新编简明英语语言学教程复习资料
Chapter one Introduction
一、定义
1.语言学Linguistics
Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.
2.普通语言学General Linguistics
The study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.
3.语言language
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.
语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.识别特征Design Features
It refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.
语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。
Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性
Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递
The design features mentioned in the course book include arbitrariness, productivity or creativity, duality, displacement and cultural transmission.
By arbitrariness it is meant that the symbols used in human language are arbitrary, i.e. there is no logical connection between the symbols and what they stand for.
The feature of productivity means that language is productive or creative, i.e. it is possible for its users to construct and understand an unlimited number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before.
Duality is a feature of the structure of the human language system, which consists of two levels. At the lower level there exist a limited number of sounds which are meaningless, while at the higher level these meaningless sounds can be arranged and rearranged in various ways to form meaningful language units, unlimited in number.
The feature of displacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or unreal, in the past, present, or future.
Cultural transmission, in contrast to genetic transmission, refers to the fact that human babies, though born with the ability to acquire a language, must be taught to use it.
5.语言能力Competence
Competence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.
6.语言运用performance
Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.
语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。
7.历时语言学Diachronic linguistics
The study of language change through time. a diachronic study of language is a historical study, which studies the historical development of language over a period of time.
8.共时语言学synchronic linguistics
The study of a given language at a given time.
9.语言langue
The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.
10.言语parole
The realization of langue in actual use.
11.规定性Prescriptive
It aims to lay down rules for ”correct” behavior, to tell people what they s hould say and what should not say.
12.描述性Descriptive
A linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use.
二、知识点
1. L anguage is not an isolated phenomenon, it’s a social activity carried out in a certain social environment by human beings.
语言不是一种孤立的现象，而是人类在一定的社会环境下进行的一种社会活动。
2.几种观点和现象的提出者：
⑴瑞士语言学家F.de Saussure F.de Saussure: Langue和parole的区别
⑵U.S.A linguist N. Chomsky美国语言学家N. Chomsky
in1950针对Saussure’s langue & parole提出Competence和performance
3. the word “language”preceded by the zero-article, it implies that linguistics studies not any particular language.
Language一词前不加冠词说明语言学家不只研究一种特定的语言。
三、问答题
1. What are major branches of linguistics? What does each study?
Phonetics----it’s defined as the study of the phonic medium of language, it’s concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.
Phonology---the study of sounds systems—the inventory of distinctive sounds that occur in a language and the patterns into which they fall.
Morphology---It’s a branch of a grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.
Syntax-------it's a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of a language. Semantics---It’s simply defined as the study of meaning in abstr action.
Pragmatics---the study of meaning in context of words.
Sociolinguistics—the study of language with reference to society.
Psycholinguistics---the study of language with reference to the working of the mind.
Applied linguistics---the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning.
2. What makes modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?
Modern linguistics is descriptive, its investigations are based on authentic and mainly spoken language date. 现代语言学是描述性的，其研究以确实可靠的、主要以口语形式的资料为基础。
Traditional grammar is prescriptive. It is based on “high” written language.
传统语法是规定性的，研究“高级”书面语。
3. Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?
Modern linguistics is mainly synchronic, focusing on the present-day language, unless the various states of a language are successfully studied, it will not be possible to describe language from a diachronic point of view.
现代语言学主要是共时性的，重点研究现代语言。除非对语言的各种状态都进行成功的研究，否则很难从历时性角度对语言进行描述。
Chapter Two Phonology
一、定义
1.宽式音标Broad transcription
The transcription of speech sounds with letter symbols only.
2.窄式音标Narrow transcription
The transcription of speech sound with letters symbols and the diacritics.
3.清音V oiceless
When the vocal cords are drawn wide apart ,letting air go through without causing vibration ,the sounds produced in such a condition are called voiceless sounds.
4.浊音V oicing
Sounds produced while the vocal cords are vibrating are called voiced sounds.
5.元音V owel
The sounds in the production of which no articulators come very close together and the air stream passes through the vocal tract without obstruction are called vowels.
6.辅音Consonants
The sounds in the production of which there is an obstruction of the air stream at some point of the vocal tract are called consonants.
7.音位Phoneme
The basic unit in phonology, it’s a collection of distinctive phonetic features.
8.音位变体Allophones
Different phones which can represent a phoneme in different environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.
9.音素phone
A phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning. I t’s a speech sound we use when speaking a language.
10.最小对立对Minimal pair
When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.
11.超切分特征Suprasegmental
The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segment are called suprasegmental features. the main suprasegmental features include stress ,intonation and tone.
12.互补分布complementary distribution P35
Two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution.
13.语言的语音媒介Phonic medium of language
The limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to
linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language.
在人类交际中有着一定意义、对语言学研究来说举足轻重。有限的声音是语音媒介。14.爆破音stops
When a obstruction created by the speech organs is total or complete, the speech sound produced with the obstruction released and the air passing out again is called a stop or a plosive.
they are[b] [p] [t] [d] [k] [g]
二、知识点
1.statistics resulting from careful investigations show that there have been over 5,000 languages in the world, about two thirds of which have not had written form.
2. Of the two media of language, speech is more basic than writing.
3. Phonetics 组成及研究对象详见教材
⑴Articulatory phonetics 发音语音学
⑵Auditory phonetics 听觉语音学
⑶Acoustic phonetics 声学语音学
4. Articulatory Apparatus /Organs of Speech
Pharyngeal cavity–咽腔
Oral ...–口腔greatest source of modification of air stream found here
Nasal …–鼻腔
5. The tongue is the most flexible, responsible for more varieties of articulation than any other, the extreme back of the tongue can be raised towards the uvula and a speech sound can be thus produced as is used in Arabic and French.
6. Obstruction between the back of the tongue and the velar area results in the pronunciation of[k] and[g],the narrowing of space between the hard palate and the front of the tongue leads to the sound[j];the obstruction created between the tip of the tongue and the alveolar ridge results in the sounds[t]and[d].
7.nasal consonants: [m] / [n] / [η]
8. A Phone is a phonetic unit or segment.
9.English has four basic types of intonation: Falling tone; Rising tone; Fall-rise tone; Rise-fall tone
三、问答题
1. How are the English consonants classified?
By place of articulation and. By manner of articulation
根据发音位置，发音方式，归纳各辅音的特征。
2．How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study?
Phonetics —description of all speech sounds and their differences.
Phonology —description of sound systems of particular languages and how sounds function to distinguish meaning.
3.W hat’s a phone? how is it different from a phoneme? how are allophones related to a phoneme? Phone—a speech sound, a phonetic unit.
Phoneme—a collection of abstract sound features, a phonological unit.
Allophones—actual realization of a phoneme in different phonetic contexts.
4. What is a minimal pair and a minimal set? Why is it important to identify the minimal set in a language?为什么区分最小对立组在一种语言中非常重要?
Minimal pair—two sound combinations identical in every way except in one sound element that
occurs in the same position.
除了出现在同一位置的一个语音成分不同外,其他部分都一样的两个语音组合.
Minimal set—a group of sound combinations with the above feature.
一组具有上述特征的语音组合.
By identifying the minimal pair or the minimal set of a language, a philologist can identify its phonemes.
通过分析一种语言的最小对立对或最小对立组,音位学家能辨别出它的音位.
5.Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow one transcription differ?
Broad transcription—one letter symbol for one sound.
Narrow transcription—diacritics are added to the one-letter symbols to show the finer differences between sounds.
Chapter Three Morphology
一、定义
1.词素Morpheme
The basic unit in the study of morphology and the smallest meaningful unit of language.
2.自由词素Free Morpheme
Free morphemes are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves. 3.黏着词素Bound morphemes
Bound morphemes are these morphemes that cannot be used by themselves, must be combined with other morphemes to form words that can be used independently.
4.词根Root
Root is the base form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.
5.词缀Affix
The collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme.
6.曲折词缀inflectional affixes
The manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, tense, degree and case.
7.派生词缀Derivational affixes
The manifestation of relation between stems and affixes through the addition of derivational affixes.
8.词干Stem
A stem is the existing form to which a derivational affix can be added. a stem can be a bound root ,a free morpheme, or a derived form itself.
9.形态学规则Morphological rules
They are rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word.
10.前缀Prefix
Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem ,but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word, exceptions are the prefixes ‘be-‘ and ‘en(m)-‘
11.后缀Suffix
Suffixes are added to the end of stems, they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech. 3.In using the morphological rules, we must guard against Over-generalization.
二、知识点
1. some words maybe said to contain a root morpheme.
https://www.wendangku.net/doc/af1232139.html,pound features:
⑴orthographically, a compound can be written as one word, two separate words with or without a hyphen in between.
⑵Syntactically, the part of speech of a compound is determined by the last element.
⑶semantically, the meaning of a compound is idiomatic, not calculable from the meanings of all its component
Chapter Four Syntax
一、定义
1.句子sentence
A structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command.
2.语言运用Linguistic competence
The system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker.
3.谓语Predicate
The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says something about the subject is grammatically called predicate.
4.层次结构Hierarchical structure
The sentence structure that groups words into structural constituents and shows the syntactic categories of each structural constituent, such as NP and VP.
5.语法关系Grammatical relations
The structural and logical functional relations between every noun phrase and sentence.
6.表层结构S-structure
A level of syntactic representation after the operation of necessary syntactic movement.
7.深层结构D-structure
A level of syntactic representation before the operation of necessary syntactic movement.
8.转换原则Transformation rules
Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditionally called transformational rules, whose operation may change the syntactic representation of a sentence.
二、知识点
1.syntax这个单词源于Greek,本义是arrangement.
2.我们把syntax的学习看作 a system of rules that govern the formation of grammatical sentence.
3.A major goal of linguistics is to show with a consistent and explicit grammatical theory how syntactic rules account for this grammatical knowledge.
4.句子的分类simple sentence
Types of sentences coordinate or compound sentence
Complex sentence
简单句---It consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.
并列句合成句-It contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunction,
such as “but”, ”and”. ect.
复合句—It contains two or more clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other.
5.In addition to the use of structural tree diagrams, linguists may show the hierarchical structure of sentences by using brackets and subscript labels.
6.短语类型
Noun Phrase NP
Phrasal Verb Phrase VP
Categories Preposition Phrase PP
Adjective Phrase AP
三、问答题
1. Use the appropriate phrase structure rules to draw a labeled constituent structure tree diagram for each of the following sentences. For example:
The woman hit the man with an umbrella.
Chapter 5 Semantics
一、定义
1.命名论The naming theory
The naming theory, one of the oldest notions concerning meaning, and also a very primitive one was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for, so words are just names or labels for things.
2.意念论The conceptualist view
It holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to; rather ,in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.
3.语境论Conceptualism
It’s based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. There are two kinds of context: the situational and the linguistic context.
4.行为主义论Behaviorism
It refers to the attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the” situation in which the speaker utters it and the respons e it calls forth in the hearer”. This theory somewhat close to conceptualism emphasizes on the psychological response.
5.意义Sense
It’s concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It’s the collection of all the features of the linguistic form, it’s abstract and de-contextualized.
6.所指意义Reference
It means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world. It deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.
7.同义词Synonymy
It refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning or we can say that words are close in meaning are called synonyms.
8.多义词Polysemy
It refers to different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more than one meaning.
9.同音(形)异义Homonymy
It refers to the phenomenon that words have different meanings have the same form, i.e, different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.
10.同音异义Homophones
It refers to two words are identical in sound. e.g. rain/reign.
11.同形异义Homographs
It refers to two words are identical in form .e.g. tear v./tear n.
12.上下义关系Hyponymy
13.反义词Antonymy
It’s the term used for oppositeness of meaning on different dimension.
具体的分类及例子详见教材
14.成分分析法Componential Analysis----分析词汇抽象意义
It’s a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning.
this approach is based upon the belief that meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.
15.述谓结构分析Predication Analysis 由British Linguist G. Leech提出
It’s a new approach for sentential meaning analysis.
Predication is usually considered an important common category shared by propositions, questions, commands etc.
通过对论元argument和谓语predicate的分析，达到对句子意义进行分析的许多模式中的一种。
16.先设前提Presupposition
It’s a semantic relationship or logical connection. A presupposes B.
17.蕴涵Entailment
Entailment can be illustrated by the following two sentences in which sentence A entails sentence B.
A: Mark married a blonde heiress.
B: Mark married a blonde.
二、知识点
1. Major views of meaning study:
The naming Theory-----希腊Scholar Plato
The conceptualism-----观点代表人是John Firth,但Bloomfield阐述更有说服力
The Conceptualist view----Ogden和Richards用classic semantic triangle of
significance
The Behaviorism-----英国Bloomfield提出，使用了Jack和Jill故事阐明
The naming theory的局限性:
⑴It’s only applicable to Nouns only.
⑵Within the category of nouns, there are nouns which denote things that don’t exist in the real world. sense
2. Homophones—when two words are identical in sound
rain/reign; night/knight; piece/peace; leak/leek
Homographs—when two words are identical in spelling
bow v. /bow n. tear v./ tear n lead v./lead n.
Complete homonyms—when two words are identical in both spelling
and sound.例子Fast adj./ fast v. scale n./scale v.
3. Antonym分类:(1)Gradable antonyms分级反义词(a matter of degree)
例子Old—middle-aged—young; hot-warm-cold
(2) Complementary antonyms互补反义词a matter of degree between
two extremes例子Alive—dead; male—female;
(3) Relational opposites关系反义词(中间可以加成分，如上、中、下)
father-son; teacher-pupil; doctor-patient; buy-sell; above-below
13.句子间的意义关系sense relation between sentences
X is synonymous with Y.
X entails Y.
X presupposes Y.
X is a contradiction.
X is semantically anomalous.
14. Analysis of meaning意义的分析
(1)Componential analysis—a way to analyze lexical meaning对词汇成分的分析
(2) Predication analysis—a way to analyze sentence meaning对句子意义的分析
15.According to the number of arguments contained in a predication, we classify the predications into two-place predication(has two arguments),one-place predication (has one argument),and no-place predication(has no argument).
Chapter 6 Pragmatics
一、定义
1.语境Context
The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language, it’s generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer.
2.言语行为理论Speech act theory
It’s an important theo ry in the pragmatic study of language. I t’s a philosophical explanation of the nature of linguistic communication. It aims to answer the question “what do we do when using language?”
The concept of causatives performatives, the locutionary act, the illocutionary act, the perlocutionary act and the 5 categories of illocutionary act suggested and formulated by J.R.Searle constitute the speech act theory.
3.叙述句Constatives
Constatives are statements that either state or describe, and are thus verifiable and it bearing the truth-value.;
4.行为句Performatives
Performatives are sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and are not verifiable.
5.言内行为Locutionary Act
A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. it’s the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.
6.言外行为Illcotionary Act
An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention it’s the act performed in saying something.
7.言后行为Perlocutionary Act
Perlocutionary Act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something. it’s the
consequence of ,or the change brought about by the utterance.
8.句子意义Sentence meaning
It refers to a sentence and is a grammatical concept, the meaning of a sentence is often studied as the abstract intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of predication.
9.话语意义Utterance meaning
It refers to a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes and utterance and it should be considered in the situation in which it is actually uttered.
10.合作原则Cooperative Principle
It’s proposed and formulated by P.Grice, a pragmatic hypothesis, is about that the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate, otherwise, it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk.
二、知识点
1.语用学的几个重要的理论
⑴言语行为理论Speech act theory
由英国哲学家John Austin在20世纪50年代末提出
在此理论基础上John区分了定义了叙述句Constatives和行为句performatives
在区分叙述句和行为句之后，他又定义了言内行为、言外行为和言后行为
Locutionary act:: expressed what each word of this sentence literally mean.
Illutionary act: expressed his intention of speaking, asking someone to close the door. Perlocutionary act: someone heard the sentence, and close the door, then this act is successfully performed.
2. 合作原则的准则4 Maxim of Cooperative Principle
数量the maxim of Quantity-----你说的话应包含所需内容且不可超过内容要求Make your contribution as informative as required;
Do not make your contribution more informative than is required
质量the maxim of Quality -----不要说你认为是假的话或你缺乏足够证据的话
Do not say what you believe to false.
Do not say for which you lack adequate evidence
关系the maxim of relation-----使你的话与话题相关be relevant
方式the maxim of manner-----避免模糊、歧义，应简明有序
Avoid obscurity of expression and ambiguity;
Be brief/be orderly.
参考书本违背合作原则的具体例子分析
3. Conversational implicature 会话含义产生的机制
4.Semantics 和Pragmatics的区分
Pragmatics studies how meaning is conveyed in the process of communication.
The basic difference between them is that pragmatics considers meaning in context, traditional semantics studies meaning in isolation from the context of use.
5.Sentence meaning与Utterance meaning的区别
Sentence meaning---abstract, decontextualized.
Utterance meaning---concrete, contextualized it’s based on sentence meaning, it’s the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.
新编简明英语语言学教程第二版整理
实用标准文案 Chapter 1: Introduction 1.Linguistics:语言学It is generally defined as the scientific study of language. ( Linguistics studies not any particular language ,but it studies language in general) 2.General linguistics:普通语言学The study of language as a whole is called general linguistics. (language is a complicated entity with multiple layers and facets ) https://www.wendangku.net/doc/af1232139.html,nguage:Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 4.descriptive (描述性):A linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use. 5.prescriptive(规定性): It aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behaviors. i.e. what they should say and what they should not to say. 6.synchronic(共时语言学): the description of language at some point of time in hiatory 7.diachronic (历时语言学):the description of language as it changes through time 3) speech（口语）Writing（书面语） These the two media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. (speech is prior to writing) https://www.wendangku.net/doc/af1232139.html,ngue(语言): refers to abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of the speech community. It is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by. Such as: In English sentence must have subject and predicate. 9.parole(言语):refers to the realization of langue in actual use. It is concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. (Saussure ) https://www.wendangku.net/doc/af1232139.html,petence(语言能力): the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language 11.performance(语言应用):the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. (Chomsky) traditional grammar and modern linguistics 1.linguistics is descriptive,while traditional grammar is prescriptive 2.modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary,not the writer. 3. also in that it does not force languages into a latin-based framework. Functions of language. 精彩文档
陈新仁《英语语言学实用教程》章节题库(含名校考研真题)-第8~11章【圣才出品】
第8章英语语言的应用（I） I. Fill in the blanks. 1. A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the _____ of, or the _____the utterance. （人大2004研） 【答案】consequence, change brought about by 【解析】言外行为指说话的效果。 2. When a teacher says “The exam this year is going to be really difficult”, the sentence would have an _____force. （清华2001研，清华2000研） 【答案】illocutionary 【解析】言外行为，表达说话人的意图。 3. _____ were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable. 【答案】Performatives 【解析】施为句是用来做事的，既不陈述事实，也不描述情况，且不能验证其真假。 II. Multiple Choices. 1. The speech act theory was developed by _____.（对外经贸2006研) A. John Searle B. John Austin
C. Levinson D. G. Leech 【答案】B 【解析】言语行为理论是哲学家约翰·奥斯丁在他《如何以言行事》一文中提出的。它从哲学意义上对语言交际的本质进行解释，其目的在于回答”用语言干什么”这个问题。 2. Point out which item does not fall under the same category as the rest. (Focus on the type of illocutionary act) （南京大学2007研） A. threaten B. advise C. beseech D. urge 【答案】A 【解析】A为命令性言语行为，而其他三项为指示性言语行为。 3. _____ is using a sentence to perform a function. （西安外国语学院2006研） A. A perlocutionary act B. An illocutionary act C. A locutionary act D. Speech act 【答案】D 【解析】约翰·奥斯丁在他《如何以言行事》一文中提出言语行为理论, 此理论对语言交际的
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Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Characteristics: ①language is system,elements of language are combined according to the rules;
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Chapter 8 Language and society语言和社会 知识点： 1.*Definition: sociolinguistics; regional dialect; sociolect; idiolect; Received Pronunciation 2.Relatedness between language and society 3.*Varieties of language 4.*Halliday’s register theory 5.Degree of formality 6.Standard Dialect 7.# Pidgin and Creole 8.*#Bilingualism vs. diglossia 考核目标： 识记：*Definition: sociolinguistics; regional dialect; sociolect; idiolect; Received Pronunciation 领会：Relatedness between language and society; Varieties of language; Degree of formality; Degree of formality; Standard Dialect; Pidgin and Creole 简单应用：Bilingualism vs. diglossia 综合应用：Halliday’s register theory 一、定义 1.Sociolinguistics 社会语言学: is s the sub-field of linguistics that studies relation between language and society, between the ues of language and the social structures in which the users of lamguage live. 社会语言学是语言学中的一个次领域，它研究语言与社会的关系，以及语言的运用和语言使用者所在的社会结构之间的关系。 2.regional dialect地域方言：is a linguistic variety used by people living in the same geographical region.地域方言是指生活在同一地理区域的人所使用的语言变体。 3.sociolect社会方言：has to do with separation brough about by different social comditions.社会方言是与由不同社会条件所造成的分离相关的。 4.idiolect个人方言：is a personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines elements regarding regional, social, gender, and age variations.个人方言是个体言者的个人方言，它结合了又关地域、社会、性别和年龄的变体成分。 5.received pronunciation（RP）标准发音: in British English, which had become characteristic of upper class speech throughout the country by the 19th century. 在十九世纪成为全国上层阶级的特点。
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第13章英语语言变体（Ⅰ） 13.1 复习笔记 【本章要点】 1. Regional dialects of English 地域方言 2. Social dialects of English 社会方言 3. Styles of English 英语语体 4. Genres and registers of English 英语语类和语域 【本章考点】 方言的定义；地域方言；社会方言；英语正式语体和非正式语体；英语语类；语域。 【本章内容索引】 Ⅰ. Regional dialects of English Ⅱ. Social dialects of English Ⅲ. Styles of English Ⅳ. Genres and registers of English Ⅰ. Regional dialects of English（地域方言） Dialect: A variety of a language used recognizably in a specific region or by a specific social class is called a dialect.
方言：是指在一个特定的区域或一个特定的社会阶层内所使用的能够识别的语言变体。 Like other languages, English may vary in its use in different places and at different historical times. The former results in regional or geographical dialects. It is worth noting that the social value of a regional dialect or variety reveals the social status of its speakers. 同其他语言一样，在不同区域范围和历史发展阶段中，英语的使用方法可能不同。由于地域不同所产生的语言变体就是地域方言。值得注意的是，地域方言或变体的使用体现语言使用者的社会地位。 Ⅱ. Social dialects of English（社会方言） English also varies with the social attributes of its speakers, resulting in what is called social dialects (also termed “social-class dialects”, “sociolects”, or “class dialects”). Often, they arise from the separation brought about by different social conditions. 社会方言，或社会阶层方言，是指具有某一特定社会阶层特征的语言变体。体现使用者的社会属性。通常，社会方言是由不同社会条件所造成的分离引起的。 Ⅲ. Styles of English（英语语体） English, like Chinese, makes a distinction between two styles: formal style and informal style. 和汉语一样，英语也有两种语体：正式语体和非正式语体。 Formal Style: It occurs in social contexts that are formal, serious, often official in
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