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英语词汇学考试

1.What is the definition of word?

The minimal free form of a language, which has a given sound, meaning and syntactic function. Word: a single unit of language which means something and can be spoken or written.

A sound or a combination of sounds, or its representation in writing or printing, that symbolizes and communicates a meaning and may consist of a single morpheme or of a combination of morphemes.

(Linguistics) one of the units of speech or writing that native speakers of a language usually regard as the smallest isolable meaningful element of the language, although linguists would analyze these further into morphemes Related adjective lexical, verbal.

(Electronics & Computer Science / Computer Science) Computing a set of bits used to store, transmit, or operate upon an item of information in a computer, such as a program instruction.

Definition of a word

Aristotle defined a word as the smallest significant unit of speech - a definition which held sway until recently. Modern methods of analysis have discovered semantic units below the word level. A new term is therefore needed to denote the smallest significant element of speech; in contemporary linguistic theory it is known as a morpheme.

Bloomfield distinguishes between two types of linguistic forms: free forms and bound forms. Free forms can stand by themselves and sometimes act as a complete utterance whereas bound forms cannot. For example, the word nicely contains the free form nice, and the bound form -ly. The former can occur as an independent unit and even as a sentence (What about the other film? - Nice). But the suffix -ly cannot stand by itself, to say nothing of acting as a complete utterance. According to Bloomfield, a word is a minimal free form.

Lexicology deals by definition with words and wordforming morphemes, that is to say, with significant units. It follows that these elements must be investigated in their form and in their meaning. Therefore, from the lexicological point of view, a word is a combination of form (phonological) and meaning (lexical and grammatical). In addition, a word acts as a structural unit of a sentence.

2.What does onomatopoetic motivation mean? What does semantic motivation mean? Does

onomatopoeia motivation contradict the statement that there is no natural connection between sound and mean?

Onomatopoeia is derived from Greek onomatopoiia "word-making": onoma, -matos "name" + poieo "make". Various other terms have been suggested, such as echoism (Jespersen) and "phonaesthetic function" (Firth). Onomatopoeic motivation means defining the principle of motivation by sound. The sounds of such words as cuckoo, ding-dong, swish, buzz, seem to be appropriate to their senses. But it has to be pointed out that onomatopoeic words constitute only a small part of the vocabulary. The forms of words normally have only a conventional relationship with what they refer to. According to Stephen Ullmann, onomatopoeic formation can be divided into primary onomatopoeia and secondary onomatopoeia.

Ⅱ. Semantic motivation

Semantic motivation means that motivation is based on semantic factors. It is a kind of mental association. When we speak of the bonnet or the hood of a car, of a coat of paint, or of potatoes cooked in their jackets, these expressions are motivated by the similarity between the garments and the objects referred to. In the same way, when we say the cloth for the clergy, silk for a Q. C., or "town and gown" for "town and university", there is semantic motivation due to the fact that the garments in question are closely associated with the persons they designate. Both types of expression are figurative: the former are metaphorical, based on some similarity between the two elements, the latter are metonymic, founded on some external connection.

Sound and meaning

The Naturalists have argued that the origin of language lies in onomatopoeia, that people began talking by creating iconic signs to imitate the sounds heard around them in nature. They maintain that there is a natural connection between sound and meaning. The Conventionalists, on the other hand, hold that the relations between sound and meaning are conventional and arbitrary. Facts have proved this argument to be valid. Words that convey the same meaning

have different phonological forms in different languages - for example, English meat / mi:t /,Chinese ròu. Alternatively, the same phonological forms may convey different meanings - for example, sight, site, cite.

3.How many kinds of word meaning are there in English?

Word meaning is made up of various components which are interrelated and interdependent. These components are commonly described as types of meaning. Two main types of word meaning are grammatical and lexical.

Grammatical meaning: the meaning in terms of grammar

lexical meaning:Conceptual meaning also called “denotative” or “cognitive” meaning. This refers to the definition given in the dictionary. It is widely assumed to be the central factor in linguistic communication and is integral to the essential functioning of language.

Associative meaning meaning associated with the conceptual meaning which can be further divided into following types:

a) connotative meaning

b) social meaning

c) affective meaning

d) reflected meaning

e) collocative meaning

Thematic meaning: This is what is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order and emphasis.

4.What is context? What role does context play in linguistic communication?

Context in its traditional sense refers to the lexical items that precede or follow a given word. Modern linguists have broadened its scope to include both linguistic and extra-linguistic contexts.

?Linguistic context refers to words, clauses, sentences, paragraphs, or whole books in

which a word appears.

?Extra-linguistic context refers to a particular time, space, or culture in which a word

appears.

?Linguistic context refers to words, clauses, sentences, paragraphs, or whole books in which

a word appears. Linguistic context can be further divided into

?Lexical context

?Grammatical context

?Verbal context in its broad sense

?Lexical context : the lexemes that co-occur with the word in question. The meaning of the

word is affected or determined by the neighboring lexemes.

Roles: Context can distinguish Eliminating ambiguity Conveying emotional overtones

Indicating referents and the range of the meaning of a word

5.What are the major types of synonymy? Explain those types with examples.

In general, English synonyms can be divided into two types: complete synonyms and relative synonyms.As for English synonyms, there are a lot of slight differences between them in shade of meaning, affective meaning, stylistic meaning, collocative meaning and so on.

Absolute synonyms绝对同义词

Absolute synonyms are words whose meaning is fully identical in any context so that one can always be substituted for the other without the slightest change in meaning. This kind of synonyms are rare and may be found in special terminology such as compounding and composition in lexicology, malnutrition and undernourishment in medicine.

Relative synonyms相对同义词

Synonyms which denote different shades of meaning or different degrees of a given quality are called relative synonyms. This kinds of synonyms are the same in some degree such as discover and find both mean see something but discover can mean be the first one to come across something , find means experience something in some way.

语言学的 Synonyms which denote different shades of meaning or different degrees of a given quality are called relative synonyms.

Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.

1) Dialectal synonyms---- synonyms used in different regional dialects, e.g. autumn - fall, biscuit - cracker, petrol – gasoline…

2) Stylistic synonyms----synonyms differing in style, e.g. kid, child, offspring; start, begin, commence;…

3) Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning, e.g.collaborator- accomplice,…

4) Collocational synonyms, e.g. accuse…of, charge…with, rebuke…for; …

5) Semantically different synonyms, e.g. amaze, astound,…

6. What are the possible cause of language change?

Language change is the phenomenon whereby phonetic, morphological, semantic, syntactic, and other features of language vary over time.

economy:Speakers tend to make their utterances as efficient and effective as possible to reach communicative goals. Purposeful speaking therefore involves a trade-off of costs and benefits. the medium of communication

cultural environment: Groups of speakers will reflect new places, situations, and objects in their language, whether they encounter different people there or not.

analogy - reducing word forms by likening different forms of the word to the root. language contact - the borrowing of words from foreign languages

The cause of language change 语言变化的原因

Sound assimilation语音同化

Sound assimilation refers to the physiological effect of one sound on another. In an assimilative process, successive sounds is made identical, or more similar, to one another in terms of place or manner of articulation, or of haplology- the loss of one of two phonetically similar syllables in sequence.

语音同化是指一个音受其毗邻的音的音响而发生音变，使其发音变得与毗邻的音接近。

"Engla-land"-"England" "ciese", "cinn" "cild"——cheese, chin ,childRule simplification and regularization 规则的简化与统一

It is a type of spontaneous morphological rule change that involves exceptional plural forms of nouns

英语名词复数的形式有规则形态变化与不规则形态变化两种，在英语演化过程中，由于不规则形态趋于规则化，所以复数形式趋向简化。

Internal borrowing 内部借用

Another kind of change that is motivated by the need to lessen the burden on memory is called internal borrowing.

引起语言变化的又一原因是旨在减轻记忆复旦的语言规则的内部借用现象。

Eg: cows as the plural of "cow" instead of the earlier plural "kine"Elaboration规则的细化

Rule elaboration occurs when there is a need to reduce ambiguity and increase communication clarity or expressiveness.

为了避免出现模棱两可、含糊不清的词句，或为了提高语言表达上的准确性往往需要增加一些规则，致使句法规则更加细化。

Social triggers社会因素

Linguists have become increasingly aware of sociological triggers for languages changes. Such as : wars, invasion, occupation, colonialization, and language planning and standardization policies lead to vigorous language changes.

Eg: Norman Conquest marked the dawning of the Middle English period.

促使语言变化的原因不仅有语言内部的，更多的是来自语言系统外部的社会环境的变化，如：侵

略战争、殖民化政策、政府推行的语言规划政策或标准化运动等。

Cultural transmission 文化传播

O ne of the most pervasive sources of language change seems to be the continual process of cultural transmission across generations.

Eg: old people "icebox" but younger one "fridge"

语言变化的原因还在于，层出不穷的新观念和新事物需要人们用新的词语去表达。

Children's approximation toward the adult grammar 儿童语言习得

The way children acquire the language constitutes another basic cause for language change. More importantly , children have a strong desire to simplify and regularize grammatical rules, particularly when they see adults use certain rules optionally.

儿童在习得母语时接收到了各种语言信息和表达习惯，儿童往往偏向于习得简化了的或规则化的

表达方式，语言演化也就自然出现了。

7. Are the meaning of some words closely related with culture？Give some examples.

The word “chop suey” dates back to tasp-sui, Cantonese, is a Chinese dish consisting of meat (often chicken, fish, beef, shrimp (UK: prawns) or pork) and eggs, cooked quickly with vegetables such as bean sprouts, cabbage, and celery and bound in a starch-thickened sauce, now is a famous dish in America.

Kowtow is also from Cantonese kow-tow, is the act of deep respect shown by kneeling and bowing so low as to have one's head touching the ground. An alternative Chinese term is ketou, however the meaning is somewhat altered: kòu originally meant "knock with reverence", whereas kē has the general meaning of "touch upon (a surface)".

Also Christmas shorts from the word ” christ’s mass” is the day Jesus Christ was born. Now Christmas is a well-known regional and cultural festival in Western countries.

8. What are the major modes of vocabulary development in contemporary English?

Modern English vocabulary develop through three channels: creation, semantic change and borrowing.

A.Creation refers to the formation of new words by using the existing materials, namely roots,

affixes and other elements such as supercomputer (high-speed computer), fruice (fruit+juice), Clinton-speak (Clinton’s style of speaking), workaholic (addicted to work ) and sportcast (sport broadcasting). In modern times, this is the most important way of vocabulary expansion.

B. Semantic change means an old form which takes on a new meaning to meet the new need, such as break(dance), mouse(a device used to operate a computer), and web (computer net-work ). This does not increase the number of word forms but create many more new usages of the words, thus enriching the vocabulary.

C. Borrowing has played a vital role in the development of vocabulary, particularly in earlier times. Though still at work now, it can hardly compare with what it did in the past. According to Thomas Pyles and John Algeo(1982), borrowed words constitute merely six to seven percent of all new words. In earlier stages of English, French, Latin, Greek and Scandinavian were the major contributors.

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