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语言学)
语言学)

Introduction:The London School generally refers to the kind of linguistic scholarship in England, a country that has both an unusually in linguistics and peculiar features in modern linguistics. And there is a famous scholar representing the London School’s linguistic points, named J.R.Firth, and he was the first professor of General Linguistics in Great Britain.

J.R.Firth was influenced by the anthropologist B.Malinowski. In turn, he influenced his students, the well-known linguist M.A.K.Halliday. The three men all stressed the importance of context of situation and the system aspect of language. Thus, london school is also known as systemic linguistics and functional linguistics.

摘要:Compared to other schools of modern linguistics, the London School, founded by J. R. Firth, is more interested in instrumentality of language and meaning or function in context. Influenced by Malinowski's theorizing, Firth and his followers stress the functioning of language and argue that language cannot be disassociated from meaning

and should be looked at from a sociological perspective. The London School and

the systemic functional grammar, which has developed out of the London approach to language, consider meaning and function as the basis of human language and communicative activity. The linguistic theorizing in the London style is of practical significance and therefore is more relevant to sociolinguistics, stylistics, literary criticism

and language teaching. From the linguistic ideas of a few important figures of the London School, we may see the developmental stages this School has gone through and how the tradition has been established for the academic discipline of linguistics in Britain.

1 background of The london school:

The london school is one of the important modern linguistics schools. It was founded in england, a country in which certain aspects of linguistics have an unusually long history, by john rupert firth (1890-1960), the first general linguistics anthropologist and father of the london school. J.R.Firth had established the school together with some colleagues and apprentice in the university of London and the African institute speech department, since the 1930 s. In 1960, after the death of J.R.Firth, they scattered in the U.K. and Australia and the universityies across the United States to work. Compared to other schools of modern linguistics, the London School, founded by J. R. Firth, is more interested in instrumentality of language and meaning or function in context.

From 17 to 19 century, the British empire was expanding territory and the languages, became increasingly complex . It needed to establish the standard English, which could be understood by all of people and needed to be familiar with the language of people whose national language is not English. Therefore, the British research of the language had its definite practical purpose. The British had made great effort on orthoepy, lexicography, stenography and spelling reform. Before

J.R.Firth, Henry Sweet and Danial Jones of had made great contribution to phonetics.

2 Development of the london school

the development of the london school was connected with several representatives. Their ideas about linguistics had inheritance and development, which represented the germination, establishment and development and so on each stage of the London school. Mali nowski’s “meaning as founctions in the context of situation” was its source of ideas. J.R.Firth’s “typical context of situation” was the foundation of it. And Halliday’s“ systemic-functi onal grammar” was the development of its thought. Then “Cognitive Grammar” of matthiessen, fawcett and others was its top of development, which led the research of the function of language to turn to the cognition. This is a link process, even is a difficult process of language studies have approached the nature of language, which represents its the whole context of linguistics development of thought. In other words , these several representative figures have made contributions to the whole London school linguistics, and the train of thought of the study can be traced to its traditional thought.

3 representatives and theories

Firth, a yorkshireman, read history as an undergraduate. he was professor of english at the university of the punjab from 1919 to 1928, and returned in the latter year to a post in the phonetics department of university college, london. in 1938 firth moved to the linguistic department of the school of oriental and african studies, where in 1944 he became the first professor of general linguistics in great britain. until very recently, the majority of university teachers of linguistics in britain were people who had trained under firth’s aegis and whose work reflected his ideas. there are many other british linguists in this school, such as f. palmer, john lyons, r.h. robins and m. a. k. halliday.

firth’s theory: 1) analysis of language: structure / system; 2) he argues not only social process but also individual human beings are involved in the development of language. he emphasis the personal side of human being. he did not agree saussuran dictum, langue and parole, language is a set of commensions, and mode of action. 3) speech is the essence of language. 4) language is developed as a result of inter-nature and nurture. people’s learn ing process of language the target language used by people in reality.

during the development, there were two outstanding aspects that are always associated with the name of firth: context of situation theory and prosody.the context of situation theory is the foundation of linguistics. firth insisted that sound and meaning in language were more directly related than they are usually taken to be. meaning is the focus of linguistic study; context may be employed to be the theory and approach of analysis. meaning does not come from the idea of the word comprised the situation by, or from the relation.

Malinowski’s theories: (1) professor of anthropology at the london school of economics from 1927 onward. The most important aspect of his theories concerned about the functioning of language . language is regarded to be a mode of action. (2) based on two kinds of observations: first, in primitive communities there is no writing, and language has only one type of use. Second, in all societies, children learn their languages in this way. (3) utterances and situation are bound up with each other and the context of situation is indispensable for the understanding of words.

Halliday has developed the ideas stemming from Firth’s theories in the london school. Hi s systemic-functional grammar is a sociologically oriented functional linguistic approach and one of the most influential linguistic theories in the twentieth century. systemic-functional

grammar contains two components: systemic grammar and functional grammar. Systemic grammar aims to explain the internal relations in language as a system network, or meaning potential. Functional grammar aims to reveal that language is a means of social interaction.

4 Comment on

the comparison between firthian linguistics and noam chomsky’s generative grammar S yntactic analysis in the london style is commonly called “systemic grammar” (other, less significant terms have also been used). a “system” in firthian language, remembers, is a set of mutually exclusive options that come into play at some point in a linguistic structure. this is the clue to london school syntax: like firthan phonology, it is primarily concerned with the nature and import of the various choices which one makes (consciously or unconsciously) in deciding to utter one particular sentence out of the infinitely numerous sentences that one’s language makes available.

to make this clearer, we may contrast the systemic approach with chomsky’s approach to grammar. a chomskyan grammar defines the class of well-formed sentences

in a language by providing a set of rules for rewriting symbols as other symbols, such

that if one begins with the specified initial symbol s and applies the rules repeatedly the

end-result will be one of the target sentences. such a grammar can succeed in defining a range of different sentences, clearly, only because in applying the rules one is often faced with choices. but in a chomsky grammar the choice-points are diffused throughout the description, and no special attention is drawn to them. many choices are made in the constituency base: a given category symbol is expanded by means of braces or commas into alternative rewriters, or brackets are used to show that some element may or may not occur in the rewriter of a category symbol. other choices arise in applying transformations: certain transformations are optional, others can apply in alternative ways, and (in some versions of transformational theory) there are alternative orders for applying transformations, with the nature of the ultimate result varying according to which order is selected. often it would be the case that some choice in applying transformational rules becomes available only if certain options have been selected in the constituency base, but a chomskyan grammar does nothing to make such interdependencies between choices explicit – that is not its aim. to cite a very simple example, halliday (1967, p. 40) suggest that one system of choices operating in english main clauses, a system which he labels “transitivity”, provides for a choice between “intensive” and “extensive”. in a standard transformational grammar, the syntactic differences between these clauses would correlate with choice of rewrite for the category symbol “vp” and for certain other symbols in the base, with choice of whether or not to apply the passive transformation, and with choice of whether or not to apply the transformation which deletes the by-phrase produced by passive. no explicit statement would be found in a transformational grammar pointing out, for example, that the choice of applying the passive transformation arises only if certain options are chosen when rewriting “vp” in the base, and there are certainly no special names given to the alternative structures which result from the various choices. (occasionally chomskyans do use a special terms to describe some particular syntactic structure, but usually this is a term inherited from traditional philological vocabulary, and traditional terminology provide names for only the most elementary among the many systems defined in a systemic grammar – chomskyans do not make a point of supplementing this deficiency.) london school linguists have no interest in asking what particular types of rules are used in realizing various systemic options, since they are not concerned with the question of linguistic universals. in the case of syntax the chomskyans

are less one – sided than in the case of phonology, since most chomskyan grammars

include a constituency base defining a range of deep structures as well as a set of transformational rules converting deep into surface structures. alongside the notion of “system”, halliday (for example, 1961) introduces into syntax the notions “rank” and “delicacy”: scale of rank; scale of delicacy and scale of exponence. any grammatical

system will operate at a specific rank. if we think in terms of chomskyan hierarchical tree diagrams, halliday is saying, as it were, that sentences can be represented not merely as

trees but as trees which are regimented in such a way that along any branch there are the same number of intermediate nodes between the “root” and the “leaf”. the most important view of halliday is his scale and category grammar, and systemic grammar. he supposed

that there are four categories in language: unit, class, structure and system. these four categories are linked with scale of rank, scale of delicacy and scale of exponence.

the London school pay attention to pronunciation, semantics, the social dialects and local dialect, explore language, grammar system, a psychological combining literary criticism, pay attention to language teaching. For with practical for the target language learners, they is keen to lead.

5 references

(1)《The London school of linguistics; a study of the linguistic theories of B. Malinowski and J. R. Firth 》by D Terence Langendoen (2)《西方语言学流派》,刘润清,外研社,1995

(3)冯志伟《现代语言学流派》陕西人民出版社,1999。

(4)《现代语言学名著选读》刘润清,崔刚,外研社,2009

It is a pleasure to thank those who made this thesis possible. First, I thank Mr Zheng for teaching us this subject and sharing his knowledge with us. Then I can finish this thesis. Second, I cant not forget my parents who give me life and support to give me the chance to come into the college where I can learn more, such as this subject about the schools of linguistics. Finally, I would like to show my gratitude to my roomates for giving me suggest and support to finish this thesis. Lastly, I offer my regards and blessings to all of those who supported me in any respect du ring the completion of the project.

语言学2

Acquisition is a process similar to the way children acquire their first language. It is a subconscious process without minute learning of grammatical rules Learning as another route, refers to conscious efforts to learn the second language knowledge by learning the rules and talking about the rules Register The type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a register Stops p b t d k g Fricatives f v s z Bilabial p b Labio-dental F v Alveolar t d s z Velar k g Context: it is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the hearer and the speaker Knowledge of what language use Knowledge of what have been said before Knowledge about the world in general Knowledge about the specific situation in which linguistic communication is taking place Knowledge about each other The naming theory The conceptualist view contextualism Time and place hearer and speaker actions they are performing objectives exist in the situation behaviorism synonymy Dialectal synonym stylistic synonym synonym differ in emotive and evaluative meaning collocational synonym semantically different synonym polysemy Homonymy homophones 同音异议 Homographs Hyponymy 上下意关系 Superordinate 坐标词 Hyponymy 下意词 X entails Y X 是小范围等同于Y is the entailment of X X presupposes Y X 是以Y为前提的Y为条件等同于Y is the prerequisite of X

语言学学习方法.

语言学的学习方法 语言理论研究的对象是语言,和其他学科一样,它是由对语言的认识及基于这种认识对语言进行研究的一系列具体方法和相关概念交织在一起的理论体系。语言学又是一个动态的学科,人们对于语言的认识还远远没有完成,因而关于语言的许多问题并没有直接的答案,还需要我们不断地去思考和探索。在学习本课程的过程中,有这样几个方面的问题值得注意:首先是术语这个“拦路虎”。作为一门科学,语言学需要运用一套术语来建立一些科学的概念。学习语言学就不可避免地要掌握这些概念并能够用科学的语言进行表述。掌握术语和概念的根本方法在于理解,包括每个概念的定义和所指的语言现象,以及各个概念在语言学理论体系中所处的地位。只有充分理解了这些基本概念,才能对语言有比较理性的认识,用于指导语言实践。 其次是语言的理论问题。由于语言自身的复杂性和人们对于语言的了解还不够深入,有关语言的理论非常繁杂。尽管本科阶段的教材不可能包括全部的语言理论,但在学习过程中学生仍然会遇到考察同一语言现象的不同方法。比如对于发音中的同化现象,语音学和音系学就有不同的考察方法;句子的意义问题也有语义和语用两种看法;语法的研究方法在本教材中就介绍了多种,等等。这些不同的理论和方法不过是从不同角度去考察语言的现象,比如,that’s an interesting hat这句话,从语义的角度,我们只需要解释其字面的意义,而从语用的角度我们就要考虑说话人的场合、语气和态度,并据此判断这句话是称赞还是贬斥。学习和接受不同的理论能够训练我们看问题的全面性,帮助我们提高思辨能力。 第三是语言研究的方法问题。方法的根基是理论,有什么样的理论就有什么 样的方法。作为科学,语言学理论必须具有穷尽性、一致性和简洁性。研究语言的方法无外乎有两种:一是演绎,二是推理。我们可以通过收集语言事实找出语言的规律,也可以通过建立某种假设再用语言事实进行验证。不论使用哪一种方法,都必须以语言事实为依据。作为语言专业的学生,平时要注意观察语言现象,结合所学的语言学理论、概念和方法不断思考,不断验证,提高自己的辨别能力,得出自己的结论。篇二:语言学的学科性质与学习方法 语言科学从19世纪初创立以来,作为独立的学科发展到现在,对其相邻学科产生过一系列具有深远意义的影响。这些影响表现在以下几个方面。 一、本体语言学与文学理论文学批评中―文本‖ 瑞典语言学家索绪尔在其名著《普通语言学教程》中将言语过程、言语环境、言语交际两方的理机制摈弃于语言研究之外,从而使语言研究从纷繁的事实中解脱也来,为结构语言学研究确定了纯粹的稳态的研究对象,奠定了结构学的发展基础,对语言研究有很大促进。与语言现象一样,文学现象也是一个十分纷繁的现象,一部小说,一百个人看了,会有一百样的评论与认识。于是,它们在语言研究方法的启发下,对文学现象进行剥离,建立了―文本‖(txet)的概念,从而对文学理论与文学批评有所推动。 二、语言学中的音位与文学理论中的―原型‖ 音位与音位学的创立,是结构语言学的一大发明,因为它发现了人是用不同的语音表达同一意义并从不同的语音中领略同一意义这一事实。以此为契机,文学家也在不同情景、不同的情节、不同的人物、不同主题的文学作品中,发现了文学现象中也有类似于音位的东西,这就是所谓―原型‖,以此建立起来的文学批评,称之为―原型批评‖。 三、语言学与符号学 结构语言学的创始人索绪尔发现语言的音义之间,有一种符号关系,语音就是可以表现某个特定内容的能指,语义就是由能指所表达的所指。它们的结合是任意的,但具有一种表达与被表达的关系。于是,有关符号学的理论便成为一种时髦,人们从各自的学科,从不同的角度建立起了各种各样的符号学。

中国语言学史复习资料

中国语言学史期末复习资料 一、名词解释 1、雅学:《尔雅》首创按意义分类编排的体例和多种释词方法,对后代词书、类书的 发展产生了很大的影响,后人模仿《尔雅》创作了一系列以“雅”为书名的词书, 如《小尔雅》、《广雅》、《通雅》等,而研究雅书又成为一门学问,被称为“雅学”’。 2、小学:“小学”这个名词最初跟学校有关系的,《大戴礼记》云:“及太子少长,知 妃色,则入于小学。小学者所学之官也”;汉代小学指童蒙识字课,也即语言文字 方面的学问;隋唐时代小学概念扩大;唐代以后“小学”成为文字学、音韵学、训 诂学的总称。 3、《切韵》:隋代陆法言所著,是韵书中影响最大的一部,按四声分卷,共五卷;平 生分上下两卷,上、去、入各一卷,共分韵部193部,记音简略,先释义,后记音。 在汉语音韵学当中,《切韵》被看作是整个语音史的中枢,又是研究历代语音系统 和现代各方言因素的首要研究系统。 4、《广韵》:全名《大宋重修广韵》,陈彭年等奉赦编撰,这是目前保留下来最早的, 最完整的韵书,根据前代《切韵》、《唐韵》等韵书修订而成,共分为五卷(平声分 上下两卷,上、去、入各一卷)分206韵。 5、《干禄字书》:是唐中的一部正字书,作者颜元孙。干禄,求禄位,学好写字就能 求得禄位,是科举时代的字体标准。 6、《说文解字》:由东汉经学家、文字学家许慎所著,简称《说文》,根据文字的形体, 创立540个部首。系统阐述汉字的造字规律,是中国第一部即后代所说的字典。 7、因声求义:是传统的训诂方法之一,是指通过对汉字声音线索的分析来探求字义。 8、字书:字数是研究字形和根据字形以考证音义的书,包括(1)学童识字课本,如 《急就篇》等;(2)解释汉字形体、读音和意义的书,如(汉)许慎的《说文解字》,(梁)顾野王的《玉篇》,(宋)司马光等的《类篇》,(清)《康熙字典》等。(3) 刊正字书的书,如(唐)颜元孙的《干禄字书》,(宋)张有的《复古编》等。 9、秦代三书:李斯《仓颉篇》、赵高《爰历篇》、胡母敬的《博学篇》在历史上被称为 秦代三书。“秦代三书”的社会作用有两个:一是规范了文字书写形体,二是成就 了一部权威的蒙学知识教材。 10语文学:是文字或书面语言的研究,特别注重在文献资料的考证和文字的训诂,这种研究比较零碎和缺乏系统性。 11 语言学:研究对象是语言本身(口语与书面语),研究的结果可以得出科学的、系统 的、全面的语言理论。 12 声调:普通话中有四个声调,通常叫四声即阴平、阳平、上声、去声。 13反切:古代的一种记音方法,用两个字拼出另一个字的读音,取上字之声母,用下字之韵母及声调,拼出被切字的读音。 14 《中原音韵》:元.周德清著,他认为“言语一科,欲作乐府,必正名语,欲正名语 必思中原之音。”根据元朝的北曲用韵,把韵部分析归纳为19韵部。 15 《玉篇》:南朝梁.顾野王撰,是中国古代一部按汉字形体,分部编排的字书,是我 国第一部按部首分门别类的汉字字典。 16 大小徐:指徐铉、徐渭兄弟二人,两人俱精通文字,对说文有着重要的研究,号“大 小徐”。 17 籀文:古汉字中一种书体的名称,西周末和春秋初的文字,字体与秦篆相近,又称 “大篆”、“籀书”。 18 古文:指战国时期盛行于六国的文字。

传统语言学与西方语言学比较.

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empirical linguistics经验语言学stylistics文体学signifier能指signified所指morphs形素morphotactics语素结构学/形态配列学syntactic classes句法类别序列sub-structure低层结构super-structure上层结构open syllable开音节closed syllable闭音节checked syllable成阻音节rank 等级level层次ding-dong theory/nativistic theory 本能论sing-song theory唱歌说yo-he-ho theory劳动喊声说pooh-pooh theory感叹说ta-ta theory模仿说animal cry theory/bow-wow theory模声说Prague school布拉格学派Bilateral opposition双边对立Mutilateral opposition多边对立 Proportional opposition部分对立Isolated opposition孤立对立Private opposition表缺对立Graded opposition渐次对立Equipollent opposition均等对立 Neutralizable opposition可中立对立Constant opposition恒定对立Systemic-functional grammar系统功能语法Meaning potential意义潜势 Conversational implicature会话含义Deictics指示词Presupposition预设Speech acts 言语行为Discourse analysis话语分析Contetualism语境论Phatic communion寒暄交谈Metalanguage原语言Applied linguistics应用语言学Nominalism唯名学派Ps·`ychosomatics身学 trachea/windpipe气管tip舌尖blade舌叶/舌面front舌前部center舌中部top舌顶back舌后部dorsum舌背root舌跟pharynx喉/咽腔laryngeals喉音laryngealization 喉化音vocal cords声带vocal tract声腔initiator启动部分 pulmonic airstream mechanism肺气流机制glottalic airstream mechanism喉气流机制velaric airstream mechanism腭气流机制Adam’s apple喉结Voiceless sound清音Voiceless consonant请辅音Voiced sound浊音Voiced consonant浊辅音Glottal stop 喉塞音Breath state呼吸状态Voice state带音状态Whisper state耳语状态 Closed state封闭状态Alveolar ride齿龈隆骨Dorsum舌背Ejective呼气音Glottalised stop喉塞音Impossive内爆破音Click/ingressive吸气音 Segmental phonology音段音系学Segmental phonemes音段音位Suprasegmental超音段Non-segmental非音段Plurisegmental复音段Synthetic language综合型语言Diacritic mark附加符号Broad transcription宽式标音Narrow transcription窄式标音Orthoepy正音法Orthography正字法Etymology词源Active articulator积极发音器官Movable speech organ能动发音器官Passive articulator消极发音器官 Immovable speech organ不能动发音器官Lateral边音Approximant [j,w]无摩擦延续音Resonant共鸣音Central approximant中央无摩擦延续音Lateral approximant边无摩擦延续音Unilateral consonant单边辅音Bilateral consonant双边辅音Non-lateral非边音Trill [r]颤音 trilled consonant颤辅音rolled consonant滚辅音Labal-velar唇化软腭音Interdental齿间音Post-dental后齿音Apico-alveolar舌尖齿龈音Dorso-alveolar 舌背齿龈音Palato-alveolar后齿

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