popular for a number of reasons: prices are often lower online; you don’t have to queue up in busy shops and you can buy almost any product imaginable with just a few clicks of your mouse. Both male and female are buying into the trend, but women are expected to do more shopping on the Internet than men. It seems women are now more attracted to the convenience of online shopping than they used to be. Average spending online this Christmas by women will rise to ￡ 240 (3.360 yuan) compared to the slightly lower average of ￡ 233 (3,262 yuan) for men. In the past a lot of people were reluctant to shop online. Many were worried about the security of entering their card details on the Internet and the reliability of the Internet but as shopping online has become more widespread, these worries have begun to disappear. 45% of Internet users still do have security worries but it hasn’t slowed down the ever-increasing numbers of online shoppers. One victim of the online shopping boom is the UK high street. The average spending per person on the high street is only ￡197. 70% of Internet users who are now buying their Christmas gifts online. 参考范文： This year, people are doing Christmas shopping online at home rather than leave their homes for cheaper goods and more convenience.(要点1) With increasing popularity of online shopping, women spend more than men.(要点2) Although safety is a major concern for shopping online,still more and more people choose to shop online.(要点3) With the pressure from widespread online shopping, traditional shops in the UK high street began their sales promotion earlier this Christmas.(要点4) 分析过程： 一、试题详解

【上海高考概要写作】summary writing4(10篇,有解析)

Exercise 1 College pays off financially. A wide range of statistics shows the economic advantage of a four-year college education. Over a lifetime, students who graduate from college can expect to make about 60% more than those who do not, well over a million dollars more than they would otherwise. But what about the benefits of college that are more difficult to measure? They are equally significant and add up to a lot of value over the course of a lifetime： College takes students to places they’ve never been to before. College is a passport to different places, different times, and different ways of thinking —from learning new languages to considering the development of human history to diving deep into the building blocks of matter. It gives students a chance to understand themselves differently, seeing how their lives are both like and unlike those who populated other eras(时代)）and other lands. College introduces students to people they've never met before. One of the most important ways in which students learn, at colleges and universities everywhere, is by interacting with people who are different from themselves both inside and outside the classroom. Students learn more at a place full of engaging people with a wide range of viewpoints. In these ways and in so many others, college helps students see themselves differently, giving them the room and the license to imagine new possibilities. Yes, it opens opportunities reflected in earning and employment statistics. But, perhaps even more valuable, it opens minds and worlds in ways that are beyond measurement. The value of higher education is symbolized by people who dream bigger and achieve more, who create their own futures and shape their own futures. 参考答案： According to statistics，college makes a great difference to students’ earning power,(要1) while it also contributes to other valuable aspects beyond assessment in life.(要点2) Firstly, college motivates students’ self-realization through various learning activities.(要点3) Secondly, it shapes students’ diverse perspectives by encouraging them to communicate with different

说明文Summary writing写作---教师版

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说明文Summary 的教学步骤 第一步通读全文, 领略大意。通常summary 的开头都有一些常用的句子，学生可以积累用。 第二步小结每一段的大意。用最简练的文字把文章每段的主要内容概括出即可。 第三步根据每一段的大意以及作者的侧重点, 不要加入自己的个人观点，综合归纳全文的大意。对于说明性或描述性的短文，可以用概括性文字说明某一现象。比如可概括如下：This article points out the common phenomenon… Summary 范文 Directions: Summarize in no more than 60 words the main idea of the passage and how it is illustrated. Use your own words as far as possible. Although problems are a part of our lives, it certainly doesn’t mean that we let them rule our lives forever. One day or the othe r, you’ll have to stand up and say –problem, I don’t want you in my life. Of course, we’ve been fighting troubles ever since we were born. Problems with friends, parents, girlfriends, husbands, and children –the list goes on. Apart from these, the inner conflicts within ourselves work, too. These keep adding to our problems. Problems come in different shapes and colors and feelings.// But good news is that all problems can be dealt with. Now read on to know how to solve your problems.// Talk, it really helps. What most of us think is that our problem can be understood only by us and that no talking is going to help.??But the truth is that when you talk about it, you’re setting free the negative energies that have been gathering within you. Talking helps you move on and let go.

新概念第三册summary writing lesson 1-20

新概念第三册summary writing Summary The reports received by London Zoo that a puma had been spotted forty-five miles south of London were similar in nature. A woman picking blackberries saw it first, but the puma moved from place to place,leaving a trail of dead deer and small animals. Paw prints and puma fur were found as well. ‘Cat-like noises’were heard at night and the animal was seen up a tree. Now experts were convinced that the animal really was a puma. (79 words) Summary At one o'clock in the morning, the church clock striking the hours woke the vicar up as it struck thirteen times. The vicar went into the clock tower, taking a torch with him. He saw Bill Wilkins, the local grocer there and Bill explained he was trying to repair the clock but hadn't succeeded because at one o'clock it struck thirteen times. However, the vicar was pleased the bell was working and offered the grocer a cap of tea. (79 words) Archaeologists found clay fragments in an ancient temple. These represented the fifteen statues of goddesses which had once

英语作文：人物介绍

人物介绍 单词 1.achievement n.成就 6. stronge- minded adj.意志坚强的 2.expert n.专家7. outstanding adj.杰出的 3.research v. / n..研究调查8. donate v.捐赠 4.master v.精通掌握9. character n.性格品质 5.well-educated. adj.受过良好教育的 短语 1.be born on …(date) in …(place) into …(family) 出生于 2.be admitted to 被录取 3.at college / in the university 在大学 4.graduated from …(school) at …(time) 毕业于 5.go abroad for futher study 出国深造 6.get the master’s / doctor’s degee 获得硕士/博士学位 7.majored in 主修 8.starred in 主演 9.success in 成功于 10.win the first place / gold medal 赢得第一名 11.the title of 称号 12.be famous for / be known as 著名于 13.devote oneself to do / n. 献身于 14.be devoted to dong / n. 热衷于 15.be determined to dong / n. 坚决做 16.decide to do 决定做 17.be fond of 喜欢 18.make up one’s mind to do 下定决心做 19.change one’s mind 改变决心 20.be strict with 对…严格 21.hold on to the end 坚持到最后 22.face the challenges / presure 面对挑战/压力 23.overcome difficulties 战胜困难 24.sign up for a match / competition 报名参加比赛 25.lead a …(adj.) life 过着…的生活 26.disease in …(place) on …(date) 病于… 27.passed away 与世长辞 篇章 Fei Xiaotong Born into a rich family on Nov.2,1910 , Fei Xiaotong , a famous Chinese sociologist , passed away due to diseasd in Beijing on Apr.24,2005. In 1930 , he was admitted to Tsinghua University in which he first majored in medicine but changed his mind later. And then , he went to England where he got his doctor’s degee for further study . After 1938 , he once tought in Tsinghua University and Peking University. Fei Xiaotong , who devoted himself to the research on sociology , made great contributions to the development of economy in chinese countryside.

summary writing(原文及范文)

summary writing(原文及范文） Writing Directions: For this part, you are to write a summary of either of two articles that are presented to you in the following. Your summary should be 150-200 words. Remember to write neatly. Science and Humanity The twentieth century saw more momentous change than any previous century: change for better, change for worse; change that brought enormous benefits to human beings, change that threatens the very existence of the human species. Many factors contributed to this change but—in my opinion—the most important factor was the progress in science. Academic research in the physical and biological sciences has vastly broadened our horizons; it has given us a deep insight into the structure of matter and of the universe; it has brought better understanding of the nature of life and of its continuous evolution. Technology—the application of science—has made fantastic advances that have affected us beneficially in nearly every aspect of life: better health, more wealth, less drudgery (单调沉闷的工作), greater access to information. Sadly, however, there is another side to the picture. The creativity of science has been employed to the detriment(损害) of mankind. The application of science and technology to the development and manufacture of weapons of mass destruction has created a real threat to the continued existence of the human race on this planet. We have seen this happen in the case of nuclear weapons. Although their actual use in combat has so far occurred only in 1945—when two Japanese cities were destroyed—during the four decades of the Cold War, obscenely huge arsenals(武器库) of nuclear weapons were accumulated and made ready for use. The arsenals were so large that if the weapons had actually been detonated (爆炸) the result could have been the complete extinction of the human species, as well as of many animal species. William Shakespeare said: "The web of our life is of a mingled (混合的) yarn, good and ill together. " The above brief review of the application of only one strand of human activities— science—seems to bear out this adage (格言). But does it have to be so? Must ill always accompany good deeds? Are we biologically programmed for aggression and war? I am not an authority in genetics, but from my readings and life-long observation I do not see any evidence that we are genetically condemned to commit evil. On the contrary, on very general grounds I would say that genetically we are destined to do things that are of benefit to the human species, and that the negative aspects are mistakes, transient errors in the process of evolution. In other words, I believe in the inherent goodness of Man.