硕士论文(同等学力人员：许佳佳)

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学号密级

非全日制学术学位硕士论文

An Analysis of Stylistic Features of English for Science and Technology

科技英语文体特征探析

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学科专业：英语语言文学

研究方向：跨文化交际学

指导教师：###

申请学位级别：同等学力人员申请硕士学位

论文提交日期：2013年 8月19 日

论文评阅人：

论文答辩日期： 2013年月日

答辩委员会主席：

学位授予单位：福建师范大学

学位授予日期： 2013年月日

2013年月

Abstract

Abstract

With the fast development of modern science and technology and the progressively deeper global economic integration, English for science and technology will bring more and more importance to science and language field. English for science and technology has been an independent style of writing which shows its uniqueness. As a functional style of texts, English for science and technology develops on the basis of common English, it has definite boundary with basic English. However, due to its unique form, during the long-term progress of the development of language, it has a great number of characteristics that other languages never boast.

In English documents for science and technology, vocabulary includes pure scientific words and common scientific words. Chinese famous scientist Qian Sanqiang, noted that English for science and technology had become a specific new field of modern English in many countries. Nowadays, Many countries set up English for science and technology, not only in research centers of English for science and technology, but in English majors in universities to study English for science and technology and develop talent of this field.

Although English for science and technology is similar to common English in appearance, which are both composed with phonetics, vocabulary and grammar, as it extends its applying areas, there is more and more necessity of English for science and technology in world‘s poli cy, economy and science and technology.

Key words: EST; grammar; phrase; words; sentences

I

摘要

摘要

随着现代科学技术的快速发展，还有全球经济一体化进程的加快，科技英语在科学和语言领域将有着更重要的意义。科技英语一直是一种独立的写作风格，显示了其独特性。作为一种功能性风格的文本，科技英语以普通英语为基础，它有着明确的边界。然而，由于其独特的形式，在语言长期发展的过程中，它有大量的其他语言不具备的特性。

在科技英语的文档里，词汇包括纯科学的单词和普同的科学词语。中国著名科学家钱三强指出科技英语意境成为现代英语中一个新的精确的领域。现如今，许多国家不仅在科研中心设立了科技英语研究而且在大学教育方面培养了专门发展科技英语的人才。

虽然科技英语在外表上和普通的英语没多大差别，都是由语法，词汇语音等组成，它在应用领域也有了很大的扩展，科技英语在世界经济政治科学和技术方面也有了越来越大的必要性。

关键词：EST，语法，短语；词;句子

III

中文摘要

中文摘要

科技英语一般指在自然科学和工程技术方面的科学著作、论文、教科书、科技报告和学术讲演中所使用的英语。科技英语不像普通英语那样具有感性形象思维，不具感情色彩，其目的是使读者容易理解而不产生太多的想象。也不经常运用比喻、排比、夸张等修辞手段，而是要准确表达客观规律，按逻辑思维清晰地描述问题。本文对科技英语的词汇，语法，句子等进行了一系列描述和说明。

本文共分为五个章节，分别从四个方面介绍了科技英语。

第一章中讲诉了科技英语的语法特征，解释说明的频繁应用，以及长句，复合句和被动鱼台的使用是非常常见的，客观的语句还有大量的数据都可以看出科技英语的严谨性和科学性。在科技英语中也有一些省略倒装和分离现象，条件从句的使用，还有祈使语句在一些说明书中的使用是经常出现的。

第二章中介绍了科技英语的词汇的特点，通俗词汇的应用以及冲向名词的使用，科技英语的词汇意义比较专一、稳定，特别是大量的专业名词其词义很固定、专一。即使是象do, take, make这样的多意义普通动词，在科技英语中它们的词义亦比较固定，其表达方式也比较容易理解。科技英语主要是一种书面语言，它要求严谨、简洁，不要求在文中堆积华丽的辞藻，也不要求考虑朗读和吟诵。科技英语词汇具有国际性。据有关统计，70%以上的科技英语词汇来自拉丁语、希腊语。绝大多数医学、兽医学词汇源于拉丁语、希腊语。多使用正式规范的书面动词来替代具有同样意义的口语化的动词或动词短语。在语法结构上，科技英语大量使用被动语态。科技英语使用被动语态可以使描述减少主观色彩，增强客观性，而且通过隐去人称主语而使句子尽可能简洁。.大量使用名词或名词短语。大量使用非谓语动词短语及分词短语。在科技文章中，同一词语词义的

中文摘要

多专业化，即同一个英语常用词不仅被多个专业采用，而且含义也各不相同，区别很大。词汇方面科技英语反映的是日新月异的科学技术领域内的发展与创新。为了准确、科学地对这些新的进展与理论加以阐述，科技工作者们在遣词方面下了很大的功夫。

第三章中讲诉了科技英语的表现特征，得体性，简洁性，平衡性，一致性，联合性，精确性，控制性，可视化的帮助性，正式性，逻辑上的严谨性，对这一系列的性质进行了描写。科技英语更多的是叙述普遍真理、描述特性、功能或过程及交代推理或假设等,因此它具有自己独特的语言特点和规律:清晰、准确、精练、严密、正式和客观。科技文体崇尚严谨周密，概念准确，逻辑性强，行文简练，重点突出，句式严整，少有变化，常用前置性陈述，即在句中将主要信息尽量前置，通过主语传递主要信息。科技文章文体的特点是：清晰、准确、简练、严密。

第四章中讲诉了科技英语的发展，科技英语的正式提出，稳定的进程，以及科技英语的模式风格。

第五章对文章进行了总结，得出了结论，也就是科技英语总的特点。

福建师范大学硕士论文

Contents

Abstract .......................................................... I

摘要............................................................. II

中文文摘........................................................ III Contents .......................................................... V Chapter one Syntax and Grammar of English for Science and Technology (1)

1.1 Frequent Use of Statements (1)

1.2 Frequent Use of Long Sentences (2)

1.3 Frequent Use of Compound Sentences (4)

1.4 Frequent Use of Passive Voice (6)

1.5 Impersonal Sentences (8)

1.6 More Static Structures (9)

1.7 Omission, Inversion and Separation (10)

1.8 Conditional sentences (10)

1.9 Wide Use of Imperative Sentences (13)

Chapter two Vocabulary of English for Science and Technology (16)

2.1Extensive Use of Words for Science and Technology (16)

2.1.1Common ST Words (19)

2.1.2Abstract Noun (21)

2.2Noun Phrases and Nominalizations (24)

2.3Extensive Use of Nonfinite Verbs (28)

Chapter three Expressive Features (33)

3.1 Appropriateness (33)

3.2Brevity (34)

3.3Balance (36)

3.4Consistency (38)

3.5Unity (39)

3.6Precision (42)

3.7Control (44)

3.8Visual Aids (46)

3.9Formality (48)

3.10 Strict in Logic (49)

Chapter four Context of ST English (53)

4.1Register (53)

4.2Tenor (53)

4.3Mode (54)

Chapter five Conclusion (54)

Reference: (57)

攻读学位期间承担的科研任务与主要成果 (59)

Acknowledgements (61)

个人简历............................................ 错误！未定义书签。福建师范大学硕士学位论文原创性和使用授权声明. (64)

VIII

Chapter One Syntax and Grammar of English for

Science and Technology

1.1 Frequent Use of Statements

In English for science and technology, the authors usually state objectively to describe progress and conditions of objects in order to explain their features and functions, thus statements are frequently used in the contexts.

Statements are of the largest part, resulting from the fact that the apparent characteristic of EST is coherence in logic, and clarity and fluency in expression. A large number of studies have shown that in any thesis in English for science and technology, statements can be accounted for 99.9%. This is because the distinctive features of English for science and technology is focused on the coherent and narrative logic and clear expression and broad. The authors often describe the progress and conditions of the object objectively to explain their features and functions, so statements are often applied in EST. These statements summed up can be divided into three types: the main statements , the auxiliary statements and the conclusive statements. First of all , the main statements refer to those which transmit the most critical information. It is sorted into three types: the description sentence type, for example ,laser（激光）,its creation being thought to be one of today‘s wonders ,there is nothing more than a light that differs from ordinary lights only in that it is many times more powerful and so can be applied in the fields that no ordinary light or other substance has ever been able to get in ;the definition sentence type ,for example, television is the transmission and reception of images of moving objects by radio waves ;the classification sentence type ,for example, triangles can be divided into three kinds according to the three degree of angle .The first kind is the acute triangles whose three angles are acute .The second one is the obtuse triangles whose only one angle is an obtuse angle .The third one is the right triangles whose only one angle is a right angle. Another one is the auxiliary statements that refers to the sentences , which are assisted in the main statements in order to further illustrate or support the main statements. The main statements and the auxiliary statements in place is tandem relations. For example: Si Nan was composed of two parts : a spoon and a tray . The spoon was cut from an intact piece of natural load-stone, with its handle as the south pole and its round , smooth bottom as the center of gravity. The tray ,on the other hand, was made of bronze, and at the center ,there was a round ,smooth groove ,carved with checks and words indicating the 24 directions. This passage, the first sentence is the main statement, the following two sentences are auxiliary statements, to further explain to support the first statement.

Finally ,the conclusive statements are the results of technical personnel reasoning and analytic thinking, and sometimes are summed up to the discovery of scientific and technological personnel .In these sentences, inferences must be concise and clear and have a certain depth and breadth of research .For example, the theory of sphere-heavens(浑天说) played an important part in the history of Chinese astronomy,

exerting significant influence on the design and manufacture of ancient astronomic instruments, as well as on the explanation of relevant astronomic theories. Plenty of studies have shown that the conclusive statements usually appear at the end of the article.

1.2 Frequent Use of Long Sentences

In EST , authors often use long sentences to convey complicated thoughts and logic connections as a functional style. In the English stylistic feature, function attached to the structure.

According to the statistics by foreign researchers, the average sentence length is, respectively 21.8 ,22 ,24.7 (using word as the unit) in Popular Mechanics, Science Digest, American Science. We can clearly find out that ST English tends to use long sentences, in the most condition, the stronger the academic literature is, the longer the sentences are. A.C.Howell argues that, the short sentence is less than 15 words in English for science and technology is not very often to be seen .The sentences in English for science and technology, compared to everyday English and literary English, are more complicated and much longer. Because in EST, the sentences are accurately, objectively, logically structured and conceptually strong. In general, it is appropriate for science and technology workers who are accustomed to reading or specialize in science and technology contents.So more and more long sentences are used in EST.

In EST stylistics, long sentences often consists of a subject with a number of clauses, the clause with the phrase, mutually dependent and constrained so there exists a complex phenomenon in EST articles that a long sentence often includes another one. Plenty of studies appear that long sentences using in EST stylistics are divided into three kinds of structure: the simple sentence, the complex sentence and parallelism sentence.

First of all, in short ,complex sentences is a combination of the main clause and subordinate clause. On the one hand, in EST ,the sentences have much higher demand on the degree of accuracy and precision, on the other hand, compound sentences can not only enhance logic of a sentence but can shorten the length of the sentence. So complex sentences can not be avoided frequent using in EST stylistics. The author will elaborate on the frequent using of complex sentences in scientific English stylistics in the following section. This section, the author mainly analyzes the simple sentence and the parallelism sentence structures in the application of EST stylistics.

1 .Simple sentences. A simple sentence is defined as those sentences that have but one subject-predicate structure, which constitutes the main part of one sentence. The authors, in this structure of this long sentence in EST ,tend to utilize a lot of adjectives, noun phrases, prepositional phrases, non-finite forms of verbs and so on to modify the sentence. In the following the author uses an article as an example to illustrates the application of simple sentence：

―We use touch screens everywhere: tourist kiosks, automatic teller machines, point-of-sale terminals, industrial controls. Half a dozen vendors, plus in-house departments at major manufacturers, produced $800 million worth in 2000. The market is growing because the interfaces are easy-to-use, durable and

inexpensive. Touch screens employ one of three physics principles for detecting the point of touch. Pressing a “resistive” design with a finger or other stylus raises a voltage.In ―capacitive‖ models, a finger draws a minute current (this method is often used for cursor pads on notebook computers). In other designs, a finger or stylus interrupts a standing pattern of acoustic waves or infrared lights that blanket the surface. Resistive screens are the oldest, most widely used and least expensive, and they work with any stylus (finger, pen). Capacitive screens must be touched by a finger or an electrically grounded stylus to conduct current. Wave screens are the newest and most expensive. Surface acoustic wave screens must be touched by a finger or a soft stylus such as a pencil eraser to absorb energy; infrared screens work with any stylus.The different technologies may be used in the same applications, although pros and cons lead to prevalent combinations: resistive screens for industrial controls and Palm Pilots; capacitive screens for slot machines; wave screens for ATMs and indoor kiosks. Most people are unaware of the type of screen they are using. But tricks can help you tell, according to Frank Shen of Elo TouchSystems in Fremont, Calif., the largest U.S. maker. Push the screen lightly with your fingernail (not your skin). If it responds, it could be resistive or infrared. In this case, place two separated fingers against the screen at the same time. If the cursor moves beneath one finger, the unit is infrared (software registers the first touch); if the cursor moves between the fingers, it is resistive (the points are averaged). If the unit does not respond to your fingernail, again place two separated fingers against it. If the cursor moves beneath one finger, the unit is acoustic wave; if the cursor mov es between the fingers, it is capacitive.‖

In this passage ,the sentences marked in bold are the simple ones .In these sentences, adjectives, noun phrases, prepositional phrases, non-finite forms of verbs are used many times to modify .Through plenty of investigations and studies, this kind of simple sentence structures in English for science and technology are often used to define for a thing or to explain some kind of phenomenon .The sentence structure is not complex, however, this sentence structure is difficult in a lot of modifiers .In one sentence ,it is more difficult to understand if there are more modifiers in it. 2.The parallelism sentence .The parallelism sentence is to structure the same or similar meaning consistent tone of three or more phrases or sentences and use. For example：―Steadfast in our faith in the Almighty, we will advance toward a world where man's freedom is secure. To that end we will devote our strength, our resources, and our firmness of resolve. With God's help, the future of mankind will be assured in a world of justice, harmony, and peace.‖ Truman trinomial using object parallelism here called on the people of the United States contribute to human freedom, use object trinomial parallelism looking to the future of humanity. The meaning is: for this purpose, we will contribute our strength, resources, and determination. Under the bless of god, the future of mankind will no doubt is a world of justice, harmony and peace .Obviously , parallelism is a kind of rhetoric .A lot of researches indicate that the rhetorical devices are often used in EST stylistics to make articles persuasive .It increases the momentum of the language and makes some view more persuasive. Because these sentences are tidy and rhythmic ,they enhances the language rhythm, make the article look neat and easy. In English for science and technology

articles ,most contents of science and technology are boring. These long sentences can greatly increase the article‘s interests, and make involved contents more attracti ve to the reader. So this kind structure of long sentences in EST is more widely used . For example

(1) Strawberries contain carotene which is one of synthetic fiber A's important materials and has many beneficial effects such as improving eyesight and calming the liver .It contains pectin and is rich in dietary fiber ,which can help digestion. It has a certain nourishing effect on gastrointestinal and anemia. Besides preventing scurvy ,it has better effect on prevention and treatment of atherosclerosis, coronary heart disease .

(2) The typical digital computer has five different units or sections ,an input unit which controls the action or orders to go into the computer, a control unit which controls the actions of the computer in accordance with the input orders, a computation, or arithmetic ,unit where the arithmetic is carried out ,a reports the results.(this long sentence is constituted a parallel by five ―units‖ with attributive clause.)

1.3 Frequent Use of Compound Sentences

On the definition of compound sentences, there are two different views, one is the traditional point of view, which thinks compound sentences are made of the main clause and subordinate clause .The main clause is relative to the subordinate clauses. The other is the point of Quirk, who believe that subordinate clauses are an integral part of the main clause and the main clause includes the subordinate clause, the entire sentence is a compound one .In the linguistic studies, the latter is often approved In English for science and technology stylistics, in order to express some complex concept ,the compound sentences tend to be used in the most cases. These compound sentences have a special feature :there are a large number of phrases and clauses used in compound sentences ,at the same time ,there are the parallel structure or the inverted word order ,concurrently combined with non-finite forms of verbs so that the sentence structure would be especially complex. Looked from the overall structure, the complex sentence patterns in English for science and technology are classified into four patterns: the parallel structure, the vertical structure, antecedent ―it‖ structure, periodic sentence structure

First of all, the author introduces the parallel structure in English for science and technology. This kind of structure has a prominent characteristic which is to use a comma or the connectives such as and/or between the same or similar ingredients, which makes the whole article structure more compact, concise and make thinking more clear. In English for science and technology, parallel parts of the sentence often include a variety of language forms, such as: clauses, subjects, predicates and so on. The followings are the examples:

Using high-tech computer applications, an Environmental Monitoring(环境监控)/Emergency Response System（紧急处理系统）with a Real-time Data Acquisition（实时数据撷取）/Analysis capability（分析能力）have become a reality. Systems that embody Block Diagram Programming（流程图示程序）, Geographical Information System（数据撷取）, Graphical User Interface（地理

信息系统）, Multimedia User Interface（图形用户界面）, and Real-time Data Acquisition capability（实时相关性数据库）, and Virtual Instrument（虚拟工具）has achieved sustainable development and fostered environmental protection. This article is to conceptualize a real-time environmental monitoring system as well as draft a blueprint in currently available software/hardware technologies and study the feasibility of such a system.

Translate this into Chinese:透过高科技计算机，具有实时数据撷取及分析能力的环境监控/紧急处理系统已非昂贵难行。此类系统不断检测工业污染物质的输出，并检查可能引起紧急化学事故的重要定点，使紧急状况的预防更加容易。此系统持续显示实时数据、分析那些资料并经由图形用户界面将不寻常的事件通知使用者。这篇文章旨在就当前科技，利用流程图示程序，数据撷取，地理信息系统，图形用户界面，实时相关性数据库，虚拟工具分析出一具体可行的环境安全监控系统。(《The Science and Practice of Welding: Welding Science and Technology 》 A.C. Davies86)

In this article ,the sentences marked in bold are the parallel structure.

Through the example above, as can be seen obviously ,in English for science and technology, usually reduce many parallel components into one sentence, forming a prominent stylistic features .In this way, sentences would be full of rhythm and have clear levels.

In the second, the author introduces the vertical structure. This structure has a prominent feature which have many layers of nested components. Say in detail, assuming that part A is used to modify part B ,part B is used to modify part C, and part C is used to modify part D, in general, part A, B, C are used to modify part D. For example:

The efforts that have been made to explain optical phenomena by means of the hypothesis of a medium having the same physical character as an elastic solid body led ,in the first instance, to the understanding of a concrete example of a medium which can transmit transverse vibration but later to the definite conclusion that there is no luminiferous medium having the physical character assumed in the hypothesis.

Translate this into Chinese:为了解释光学现象，人们曾经试图假定有一种具有与弹性固体相同的物理性的介质。这种尝试的结果，最初曾使人们了解到一种能传输横向震动的介质的具体实例，但后来却使人得出了这样一个明确的结论：并不存在任何具有上述假定所认为的那种物理性质的发光介质。In the English for science and technology, the vertical structure can make the language more concise, and make full use of all kinds of literary forms to the limit .If you want to apply this kind of structure properly, the authors must have rich knowledge. Then, this structure also have higher requirements to the reader's reading level, limiting the general readers‘ reading speed, so often used in possessing higher reading ability people-oriented articles.

In the third, the author introduces antecedent ―it‖ structure. In essence, this kind of structure is the impersonality one. ―It‖ is a kind of placeholder in the sentence that is not doing its job .Using―it‖, the form of the subject , guides the sentence, the real

subject with long sentences to the other end, which makes the sentence to avoid top-heavy and impresses the readers a kind of harmonious beauty.

Example 1:It follows from Maxwell‘s hypothesis that whenever there is a change in an electric field, a magnetic field is produced .Chinese meaning is ―由麦克斯假设可知，每当电场发生变化时就产生磁场‖.

Example 2: It is a familiar fact that atmospheric pressure decreases with increasing altitude .Chinese meaning is ―大家熟悉的是，大气压随高度的增加而下降‖.

This impersonality structure is often applied in articles on English for science and technology, since in English for science and technology the authors major in researching scientific phenomena and objective laws of science and technology, which does not stress by who. Using the ―it‖ structure can stress the predicate part and the sentence structure is relatively perfect, let the readers at the first sight to find out the sentence structure. (《科技英语演讲》古德莱德（Goodlad S）,梁玲35)

In the last, periodic sentence structure .This structure is easy to understand. Periodic sentence is a rhetorical perspective, which puts the key meaning at the end of the sentence ,the secondary in the sentence first .It is a relatively rigorous sentence organization .The readers can not understand the full meaning of the sentence structure until they read the complete sentences. It has no fixed pattern in the structure, its characteristic is mainly advance the longer adverbial in much of the situation, and puts the short main clause in the end, which increases the difficulty in understanding sentences for the readers. For example:

(1) We assumed that there were forces of attraction between molecules which varied rapidly with the distance so that the attraction between molecules that were more than a few ten-millions of millimeter apart was very small but became considerable when the molecules approached more closely .

(2) Owing to the fact that electricity and be transmitted from where it is generated to where it is needed by means of power lines and transformers .Large power stations and be built in remote places far from industrial centers or large cities, as is often the case with hydroelectric power stations that are inspirable from water sources. (《科技翻译》傅勇林，唐跃勤，98)

1.4 Frequent Use of Passive Voice

A prominent feature on syntax in English for science and technology is the frequent use of passive voice. According to the survey of some linguists, compared with general English and literature English, in the textbooks on physics, chemistry and engineering, the use of passive voice can be accounted for at least 1/3 of the total verbs.(陈治业，1994（2）)This helps to focus the readers‘ attentions on the thing ,phenomenon or process described in EST articles .That is because the passive voice is more objective thus readers‘ attention is easily paid to stated objects and facts. Zhang Zhenbang put forward :―Sentences or clauses using the passive word phrase as the predicate verb are called passive sentences .‖(章振邦，1999) In explaining the reasons of the extensive use of the passive voice in English of science and technology, many linguists are based on the expatiation of the objectivity of what EST is related to .For example, Wang Zuoliang et al. think: Characteristics of the passive sentences

focusing on the passives happen to meet the needs of the objective description of English for science and technology ,which makes the description more accurate.(王佐良丁往道，1987) For example：

(1) As noted previously ,the Q point may be located anywhere on dc load line by properly choosing bias resistors R1 and R2. The dc bias circuit can be used to advantage as an aid in visualization during this design process. Once Rb has been chosen to provide the desired bias stability, all the information required can be obtained from the dc bias circuit.

如前所述，通过适当选择偏置电阻R1和R2，Q点可以位于直流负载线上的任何位置。在设计过程中，直流偏置电路作为形象化的一种辅助手段可以充分加以使用。一旦选定Rb而获得希望得到的偏置稳定性，那么所需的信息都可以从直流偏置电路上获得。（《电气信息类科技英语教程》何宏，56-68）

(2) As oil is found deep in the ground its presence can not be determined by

a study of the surface. Consequently ,a geological survey of the underground rock structure must be carried out. If it is thought that the rocks in a certain area contain oil, a ―drilling rig‖ is assemble .The most obvious part of a drilling rig is called ―a derrick‖ .It is used to lift sections of pipe, which are lowered into the hole made by the drill .As the hole is being drilling, a steel pipe is pushed down to prevent the sides from falling in .If oil is struck a cover is firmly fixed to the top of the pipe and the oil is allowed to escape through a series of valves.

(3) In this way the distinction between heavy current electrical engineering and light current electrical engineering can be said to have disappeared, but we still have the conceptual difference in that in power engineering the primary concern is to transport energy between distant points in space ;while with communications systems the primary objective is to convey, exact and process information, in which process considerable amounts of power may be consumed.

（The sentences marked in bold are the passive voice.）

Through the example above and combined with common sense, we can easily find out the frequent use of the passive voice in an article about English for science and technology .In a word ,the main purpose of EST is to describe the existed objective things and phenomenon, the scientific researches and the technological process, etc. The passive voice pay more attention to objective facts than the active voice, almost not influenced by any emotional color, which makes the article more convincing. As J .Perlmutter says ―it‘s traditional among technical writers to keep themselves in the background, to exclude personal pronouns and emphasize their work instead .‖

1.5 Impersonal Sentences

In English for science and technology ,the writers often use impersonal sentences to better indicate the objective facts .EST writings describe the existed objective things and phenomenon, the scientific researches and the technological process, etc .What EST writings mainly discuss are the results and natural phenomenon of science but not the person who discovers or accomplishes them, therefore, in English for science and technology the writers often use impersonal sentences .For example:

(1)The use of electronic computers has moderated these problems somewhat in

the area of programming and manufacturing of decision elements.

(2)Most gas lasers, operating on the same basic principle, have the advantage of being able to emit their coherent beams continuously.

(3)The effect of the ―load current‖ can be equivalented by connecting a load resistor across the rectifier output and chassis .The Chinese meaning is ―负载电流所产生的影响可以等效为在整流器输出端与机壳之间接上一个负载电阻‖.

(4)The CE circuit is widely favored since it can be designed for good voltage and current gains. (《900科技英语长难句分析与翻译》，严俊仁)

As is appeared in the above examples ,the subjects ―The use of electronic computers‖, ―Most gas lasers‖ ,―The effect of the ?load current‘‖ and ―The CE circuit‖ are impersonal .Applying impersonal subjects will simplify the structure of the sentences and make the structures smooth.

In English for science and technology ,the authors are often tend to explain the existed objective things and phenomenon, the scientific researches and the technological process, in a way that is very easy for common readers to understand, with concrete examples or by using personal pronouns ―you‖ to let the readers into the article, and ―we‖ to render the article less formal. The following is an example about ―telepathy－－mind to mind contact‖.

Telepathy is the ability to communicate without the use of the five senses（sight, hearing, touch, smell, taste）．It is an instinct, and although quite dormant in many of us, we are often capable of tapping into our latent abilities in times of emergency or need．Where this instinct lies is uncertain．Some say that it is located in the huge area of our brains that are wholly unused, whereas others argue that instinct existed before the brain evolved and must therefore lie else－where in the body．When we intuitively know that something is happening, or about to happen, our instinct has kicked in．We are drawing upon resources within the unconscious mind．When the resources of two unconscious minds link together into the same frequency, we call it Telepathy．Telepathy can be either projective or perceptive, we either send or receive．If you know who is calling before you answer the ringing phone, you are probably a good receiver．If you think of a person, and they call you, you are most likely better at sending．You can easily put your abilities to the test．Think of somebody and will them to contact you．Be patient, the other person may not be a good receiver, but they should contact you much earlier than would normally be expected．Or whenever the phone rings, try "feeling" who's contacting you．Don't guess, try to feel the vibrations．However, if neither of these work for you, that doesn't mean that you are not capable of telepathy．As mentioned earlier, telepathy is most likely to kick in under circumstances of emergency．

In the above article, the person pronouns ―you‖ and ―we‖ are frequently used, the applications of such kind of pronouns should not be confused with explanation. There is no doubt that it is irrelevant who is actually performing the action. In English for science and technology , the sentences are aimed at giving an objective description or explanation of a certain thing or process to show its scientific nature.

1.6 More Static Structures

Based on the semantic features ,sentence structures can be divided into static

structures and dynamic structure. Static structures is commonly used in English for science and technology , which are used to state conditions of objects and things but not acting progress .For example :Any application that needs to run faster can benefit from the computational power of analysis hardware .Applications requiring high frequency signals and real-time response are now possible on the PC using digital signal processing hardware .Today‘s digital signal processors are 32-bit accurate with floating-point format .They have a much higher dynamic range than fixed-point (integer) processors . Therefore ,floating-point applications are simpler to develop and can run faster with floating-point digital processors .

Though this example above ,people can easily find out the static structure is often used to state conditions of things , natural laws or objects ,on the contrary ,the dynamic structure is often used to act progress .

A large number of studies have shown that static structures in English for science and technology are mainly made of ―there be‖ structure ,link verbs such as am/is/are ,come/go ,appear and so on or other existential verbs .For example:

(1) There are two reasons for this．One is that they understand the others, mind through time spent together；the other is that there is usually a strong desire to communicate．

(2)Strictly speaking ,any measurement below room temperature comes into the area of low temperature physics ,but it has become a common practice to take low temperature physics as the physics research carried out at temperature at or below the boiling point of oxygen.

(3)The superiority of radar to ordinary vision lies in the greater distance at which seeing is impossible with radar .(《900科技英语长难句分析与翻译》，严俊仁)

(4)The absence of an electron from a silicon atom can be thought of as a hole .

In the examples above , ―there are , comes into ,has become ,lies in and be thought of‖ implies that the whole sentence presents a certain static meaning .In English for science and technology ,especially ,when the writers describe the objective things or explain a certain phenomenon ,the static structures are frequently applied in the articles .This kind of structure can make the article more objective so that the readers would be easier convinced .

1.7Omission, Inversion and Separation

To make the contexts more consisted, balanced and coherent, omission, inversion and separation are usually used in ST English.

1. In order to make the sentence more brief, the omission is often used in science and technology English. For example, when there are the names occurring before, so as to make the sentence brief, it usually uses he or she instead. Omission‘s use i n English especially in communication exists generally in the conversation, because it can avoid duplication, highlight the key words and make the context closely connected. And in these conditions, the omission is needed. Here are some examples.

(1) A great many kinds of transistor exist, and many versions（型号）of each kind. Here we have omitted ―of transistor‖ after kind, which makes the whole sentence more brief.

(2) If a voltage(电压) is applied to the two ends of a circuit（电路）, an electric

current（电流）will flow in it. Here we use it to instead of the circuit to make the sentence more brief

(3)(39) Combined with extremely high waves generated by the storm, hurricanes surges can be highly destructive. Here we have omitted the hurricanes in the beginning of the sentence.

2. There are two classifications about inversion.

The first one is full inversion, which is mainly for sentence balance for stress. For example:

(1) At the other end is a fluorescent screen which emits light at the point where

the electron beam strikes.

(2) Outside the nucleus, are the electrons.

(3) Shortly afterward followed the discovery that the motion of a magnet toward

or away from the circuit would produce the same effect.

(4) Thus commenced the era of solid-state electronics. The center of mass is the

point through which passes the resultant（合力）of the reaction forces（反作用力）when a body is accelerated(加速)

(5) The nucleus of a hydrogen natom is a single proton, and around it moves a

single electron.

The second one is part inversion.

3. In science and technology English, the use of separation usually can be seen.

The separation is divided into these parts.

1) Separate subject and its modifiers. For example:

No chance exists for such a device（装置）to be realized. A feeling has developed in society that technology must be controlled.

2) Two post-modifier modify a noun case at the same time. For example:

The control-system engineer finds many functions of interest which are not periodic（周期性的）。This is what is meant by the statement sometimes made that ―the pressure in a fluid（流体）acts in all directions‖, The opposition that a conductor offers tending to impede（阻止）the transmission（输送）of electricity is called electrical resistance.

1.8 Conditional sentences

When stating reasons, putting up ideas and reducing formulas, all kinds of premises, conditions and situations are always referred to, conditional sentences are used to avoid arbitrary decisions from the perspective from doubts, suggestions.

Grammar is important for you to understand scientific literature with accuracy. In writing scientific English, grammar appears more important than before. Some professors and candidates sent their papers to the well-known international technical journals, such as the American IEEE and the British I ET. The reviewers‘ comment might often be like this: ―What is described in your paper is acceptable. But your English is pretty poor. Please improve it (or: Please rewrite your paper entirely). So in order to make our articles more excellent, we need to use some sentences which are complex or good.

Conditional sentences are used to describe a thing that may happen in a condition. In science and technology English , in many occasions, it is useful to use conditional

sentence. Because without assumption , we can‘t draw a conclusion accurately. Science need to be accurate, so we can‘t come to one conclusion summarily. We must consider all things into it, so that we can‘t jump to a conclusion. Here are some examples.

(1) To the extent that it is real, the interaction with the lower boundary seems a good candidate to explain the high persistence of the system.

如果这一结果可靠的话，那么这一系统与下边界的相互作用似乎可看作解释它长时间继续存在的可靠原因。

(2) Two fronts will exist if we have three air masses, a coal, a warm, and a cold, moving from west to east one after another.

如果我们让三个气团（一冷，一暖又一冷的）依次由西向东运动，则会出现两个锋。

(3) If the input file exists, then we must create a new output file.

如果该输入文件存在，那么我们必须开辟一个新的输出文件。

(4)（According to the weather report, the typhoon will pass over the region）If so, the drought will be relieved.

（根据天气报告称，此次台风将经过这个地区）如果是这样，旱象将得到缓和。

(5) If the moon were, for instance, over the site of Miami, there would be a tidal bulge there and also on near the west coast of Australia.

例如，假如月亮在迈阿密测点的上空，那里就会出现海潮的隆升，而在澳大利亚西海岸附近的海面也会出现隆升。

(6) If the earth's axis did not tilt, there would be no seasonal change on it.

如果地轴不倾斜，地球上就没有季节变化。

(7) Were there no such superior laws, physics would be impossible as an exact secence over any sufficiently long period.

如果没有这些颠扑不破的定律，物理学就不可能在任何足够长的岁月作为一门精确的科学而存在。

(8) If this situation should occur, the frame would become unusable.

如果出现这种情况，框架就成为无用的了。

(9) Should the current be cut, the coil would return to its original position.

如果电流切断，线圈就返回到原来位置。

(10)Had Franklin known what we know about lightning in those days, he probably would not have undertaken such a dangerous experiment.

如果富兰克林当时与今天我们关于闪电知识的认识一样，他可能不会进行那种危险的（风筝）试验了。

(11)If we had not taken necessary precautions, the typhoon would have inflicted heavier damages.

如果当时不采取必要预防措施，台风就会造成更加严重的损害。

(12) If it were not for the modern equipment, such experiments would not be performed.

如果没有这些现代化设备，这些实验就不能进行。

(12) With the equipment the experiment would be readily conducted.

如果有了这些设备，试验就会顺利进行。

(13) Water vapor is lighter, which would otherwise not rise into air.

水汽（比空气）较轻，否则它不会升到空中。

(14) Since this frame of reference-the earth –is rotating, motions that would be straight in a stationary frame of reference appear curved to the observer on earth.

由于参照系—地球—是旋转的，所以在静止参照系中应是呈直线运动，在地球上的观测者看来就成为曲线运动。

(15) This is clearly not the case, if it were true, prediction of the tides could have been done for centuries.

很清楚，情况并非如此。假如真是这样，潮汐预报可能已发布几个世纪了（事实并非如此）。

(16) Provided we make on further assumption, the Copernican principle leads to

a rather similar universe model.

如果我们作出进一步的假设，哥白尼原理会导致一个相当类似的宇宙模式。

(17) Computers can yield accurate results providing that they are fed with reliable information to start with.

计算机可给出准确结果，如果给予它们可靠信息使之开始工作的话。

(18) Orchard without precaution will suffer heavy loss in case cold wave occurs

如果寒潮发生，不采取预防措施的果园将会受到严重损失。

(19) For instance, suppose the operator received one Fortran job, one Cobol job and another Fortran job.

例如，假定操作员接受了一个Fortran作业，一个Cobol作业，然后又是一个Fortran作业。

(20) There is no change in the motion of a body unless a resultant force is acting upon it.

除非有一合力作用于物体上，否则物体的方向是不会发生变化的。

(21) In so far as linear motion is concerned, a body is in equilibrium if the vector sum of the forces acting upon it is zero.

就线性运动而论，如果作用于严格物体上的诸力的矢量之和是零，那么这个物体就处于平衡状态。

(22) Thus, Fig. 5 is similar to Fig. 4b insofar as the same recombination and filters have been applied to both.

因此，就两者都采用同样的合成和滤波方法而言，图5与图4b相同。

(23) Atmospheric research is often both basic, in sense that it concerns the fundamental understanding of atmospheric processes, and applied, in the sense that it is directly useful.

大气研究常常是基础性的（就其涉及对大气过程的基本性理解而言）又是应用性的（就其是付诸直接应用而言）。

(24) As far as we know, the problem has not been attacked at home and abroad.

就我们所知国内外对这一问题尚未着手研究

(25) As long as the counter is positive, control is returned to the user program.

只要计数器是正数，控制器就返回到用户程序。

(26) Be it that the temperature is beyond the rang （e.g. 32o to 41oF as the minimum cardinal temperature for wheat）the crop will be checked from growing.

如果温度超出某一范围（例如小麦的最低温度为32o——41oF），则作物生长受阻。

(27) On the assumption that speed is kept constant, distance increases with time.

假如速度不变，则距离随时间增大。

(28)The computers available can meet the needs except that data are sent in bulk.

只要资料不是大批送来，现有这几台计算机是够用的。

(29) With favorable light and moisture conditions a plant grows at greatest rapidity if there is the optimum temperature for it.

在合适光照和水分条件下，如果有最适宜温度，则植物以最快速度生长。

(30) Without reliable data, prediction has no foundation.

没有可靠的资料，预报就没有基础。

(31) Sheets of newly formed sea ice break into pieces under stress of wind and waves.

大块新形成的海冰在风和海浪的作用下裂成碎片。

(32) The annual total rainfall of 300 mm seems somewhat low for the region at these latitude.

就位于这些纬度的这一地区来说，年总降水量300毫米似乎少了一些。

(33) Depending upon our job scheduler we would make both 6K jobs wait or run one of them in the 10K region.

我们可使两个6K作业等待，或者把其中一个在10K区运算，视我们作业的调度程序而定。

(34)Given wind speed, duration, and fetch, it is possible to predict the size of the waves generated by a given storm.

人给出了风速，它的持续时间和吹程，就有可能预报由某一风暴产生的海浪的高度。

(35) Other things being equal, the evapotranspiration rate decreases with increasing humidity.

当其它条件相同时，蒸散率随湿度增大而减小。

(36) Such being the case, the understanding of nature would be greatly improved.

如果是这样，那么我们对大自然的认识将会大为提高。

(37) T will represent temperature alone in this book unless otherwise stated.

在本书T将只表示温度，除非另有说明

(38) Unless destroy or influenced in some way by ocean boundaries, waves continue to travel for long distances in the direction that the wind was blowing when they formed.

波浪除非被海洋边界以某种方式消除或影响，发展它就会继续沿着其形成时的吹向而运动很长距离。(《900科技英语长难句分析与翻译》，严俊仁)

1.9 Wide Use of Imperative Sentences

The use of the imperative sentence is very common in science and technology English. In the operating instructions, operating procedures, work instruction, notice, etc, it is very common to see imperative sentence. The articles of science and technology, frequent use of imperative sentence to express suggestions, advice, and command to the users‘ or operators‘ action, which is in order to achieve the basic purpose. For example:

Accurate in operation and high in speed, computers can save man a lot of time and

labor. Free from the attack of moisture, a piece of iron will not rust very fast. Large or small, all circuits will contain the same kinds of components. Analogous to （类似于）the technique used in discussing power averaging（功率平均）, let us define a new random variable（随机变量）ω. Contrary to popular belief, humans don't need less sleep as they. The force M acts perpendicular to（垂直于）the earth's surface. It must be noted that the current increases proportional to（正比于）every decrease of resistance（电阻）. The video signal can be recorded on magnetic tape for picture reproduction, similar to audio tape recording for the reproduction of sound. (《Ceramics Science and Technology, Materials and Properties 》Ralf Riedel , I-Wei Chen58)

Here is a instruction of an electrical equipment, PHILIPS:（飞利浦）

Don‘t store CF cards in hot, dusty or humid places. Also avoid places prone to generate static charge or an electromagnetic field. Turn off your computer and unplug its power cable. Connect the blue connector of the video cable to the blue video connector. Connect your monitor‘s power cable to the power monitor port on the back of monitor. Plug your computer‘s power cord and your monitor into a nearby outlet. Turn on your computer and monitor. If the monitor displays an image, installation is complete. If you are using BNC connector （not available on all models）, please remember to switch to ―input B‖ from ―input A‖ by simultaneously pressing the ―OK‖ and ―UP‖ knobs on front control panel.

Here is an another example. Fill a test-tube half full of water and heat it nearly to boiling point. Support the tube on a stand and allow it to cool. Take the temperature every minute. Stir carefully with a glass rod. Repeat this with a tube half-full of crystals. Allow the solid to melt. Heat the liquid to 100 centigrade , fix the tube on the stand and allow it to cool. Record the results as before and plot them.

The withdrawal of Nevada'sYucca Mountain as a potential nuclear waste repository has reopened the debate over how and where to dispose of spent nuclear fuel and high-level nuclear waste. In an article in the July 10 issue of Science, University of Michigan2 geologist Rodney Ewing and Princeton University3 nuclear physicist Frank von Hippel argue that, although federal agencies should set standards and issue licenses for the approval of nuclear facilities, local communities and states should have the final approval on the siting of these facilities. The authors propose the development of multiple sites that would service the regions where nuclear reactors are located."The main goal…, should be to provide the Unied States with multiple process that requires acceptance by host communities and states," the authors write. Ewing and yon Hippel also analyze the reasons why Yucca Mountain, selected by Congress4 in 1987 as the only site to be investigated for long-term nuclear waste disposal, finally was shelved5 after more than three decades of often controversial debate. The reasons include the site's geological problems, management problems, important changes in the Environmental Protection Agency's standard, unreliable funding and the failure to involve local communities in the decision-making process. Going forward, efforts should be directed at locating storage facilities in the nation's northeastern, southeastern, midwestern and western regions, and states within a given region should be responsible for developing solutions that suit their particular circumstances. Transportation of nuclear waste over long distances, which was a

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目的：观察玻璃纤维桩应用于前牙残冠残根修复的临床效果。方法：选择98例患者的137颗前牙残冠残根为研究对象，137颗残冠残根行完善的根管治疗后，选择玻璃纤维桩和复合树脂进行粘结，形成桩核，恢复基牙外形并进行全瓷冠修复。结果：经过3个月一2年的随访观察，132颗成功，5颗因纤维桩脱落失败，无根折、桩折现象，修复成功率为百分之96．35，修复效果满意。结论：玻璃纤维桩可以作为理想的前牙残冠、残根桩核修复材料。 关键词 ：玻璃纤维桩；前牙；残根残冠 II.[原文剖析] 1.研究目的（objective）及背景（background） 1.1目的 观察玻璃纤维桩应用于前牙残冠残根修复的临床效果 1.2背景 随着现代根管治疗及全冠修复技术的发展，越来越多的残冠、残根经过治疗后得以保留，但常因伴有大面积的牙体组织缺损，需要进行全冠修复。对于残冠、残根最好的修复方法是桩核冠修复，能增加全冠修复体的固位和支持。 玻璃纤维桩作为一种新型的桩核材料，操作方便，具有良好的力学特性及美学性能，弹性模量与牙本质接近，能有效缓解牙本质的应力集中，而逐渐被应用于临床?。本研究采用玻璃纤维增强型复合树脂桩核修复前牙残冠、残根，取得了良好疗效。 2.研究设计（design）方案 选择2007年7月一2010 年7月在我院口腔门诊就诊的有保留价值的前牙残冠残根98例137颗患牙，男53例，女45例，年龄18—70岁。所有患牙均需符合如下条件：(1)经完善的根管治疗后2周以上，牙龈牙周组织健康，牙齿无松动。(2)X线片显示根充恰填，根尖周无阴影或阴影面积逐渐缩小。(3)临床冠龈上长度大于等于2mm，桩长度大于等于7ram，以确保全冠有足够长度的金属领圈。(4)患者均知情同意。

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（3）其他部门（机关、企事业学校等）卫生组织系统，包括大量基层单位大小不等的卫生行政人员和医疗保健机构。他们承担了大量初级卫生保健工作。 （4）军队卫生组织系统，包括军队各级卫生行政领导机构及卫生业务组织。它具有独立完善的组织体系，除保证军队医疗卫生工作外，对国家的医疗卫生工作是一支重要的支持力量。 （5）其他卫生部门，如爱国卫生运动委员会、国家计划生育委员会、国家医药管理总局和国家中医管理局。他们是从不同角度直接领导和从事某项卫生工作的部门，有单独的组织体系，与上述四个卫生组织系统均有着密切关系。 从卫生组织外部环境看，各工业部门、教育部、文化部、国家发展和改革委员会、财政部等均直接或间接对卫生事业起着促进、制约或阻碍作用。如工业的发展对国民经济增长、人民生活水平的提高起着重大作用，但往往带来很多“三废”污染问题，直接危害着职工及广大人民群众的身体健康。教育部门在培养医药卫生人才方面及对学生进行健康教育等方面起着重要作用。计划、财政部门在卫生资源分配上更是起着关键的作用。 考点二：我国卫生组织的分类（见表5-2）★★ 表5-2我国卫生组织的分类

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一、基本规定 1、国家承认学历的大专毕业生，毕业后2年（从大专毕业到录取为硕士生当年的9月1日，下同）或者2年以上，达到与大学本科毕业生同等学力（含国家承认学历的本科结业生和成人高校应届本科毕业生），且符合招生单位根据本单位的培养目标对考生提出的具体业务要求的人员，要以同等学力身份报考！ 2、成人高校应届本科毕业生以同等学力身份报考 成人教育学历是国家承认的。成人教育本科往届生可以直接以本科生的资格报考。而成人教育应届本科生由于报考时（每年的11月中旬）并没有取得本科学历，所以只能以同等学力的资格报考，不同于全日制的普通高校应届本科生。普通高校的应届本科生是可以以本科生的资格报考的。 3、从2002年起，高校结业生（没有毕业证，但没有完成所有的指定学业科目，有普通高校结业证书）可以按同等学力身份报考。肆业生（在普通高校学习一段时间，完成部分的指定学业科目学习有普通高校肆业证书）根据不同学校要求执行。 二、各种学历的报考条件 1、自学考试学历 1988年，国务院发布了《高等教育自学考试暂行条例》，对高等教育自学考试的性质、任务、地位、机构及实施办法等，以国家行政法规的形式作出了规定。该条例总则第五条是这样写的，高等自学考试的专科（基础科）、本科等学历层次，与普通高等学校的学历层次水平的要求应相一致。 以上条例说明：高教自学考试与普通高校学历完全等价，但是报名的时候一定要有毕业证书，当然具体情况各学校不同，要和招办核实，问清楚！ 推荐：自考生考研报考指南 2、关于普通高校结业生与肆业生 从2002年起，高校结业生（没有毕业证，但没有完成所有的指定学业科目，有普通高校结业证书）可以按同等学力身份报考。肆业生（在普通高校学习一段时间，完成部分的指定学业科目学习有普通高校斯业证书）根据不同学校要求执行。 3、党校函授学历 党校函授实际上是党为了提高广大党员干部的理论素养和业务水平，建设一支高素质党员干部队伍而进行的一种内部培训。相对于国民教育（即普通高校，成人高校，高教自学考试等）而言，进口要宽一些，出口要松一些。到现在为止，尚未听到有人参加党校函授而未能毕业者。而且其本科段对英语不作要求，这与国民教育中对英语的严格要求相去甚远。有关文件规定：党校函授毕业生不得享受国民教育系列学历同等待遇。

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同等学力申硕2008公共管理真题

绝密★启用前 2008年同等学力人员申请硕士学位 学科综合水平全国统一考试 公共管理试卷 第一部分 公共基础部分 第二部分 专业知识部分 Ⅰ．公共行政学 Ⅱ．社会保障学 Ⅲ．教育管理学 Ⅳ．卫生事业管理学 Ⅴ．土地资源管理学 考生须知 1.本试卷满分为100分，包括公共基础部分和专业知识部分。公共基础部分满分30分，每 位考生必答；专业知识部分含公共行政学、社会保障学、教育管理学、卫生事业管理学、土地资源管理学五部分，各部分满分70分，考生可根据自己拟申请硕士学位的专业选择其中一部分作答，多选者只按前选部分计分。 2.请考生务必将本人准考证号最后两位数字填写在本页右上角方框内。 3.必答题部分的单项选择题的答案一律用2B铅笔填涂在指定的答题卡上，凡做在试卷或 答题纸上的答案一律无效；其它题一律用蓝色或黑色墨水笔在答题纸指定位置上按要求作答，未做在指定位置上的答案一律无效。 4.在答题卡上正确的填涂方法为：在答案所代表的字母上划线，如[A] [B] [C] [D] 。 5.监考员收卷时，考生须配合监考员验收，并请监考员在准考证上签字（作为考生交卷的 凭据）。否则，若发生答卷遗失，责任由考生自负。 公共管理试卷第 1 页共 7 页

公共管理试卷 第 2 页 共 7 页 第一部分 公共基础部分 （共30分，每位考生必答） 一、单项选择题（答案一律用2B 铅笔填涂在答题卡上，答在试卷或答题纸上无效，每小题1 分，共10分） 1．古立克提出了 理论。 A ．POSDCOR B B ．PDCA C ．XYABC D ．PARTBSC 2．宪政主义与管理主义是公共行政选择的两种不同价值，宪政主义强调 。 A ．绩效 B ．效率 C ．正义 D ．市场 3．静态层行政组织的构成要件主要包括机构设置、 和人员配置等。 A ．运行机制 B ．行政授权 C ．权责划分 D ．心理互动 4．在我国直辖市中，街道办事处属于 。 A ．办事机构 B ．职能机构 C ．辅助机构 D ．派出机构 5．行政领导活动实质上是领导者、被领导者、群体目标和 之间的互动。 A ．主观认识 B ．客观环境 C ．人际关系 D ．个体行为 6．与首长制相比，委员会制的缺陷表现为 。 A ．事权不一 B ．大权独揽 C ．监督不力 D ．经验限制 7．将决策制定过程看作是根据过去经验，不断调适而达成一致的决策模式是 。 A ．有限决策论 B ．行为主义决策论 C ．渐进决策论 D ．团队决策论 8．以在岗工作性质、难易程度、责任大小及所需资格等因素条件进行的公务员分类管理 体系是 。 A ．品位分类 B ．官秩分类 C ．职务分类 D ．职位分类 9．根据行政立法权的取得方式，行政立法可分为职权立法和 。 A ．执行立法 B ．创制立法 C ．法规立法 D ．授权立法 10．狭义上的行政监督主体是 。 A ．司法机关 B ．行政机关 C ．立法机关 D ．社会团体 二、简答题（每小题10分，共20分） 1．简述行政沟通的组织功能及其理论基础。 2．简述组织冲突的含义及其类型。