复旦宋铮《中国式增长》

Growing like China

Zheng Song Fudan University

Kjetil Storesletten

University of Oslo and CEPR Fabrizio Zilibotti

University of Zurich and CEPR

First version:March2008

This version:December2008

Abstract

China has been growing at a high rate and has at the same time accumulated a stag-gering foreign surplus.We constructs a theory that explain these seemingly puzzling ob-

servations,while being consistent with salient features of the Chinese growth experience

since1992:high output growth,sustained returns on capital investments,extensive real-

location within the manufacturing sector,falling labor share and accumulation of a large

foreign surplus.The theory makes only minimal deviations from a neoclassical growth

model.Its building blocks are…nancial imperfections and reallocation among…rms with

heterogeneous productivity.Some…rms use more productive technologies than others,but

low-productivity…rms survive because of better access to credit markets.Due to the…-

nancial imperfections,high-productivity…rms–which are run by entrepreneurs–must be

…nanced out of internal savings.If these savings are su￠ciently large,the high-productivity

sector outgrows the low-productivity sector,and attracts an increasing employment share.

During the transition,low wage growth sustains the return to capital.The downsizing of

the…nancially integrated sector forces a growing share of domestic savings to be invested

in foreign assets,generating a foreign surplus.We test some auxiliary implications of the

theory and…nd robust empirical support.

JEL No.G18,O11,O16,O47,O53,P31.

Keywords:China,Economic Growth,Entrepreneurs,Financial Market Imperfections, Foreign Surplus,Investment,Loans,Productivity Heterogeneity,Rate of Return on Capital,

Reallocation,State-Owned Firms.

We thank seminar participants at Columbia University,CREi,Chinese University of Hong Kong,London School of Economics(conference"The Emergence of China&India in the Global Economy",3-5July2008), Universitat Autonoma,University of Oslo,University of Zurich and WISE for comments.Financial support from the European Research Council(ERC Advanced Grant IPCDP-229883)is gratefully acknowledged.

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1Introduction

Over the last thirty years,China has undergone a spectacular economic transformation.

The transformation has involved not only fast economic growth and sustained capital accumulation,but also major shifts in the sectoral composition of output,urbanization,

and a growing importance of markets and entrepreneurial skills.Reallocation of both

labor and capital across manufacturing…rms has been a key source of productivity

growth.The rate of return on investments has remained well above20%,higher than

in most industrialized and developing economies.If investment rates have been high,

saving rates have been even higher:in the last…fteen years,China has seen a growing

net foreign surplus.Its foreign reserves swelled from21billion USD in1992(5%of its

GDP)to1700billion USD in March2008(43%of its GDP),see Figure1.

FIGURE1HERE

The joint observation of high growth and high return on capital,on the one hand,

combined with a growing foreign surplus,on the other hand,is puzzling.A closed-

economy neoclassical growth model would predict that the high investment rate should

lead to a substantial fall in the return to capital.An open-economy model would predict

a large net capital in?ow rather than an out?ow,owing to the high domestic return on

capital.In this paper,we propose a theory of economic transition that resolves this

puzzle while being consistent with the main stylized facts of the Chinese experience.The

focal points of the theory are…nancial frictions and…rms’reallocation.In our theory,

both the sustained return on capital and the foreign surplus arise from the reallocation

of capital and labor from less productive externally-…nanced…rms to entrepreneurial

…rms that are more productive,but have less access to external…nancing.As…nancially integrated…rms shrink,a larger proportion of the domestic savings is invested in foreign

assets.Thus,high growth and high investments are consistent with the accumulation of

a foreign surplus.

Our paper is part of a recent literature arguing that low aggregate total factor pro-

ductivity(TFP)–especially in developing countries–is the result of micro-level re-

source misallocation(see Parente,Rogerson and Wright,2000,Caselli and Coleman

2002,Banerjee and Du?o2005,Hsieh and Klenow,2007,Restuccia and Rogerson,2008,

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and Gancia and Zilibotti,2009).While pockets of e￠cient…rms using state-of-art tech-

nologies may exist,these…rms fail to attract the large share of productive resources that

e￠ciency would dictate,due to…nancial frictions and other imperfections.Most existing

literature emphasizes the e¤ects of resource misallocation on average productivity.In

contrast,our paper argues that when a country starts from a situation of severe ine￠-

ciency,but manages to ignite the engine of reallocation,it has the potential to grow fast

over a prolonged transition.The mechanism is similar to that of models of transition

from agriculture to industry(see Lewis(1954)and more discussion below):e￠cient…rms

can count on a highly elastic supply of factors attracted from the less productive…rms.

To analyze such transition,we construct a model where…rms are heterogeneous in productivity and access to…nancial markets.High-productivity…rms are operated by

agents with entrepreneurial skills who are…nancially constrained and who must rely on

retained earnings to…nance their investments.Low-productivity…rms can survive due to

their better access to credit markets,since the growth potential of high-productivity…rms

is limited by the extent of entrepreneurial savings.If the saving?ow is su￠ciently large,

high-productivity…rms outgrow low-productivity ones,progressively driving them out of

the market.During the transition,the dynamic equilibrium has"AK"features:within

each sector,the rate of return to capital is constant due to labor mobility and to the

…nancial integration of one of the two sectors.Due to a composition e¤ect,the aggregate

rate of return on capital actually increases.Moreover,the economy accumulates a foreign

surplus.While investments in the expanding sector are…nanced by the retained earnings

of entrepreneurs,wage earners deposit their savings with intermediaries who can invest

them in loans to domestic…rms and in foreign bonds.As the demand for funds from

…nancially-integrated domestic…rms declines,a growing share of the intermediated funds

must be invested abroad,building a growing foreign surplus.This prediction is consistent

with the observation that the di¤erence between deposits and domestic bank loans has

been growing substantially,tracking China’s accumulation of foreign reserves(see again

Figure1).After the transition,the economy behaves as in a standard neoclassical model

where capital accumulation is subject to decreasing returns.

Reallocation within the manufacturing sector–the driving force in our model–has been shown to be a source of…rst-order productivity growth in China.In an in?uential

paper,Hsieh and Klenow(2007)estimate that reallocation across manufacturing…rms

with di¤erent productivity accounts for an annual1.4percentage points increase in

aggregate TFP during1998-2005.Thus,reallocation may account for a large share of

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total TFP growth.1

Our theory bears a number of auxiliary predictions that are consistent with the

evidence of China’s transition.We state here the main implications,and defer a more

detailed discussion of the evidence to section2.

1.The theory predicts that savings determine investments in regions with a high

intensity of entrepreneurial…rms,while investments are unrelated to savings in

regions dominated by…nancially-integrated…rms.Consistent with this prediction,

we…nd the time-series correlation between investments and savings to be signi…-

cantly higher in Chinese provinces with a high employment share in entrepreneurial

…rms.

2.In the benchmark model,all…rms produce the same good and di¤er only in TFP.

We extend the theory to a two-sector model where…rms can specialize in the pro-

duction of more or less capital-intensive goods.This extension bears the prediction

that…nancially constrained…rms with high TFP will specialize in labor-intensive

activities(even though they have no technological comparative advantage).Thus,

the transition proceeds in stages:…rst low-productivity…rms retreat to capital-

intensive industries,and then they gradually vanish.This is consistent with the

observed dynamics of sectoral reallocation in China,where young high-productivity

private…rms have entered extensively in labor-intensive sectors,while old state-

owned…rms continue to dominate capital-intensive industries.

3.The theory predicts rising inequality within urban areas,as wages grow less than

entrepreneurial rents during the transition.Moreover,inequality should be higher

in regions with a high density of entrepreneurial activity.We…nd both predictions

to be consistent with the evidence for China.

The theory is related to the seminal work of Kuznets(1966)and Chenery and Syrquin

(1975)who study sources of productivity growth during economic transitions.In the

same vein,Lewis(1954)constructs a model of reallocation from agriculture to industry

where the supply of labor in manufacturing is"unlimited"due to structural overem-

ployment in agriculture.While his mechanism is similar in some respects with ours,

productivity increases in his model rely on some form of hidden unemployment in the

traditional sector.Lewis’theory captures aspects of the reallocation between rural and 1Recent papers estimate the annual TFP growth in the manufacturing sector to be in the range

between1.4%-3%(Wang and Yao2001,Young2003,Islam et al.,2006).

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urban areas in China,while our focus is on the reallocation within the industrial sector

and on the accumulation of foreign reserves.Other papers focusing on the transition

from agriculture to industry include Fei and Ranis(1961and1964),Takayama(1965),

Laitner(1990)and Matsuyama(1992).

Our paper is also related to Ventura(1997),who shows that in economies engaging in external trade capital accumulation is not subject to diminishing returns since resources

are moved from labor-intensive to capital-intensive sectors.Due to international trade,

the growing production of capital goods is exported,thus preventing the returns to

capital from falling.Ventura’s model does not assume any initial ine￠ciency,nor does

it imply that TFP should grow within each industry–a key implication of our theory.

In addition,his model has no implications regarding trade imbalances.

Matsuyama(2004,2005)show that…nancial frictions may induce trading economies to specialize in industries where they do not have a technological comparative advantage.

In our model,by a similar mechanism,less e￠cient…rms can survive and even outgrow

more productive ones.Moreover,our two-sector extension also predicts that…nancial

constraints generate specialization in spite of the lack of any technological comparative

advantage.Matsuyama(2007)provides a survey of the literature on economic transition.

Gourinchas and Jeanne(2007)note–as we do in this paper–that the observation that capital tend to?ow out of fast-growing economies with high marginal product of

capital is inconsistent with the neoclassical growth model.They show,using a panel of

69developing countries,that this pattern is not a unique feature of China.In particular,

developing countries with fast TFP growth tend to have both large capital out?ows and

large investment rates,while the opposite is true for slow-growing countries.They label

this…nding as the“allocation puzzle”.

A few recent papers address the more speci…c question of why China is accumulating

a large foreign surplus.Most papers emphasize the country’s high saving rate.Kuijs

(2005)shows that household and enterprise saving rates in China are,respectively,11.8

and8.6percentage points higher than those in the US,respectively.Demography,the

lack of social security and an imperfect…nancial sector are among the factors proposed

as explanations for this(e.g.Kraay,2000).However,it remains unclear why domestic

savings are not invested domestically given the high rate of return to capital in China.

Mendoza,Quadrini and Rios-Rull(2007)argue that this may be explained by di¤erences

in…nancial development inducing savers in emerging economies to seek insurance in safe

US bonds(see also Caballero,Farhi and Gourinchas,2006).Dooley,Folkerts-Landau

and Garber(2004)propose a strategic"political"motive:the Chinese government would

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in?uence wages,interest rates and international…nancial transactions so as to foster employment and export-led growth.

The paper is organized as follows.Section2describes some empirical evidence for

China since1992that motivates our analysis.Section3describes the benchmark model

and characterizes equilibrium.Section4discusses the e¤ect of…nancial development.

Section5presents two extensions focusing,respectively,on regional shocks to savings

and on specialization of di¤erent…rms in labor-or capital-intensive production.Section

6concludes.Proofs and other technical material are contained in an appendix

2The transition of China:empirical evidence

After thirty years of central planning,China introduced its…rst economic reforms in

December1978.The early reforms reduced land collectivization introducing the principle

of household responsibility in agriculture,increased the role of local governments and communities,and experimented with market reforms in a few selected special economic

zones.During the1980s,China was a mixed economy,with some elements of planning

and others of market economy,and with a high but volatile growth.

After a period of economic and political instability,a new stage of the reform process

began in1992,inaugurated by Deng Xiaoping’s"southern tour"during which the leader

spoke in favor of an acceleration of reforms(see Zhao1993).Since then,China has moved

towards a fully-?edged market economy.Thereafter,the role of the state in allocating

resources has decreased,and many unpro…table enterprises were shut down.The focus

of this paper is on the post-1992Chinese transition,a period characterized by a fast

and stable growth,and by a pronounced resource reallocation within the manufacturing

sector.In spite of very high investment rates(37%on average),the rate of return to

capital has not fallen over time,especially in the manufacturing sector.If the aggregate

return to capital fell slightly(from28%in1993to21%in2005),the rate of return on

capital in manufacturing has been increasing over time since the early1990s and climbed

close to35%in2003(see Bai,Hsieh and Qian(2006),Figure11).High corporate returns

have not been matched by the return on…nancial assets available to individual savers:

the average real rate of return on bank deposits,the main…nancial investment of Chinese households,was close to zero during the same period.2Wage growth has been lower than 2More precisely,the average one-year real deposit rate from1992to2006is-1.5%.Nominal deposit

rates are calculated at the end of each year.Real deposit rates are obtained by subtracting the GDP

de?ator from nominal deposit rates.Data source:China Yearbook of Statistics,various issues.

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growth in output per capita in recent years.The average real annual growth of wages

in the urban manufacturing sector was7.5%from1992to2004,substantially below the

average growth rate in real GDP per capita during the same period,8.9%(see Banister

(2007),Table10,based on China Labor Statistical Yearbook(2005)).Similarly,the

labor share of aggregate output fell from50%in1992to41%in2005(see Bai,Hsieh

and Qian2006,Table1).The falling labor share has contributed to rising inequality

even across urban households(see Benjamin et al.2008).

FIGURE2HERE

The reallocation of investments and workers within the manufacturing sector is a fo-cal point of our paper.Figure2shows the private employment share in manufacturing,

mining and construction,including both domestic private enterprises(DPE henceforth)

and foreign-owned enterprises.3In1994,private enterprises accounted for about10%

of total employment.By2006,their share rose up to80%.DPE(which account for

the lion’s share of private employment)and SOE di¤er in two important aspects:pro-

ductivity and access to…nancial markets.SOE are,on average,less productive and

have better access to external credit than do DPE.This makes ownership structure a

natural proxy for the di¤erent types of…rms in our theory.Figure3shows a measure of

pro…tability,i.e.,the ratio between total pro…ts("operation pro…ts plus subsidies plus

investment returns")and value of…xed assets net of depreciation.The gap between

DPE and SOE is about9percentage points per year,similar to that reported by Islam,

Dai and Sakamoto(2006).4Similarly,Hsieh and Klenow(2007)estimate the TFP gap

(adjusted by relative prices)between DPE and SOE to be42%.

FIGURE3HERE

FIGURE4HERE

3The disaggregation of manufacturing employment into DPE and foreign-owned enterprises is not available.When considering data on economy-wide employment,the employment share of DPE is about

…ve times as large as that of foreign…rms in2005,according to o￠cial statistics.

4A concern with the o￠cial data is that the ownership classi…cation is based on ownership at the time of initial registration.However,many…rms subsequently have been privatized.This problem is

addressed by Dollar and Wei(2007)who use survey data on12400…rms,classi…ed according to their

current ownership.They…nd the average return to capital to be twice as high in private…rms than

in fully state-owned enterprises(see Table6p.23).Interestingly,collectively owned…rms also have a

much higher productivity than SOE.

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Financial and contractual imperfections are central in our analysis.In a cross-country comparative study,Allen,Qian and Qian(2005)…nd that China scores low in terms of

creditor rights,investor protection,accounting standards,non-performing loans and cor-

ruption.5In an environment of such…nancial imperfections,Chinese…rms rely heavily

on retained earnings to…nance investments and running costs.Moreover,there is evi-

dence that credit markets discriminate against private…rms.One reason might be that

the main Chinese banks are also state owned:Boyreau-Debray and Wei(2005)document

that state-owned banks tend to o¤er easier credit to SOE.As a result,SOE can…nance

a larger share of their investments through external…nancing.Figure4shows that SOE

…nance more than30%through bank loans vs.less than10%for DPE.Similarly,Dollar

and Wei(2007,Table3.1,p.21)show that private…rms have less access to bank…nancing

and rely more on retained earnings and family and/or friends to…nance investments.

One should also note that,despite the rapid growth of the Chinese stock market in

recent years,equity continues to be a signi…cant source of…nancing only for SOEs and

large semi-privatized SOEs.For instance,Gregory and Tenev(2001)document that at

the end of1999,private…rms accounted for only1percent of the companies listed on

the Shanghai and Shenzhen stock exchanges.The same study reports the results of a

survey of private…rms in di¤erent Chinese provinces(including Beijing)conducted in

1999by the World Bank,showing that about80percent of them regarded the lack of

access to external…nance as a most serious constraint.6Similar conclusions are reached

by Laurenceson(2002)arguing that the importance of stock markets has been insigni…-

cant relative to the aggregate amount of savings in China,and practically irrelevant for

non-SOEs.

Another sign that DPE are more…nancially constrained is that both capital-output

and capital-labor ratios are substantially lower in DPE than in SOE.In2006the average

capital-output ratio in SOE was1.75vs.0.67in DPE(source:China Statistics Yearbook

2007).In the same year,the capital per worker was almost…ve times larger in SOE 5Interestingly,some reforms of the…nancial system have been undertaken,including a plan to turn

the four major state-owned commercial banks into joint-stock companies.This e¤ort involves consulting

foreign advisors to improve the managerial e￠ciency of banks(Kwan2006).In section4we discuss the

role of…nancial development during the economic transition.

6“(These private…rms...)relied heavily on self-…nancing for both start-up and expansion.More

than90percent of their initial capital came from the principal owners,the start-up teams,and their

families...In the case of post-start-up investments,the sample…rms continued to depend overwhelmingly

on internal sources,with at least62percent of their…nancing coming from the principal owners or out of

retained earnings.Among external funding sources,informal channels,credit unions,and commercial

banks were about equally represented.Outside equity,including public equity,and public debt markets

played an insigni…cant role.”(Gregory and Tenev,2001,p.1)

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than in DPE,although part of this di¤erence can be attributed to the higher average

educational attainment of SOE workers.This gap arises from both an intensive and an

extensive margin.First,SOE are more capital intensive within each industry,as shown

in Figure A1in the appendix.Panels1and2show,respectively,the capital-output and

capital-labor ratio by ownership structure within three-digit manufacturing industries.

Second,DPE have taken over labor-intensive industries,while the share of SOE remains high in capital-intensive industries.To document the retreat of SOE from labor-

intensive industries,we classify three-digit manufacturing industries by the capital-labor

ratio in US industries in1996(we do not classify them according to capital-labor rations

in China in order to avoid an endogeneity problem).7We then match the industries listed

by the China Industrial Economy Statistical Yearbook(CIESY2002,2003and2004)to

the SIC codes.8This leaves a total of27industries.Figure5plots the SOE share of

total employment across industries of di¤erent capital-intensity(average between2001

and2003).Clearly,SOE are signi…cantly more represented in industries that are more

capital intensive in the US.For instance,the SOE employment share in the ten most

capital-intensive industries is57%,while in the ten least capital-intensive industries it

is26%.

FIGURE5HERE

The economic transition of China has been accompanied by increasing inequality–even within the urban sector.For instance,the Gini coe￠cient of income grew from

0.36in1992to0.47in2004.Our theory suggests that this development may be due

in part to the slow growth of wages relative to entrepreneurial income.The pattern of

income inequality across regions can o¤er some insight.We classify Chinese provinces

by the percentage of employees in DPE over total employees in all industrial enterprises.

Figure6shows a high positive correlation between the Gini coe￠cient at the provincial

level in2006and the employment share of DPE:provinces with more private…rms

have a substantially higher income dispersion.Although it does not prove any causal

relationship,this correlation is nevertheless interesting.

7The U.S.data are from NBER-CES Manufacturing Industry Database,available at https://www.wendangku.net/doc/aa1597110.html,/nberces.

8Among31industries in CIESY,18of them…t industries at the SIC2-digit level,and9can be matched to industries at the SIC3-digit level.There is no match between CIESY and the SIC for the

remaining4industries.Details are available upon request.

Page 10 of 53

FIGURE6HERE

3Theory

In this section we develop a theory of economic transition that is consistent with the

facts documented in the previous section.A key prediction–also consistent with the

evidence from China–is that during the transition the economy experiences a growing

foreign surplus.

3.1Environment

The model economy is populated by overlapping generations of two-period lived agents

who work in the…rst period and live o¤savings in the second period.Preferences are parameterized by the following time-separable logarithmic utility function

U t=log(c1t)+ log(c2t+1);

where is the discount factor.Agents have heterogeneous skills.Each cohort consists

of a measure N t of agents with no entrepreneurial skills(workers),and a measure N t

of agents with entrepreneurial skills(entrepreneurs),whose skills are transmitted from

parents to children.9The population grows at the exogenous rate ;hence,N t+1=

(1+ )N t.The rate captures demographic trends,including migration from rural to

urban areas,assumed to be exogenous,for simplicity.10

There are two types of…rms,both requiring one manager,capital and labor as inputs.

Financially integrated(F)…rms are owned by intermediaries(see below)and operate as

standard neoclassical…rms.Entrepreneurial(E)…rms are owned by old entrepreneurs

who are residual claimants on the pro…ts and who hire their own children as managers.

Each…rm can choose between two modes of production(similar to Acemoglu et al.,

2007).Either the…rm delegates decision authority to its manager,or it retains direct

control on strategic decisions.There is a trade-o¤.On the one hand,delegation leads

to higher total factor productivity(TFP)–e.g.,the manager takes decisions based on

superior information.More formally,a…rm retaining control has a TFP equal to A

while the TFP of a…rm that delegates authority is A where >1:On the other 9Lower case will denote per-capita or…rm-level variables.Upper case will denote aggregate variables.

10Since1990the average annual population growth rate in China has been0.7%and the annual

growth of the urban-rural population ratio has been about3.3%per year.

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hand,delegation raises an agency problem:unless monitored,the manager can steal the

output,and never be caught(as in Acemoglu,Aghion and Zilibotti,2006).The key

assumption is that family-run E…rms are better at monitoring their managers(indeed,

the ability to monitor is the de…ning skill of an entrepreneur),and these can only divert

a share<1of output.F…rms,on the other hand,are weak at corporate governance,

and cannot e¤ectively monitor their managers:under delegation,all output would be

stolen.11

Given these assumptions,F…rms will always choose a centralized organization.More-over,under a condition that will be spelled out below,E…rms prefer delegation.Thus,

the technology of F…rms is described by the following production function

y F t=k F t(A t n F t)1 ;

while the technology of E…rms is represented by

y Et=k Et( A t n Et)1 :

In both cases,k and n denote the capital and labor input,respectively,and capital is

assumed to depreciate fully after one period.In the case of centralized organization(F

…rms)the input of the manager is equivalent to that of a regular worker and is included

into n F:A t is a TFP parameter that evolves according to

A t+1=(1+z)A t:

Consider,next,the savings decisions of the household sector.Young workers earn

a wage,w,and deposit their savings with a set of competitive intermediaries(banks)

paying a gross interest rate,R d.They choose savings so as to maximize utility subject to

an intertemporal budget constraint,c w1t+c w2t+1=R d=w t:This yields the optimal saving

s w t= =(1+ )w t:Young entrepreneurs in E…rms earn a managerial compensation,

m t.Like the workers,they save a fraction =(1+ )of their earnings,and invest it

either in bank deposits or in their family business.

Banks collect savings from households and invest in domestic capital and foreign bonds yielding a gross return R.Domestic investments can be channelled either to F

…rms or to old entrepreneurs who invest in their own business.However,contractual

imperfections plague the relationship between banks and entrepreneurs.Output and

11The assumption that the manager can steal the output unless he is monitored is a catch-all for a

variety of moral hazard issues.Similar results would obtain if we assumed that there is a con?ict of

objectives between managers and owners as in Aghion and Tirole(1997).

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pro…ts are partially non-veri…able,and entrepreneurs can only pledge a share of the

second-period net pro…ts.12In the benchmark model,we will make the simplifying

assumption that =0,i.e.,there is no lending from banks to private entrepreneurs.

This extreme assumption will be generalized to >0in section4.1.

In a competitive equilibrium where banks invest in both foreign bonds and domestic

capital,the rate of return on domestic…rms–absent other frictions–must equal the rate

of return on foreign bonds,and both rates must equal the rate of return on deposits.13

More formally,R d=R l=R where R l is the return on capital investment in domestic

…rms.Moreover,pro…t maximization implies that R l equals the marginal product of

capital in the F sector,and that wages equal the marginal product of labor,

w t=(1 ) R l 1 A t:(1) Next,consider E…rms.The value of a…rm owned by an old entrepreneur who has

invested k Et is the solution to the following program:

t(k Et)=max

m t;n Et (k Et) ( A t n Et)1 m t w t n Et (2) subject to the incentive constraint that m t (k Et) (A Et n Et)1 ;where m t is the

payment to the manager,and arbitrage in the labor market implies that the wage is as

in(1).14The optimal contract implies that the incentive constraint is binding:

m t=(k Et) ( A t n Et)1 :(3) Taking the First Order Condition with respect to n E and substituting in the equi-

librium wage given by(1)yields

n Et=((1 ) )1 R l 11 k Et A t;(4)

which in turn implies,together with(2)and(3),that the value of the…rm is

t(k Et)=(1 )1 1 R l k Et E k Et:(5)

12The assumption that output is not veri…able rules out the possibility that…nancially integrated

…rms hire old entrepreneurs.If the entrepreneurs could commit to repay,all…rms would be run by

private entrepreneurs.

13In section4we assume that banks are subject to iceberg costs when turning savings into domestic investments.In that case,R l>R:

14The managerial compensation must also exceed the workers’wage rate(m t>w t).We assume that

this participation constraint is never binding in equilibrium.

In constrast,F…rms are not subject to any incentive constraint since their managers make no dis-

cretionary decisions.Thus,the managers’participation constraint is binding and they earn the same

wage as ordinary workers.

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We introduce the following assumption:

Assumption1 > 1 11 .

Assumption1ensures that E>R l;so that(i)E…rms prefer delegation to cen-tralization and(ii)young entrepreneurs…nd it optimal to invest in the family business.

If this assumption were not satis…ed,there would be no E…rms in equilibrium.Thus,

Assumption1is key to trigger economic transition.

Before discussing the equilibrium dynamics,we review the main assumptions of this section.

3.2Discussion

The theory describes a general growth model characterized by heterogeneous…rms that

di¤er in productivity and access to credit markets.In the application to China,the

natural empirical counterparts of E…rms and F…rms are state-owned and private en-

terprises,respectively.In our model,we do not emphasize the public ownership of less

productive…rms.However,we focus on two salient features that are related to the

ownership structure.First,due to their internal bureaucratic structure,SOE are weak

in corporate governance,and grant less autonomy and incentives to their management.

This feature is well documented.For instance,Liu and Otsuka(2004)documents that

pro…t-linked managerial compensation schemes are very rare in a sample of SOE,and in

contrast are ten to twenty times more prevalent in a sample of Township and Village En-

terprises.The rigidity of the SOE structure is emphasized by Chang and Wong(2004).

Second,thanks to connections to state-owned banks they enjoy better access to borrow-

ing(see the motivating evidence discussed above).In describing F…rms as competitive,

we abstract from other institutional features,such as market power or distortions in

the objectives pursued by…rms and their managers,that may be important in Chinese

SOE.We do so partly for tractability.We note,however,that SOE in China have been

subject to an increased competitive pressure that has led many of them to be closed or

privatized and forced to restructure.Therefore,we believe the abstraction of competitive

pro…t-maximizing…rms to be fruitful in order to focus on the two distortions discussed

above.Likewise,again for simplicity,we model the labor market as competitive and

frictionless.While the Chinese labor market is characterized by important frictions(for

example,barriers to geographical mobility)we do not think that including such frictions

would change any of the qualitative predictions of the theory,although it would a¤ect

the speed of reallocation.

The assumption that private…rms are less…nancially integrated is also well rooted in the empirical evidence discussed in section2,showing that Chinese private…rms rely heavily on self-…nancing,and receive only limited funding from banks and insigni…cant equity funding.The assumption that monitoring is easier within?exible organizations –and most notably in family…rms–seems natural.In the model,we do not emphasize inter-family altruistic links:parents transmit genetically entrepreneurial skills to their children,but also must provide them with incentives to avoid opportunistic behavior. Alternatively,we could have focused on parental altruism and assumed that incentive problems are altogether absent in family…rms.In such an alternative model,parents would leave voluntary bequests to their children,who in turn would invest in the family …rm.In the technical appendix we develop a model with warm-glow bequests,and show that the main implications of the theory are robust.One advantage of the speci…cation chosen in the previous section is that it does not hinge on family ties.For instance, we could dispense of the assumption that young managers and old entrepreneurs in E …rms are members of the same family,and assume instead that entrepreneurial skills –i.e.,the ability to monitor–can be learned through the experience of working as a manager with delegated authority.The results would be identical to those of our model. Therefore,the model captures general features of private credit-constrained…rms beyond the convenient abstraction of the family…rm.

The feature that is essential for our mechanism to work is that…nancial and contrac-tual frictions must obstruct the?ow of capital towards high-productivity entrepreneurial …rms.If the entrepreneurs could borrow external funds without impediments,the tran-sition would occur instantaneously and only the more e￠cient E…rms would survive in equilibrium.As we will see,the fact that entrepreneurs must rely–partially or totally –on their own savings generates a smooth transition.

3.3Equilibrium during transition

In this section,we characterize the equilibrium dynamics during a transition in which there is positive employment in both sectors.We start by showing that E…rms choose in equilibrium a lower capital-output ratio than do F…rms.To this aim,denote by J k J=(A J n J)the capital per e¤ective unit of labor.We drop time subscripts when

this causes no confusion.As discussed above,in a competitive equilibrium,the borrowing

rate,R l,pins down the marginal product of capital in the F sector.Thus,R l= 1

F ,

Page 14 of 53

implying

F = R l

11 :(6)Since F is constant,the equilibrium wage in (1)grows at the rate of technical change,z;as long as employment in the F sector is positive.This is a standard feature of neoclassical open-economy growth models.Equation (4)then implies immediately that

E =

F ((1 ) ) 1 ;(7)

where E < F as long as Assumption 1holds.The following Lemma is then easily established.

Lemma 1Let Assumption 1hold,i.e., > :Then,E …rms have a lower capital-output ratio and a lower capital-labor ratio than do F …rms.

Intuitively,…nancially constrained …rms have a comparative disadvantage in using capital –manifested in the higher return on capital –and therefore choose a lower capital-labor ratio.

Consider,next,the transitional dynamics of capital and labor.The key properties of the model that determine the equilibrium dynamics are that (i)K Et and A t are predeter-mined (whereas K F t is not a state variable,and is determined so as to equate the return on investments in the F sector to the international bond rate),(ii)capital per e¤ective unit of labor, E and F ;are constant in each sector,and (iii)entrepreneurial saving at t (hence,K Et +1)is linear in K Et :These three properties imply that employment,capital and output in the entrepreneurial sector grow at a constant rate during transition,as is stated formally in the following Lemma.

Lemma 2During transition,given K Et and A t ,the equilibrium dynamics of capital and employment in the entrepreneurial sector are given by:

K Et +1K Et = 1+ ((1 ) )1 R l

1+ K E ;(8)and N Et +1=N Et

= 1+ K E =(1+z ) 1+ E :The employment share of the entrepre-neurial sector grows over time if and only if E > ,or,equivalently

>11 1+ (1+z )(1+ ) R l 1 :(A2)

Page 15 of 53

The fact that young entrepreneurs earn a constant share of E-…rms’pro…ts is a key driving force of the transition.To illustrate this point,suppose that z=0:In this case the workers’wage remains constant during the transition.However,the managerial rents,m t;still grow in proportion to the output of the E sector.The growing earning inequality between workers and entrepreneurs is key for the transition to occur,since (i)the investments of E…rms are…nanced by entrepreneurial savings,and(ii)constant wages avoid a falling return to investments.If young entrepreneurs were to earn no rents and to receive the workers’wage,investments in the E sector would not grow over time.As one can see from(8),the growth rate is hump-shaped in :If entrepreneurial rents are small(low),young entrepreneurs are poor,and there are low investments. However,if is too large,the pro…tability and growth of E-sector…rms( E)fall.

Note that both Assumption1and condition A2require the TFP gap, ;to be large. Hence,generically,only one of them will be binding.Interestingly,the theory can predict failed take-o¤s.For instance,suppose that the saving rate, =(1+ ),unexpectedly falls.Then,it is possible that investments in the E sector continue to be positive(i.e., Assumption1continues to hold)but the employment share of the E sector shrinks(i.e., condition A2ceases to be satis…ed).

The equilibrium dynamics of capital,employment and output of the F sector are characterized residually by the condition that K F t= F A t(N t N Et),namely the F

sector hires all workers not employed in the E sector,and K F adjusts so as to attain the optimal capital-labor ratio.Standard algebra shows that,as long as the employment share in the E sector increases,the growth rate K F declines over time.15Capital accumu-lation in the F sector is hump-shaped during the transition.Initially,when employment in the E sector is small,K F grows at a positive rate.However,as the transition proceeds, its growth rate declines and eventually turns negative.

Finally,standard algebra shows that GDP per worker is given by

Y t N t =

Y F t+Y Et

N t

= F 1+1 N Et N t A t:(9)

15More formally,

K F t+1 K F t =

A F t+1

A F t

N F t+1

N F t

=(1+z)(1+ )

1 N E0

N0 1+ E1+ t+1

1 N E0

N0 1+ E1+ t 1+ K F t:

where d

dt 1+ K F;t =(1+z)N E0N0 1+ E1+ t ln1+ E1+ E 1 (1+ E1+ )t 2<0as long as N E=N grows.

Page 16 of 53

The growth rate of GDP per worker accelerates during transition as long as condition (A2)is satis…ed,re?ecting the resource reallocation towards more e￠cient…rms.Under the same condition,the average rate of return on capital in the economy increases during the transition,even though the rates of return on capital in E…rms and F…rms are constant.Intuitively,this re?ects the increasing share of the capital stock yielding the high return E.16

Figure7illustrates the transitional dynamics of employment,wage,output and av-erage rate of return in our economy when Assumption1and condition A2hold.In the …gure,the transition ends in period T,when all workers are employed in the E sector. During the transition,the employment share of the E sector,the average rate of return and output per e¤ective units of labor grow,whereas wages per e¤ective units remain constant.

FIGURE7HERE

3.4Foreign Balance,Savings,and Investments

In this section,we derive the implications of the model for foreign balance,saving and investment rate.We start from the foreign balance,which is the main focal point of our theory.Consider the banks’balance sheet:

K F t+B t=

1+

w t 1N t 1:(10)

The left-hand side are the banks’assets(i.e.,F-sector investments,K F t;plus foreign bonds,B t),while the right-hand side describes their liabilities(deposits).The analysis of the previous section leads to the following Lemma.

Lemma3The country’s foreign balance is given by

B t= 1+ (1 ) 1F

(1+z)(1+ ) 1+N Et

N t F A t N t:(11)

16More formally,the average rate of return is

t= E K E;t+ F K F;t

K E;t+K F;t

=

R l

1 1 ((1 ) ) 1 N Et N t;

which is increasing as long as N Et=N t increases. Page 17 of 53

As long as the employment share of the E sector(N Et=N t)increases during the tran-sition,the country’s foreign asset position increases,at least,for su￠ciently large t.17 When the transition is completed(say,at time T),all workers are employed in E…rms

(N ET=N T=1),and the net foreign position becomes B T=( =(1+ ))(1 )

F

A T N T> 0:

The intuition for the growing foreign surplus despite rapid economic growth is that

as employment is reallocated towards the more productive E…rms,investment in the …nancial integrated sector shrinks.Hence,the demand for domestic borrowing falls and banks must shift their portfolio towards foreign bonds.Although there is a potentially increasing demand of borrowing from the E sector,this cannot be satis…ed due to the …nancial frictions.Interestingly,the growth rate of the foreign surplus can exceed that

of GDP,resulting in a growing B t=Y t ratio.18

Figure8illustrates the evolution of the foreign balance-GDP ratio during transition through a simulated example.

FIGURE8HERE

During the transition,the gross saving rate,S t=Y t(where S t=( =(1+ ))(w t N t+ m t)), is increasing,whereas the gross investment rate,I t=Y t(where I t=K Et+1+K F t+1),is decreasing.Both forces contribute to the growing foreign trade surplus during the tran-sition.Consider,…rst,why the saving rate grows.Workers employed in the F sector earn

a constant share,1 ,of output in that sector,and save a fraction =(1+ )of this.

In contrast,workers employed in the E sector save a fraction( =(1+ ))(1 )(1 )

of output in that sector.In addition,young entrepreneurs save a share( =(1+ )). Thus,the saving rate of the E-sector equals( =(1+ ))(1 + )which exceeds the corresponding rate in the F sector.Since the E sector expands over time,the average na-tional saving rate is increasing,due to a composition e¤ect.Next,consider investments.

17When t is small,so that N Et=N t is small,the right-hand side term in parenthesis can be negative. Thus,initially B t may fall.However,B t=(A t N t)is non-decreasing.

18B t=Y t grows during transition as long as is not too large.More formally,

B t Y t =

1+

(1 ) 1

F

(1+z)(1+ ) 1+N Et N t

1+

1

N Et

N t

1

F

which is increasing with N Et=N t provided that< 1+ (1+z)(1+ )1 l :The set of parameters satisfying

this condition together with assumption1and condition(A2)is non-empty.

Page 18 of 53

Recall that investments at t equal capital at t+1,and consider for simplicity the case of z= =0.Then,every worker who is shifted from the F to the E sector works with less capital.Therefore,the total domestic investment falls during the transition.Even with positive technical change and population growth,the investment rate would fall over time.It is important to note that the prediction of a growing foreign surplus does not hinge on a falling investment rate.In the next section,we show that augmenting our model with improvements in the…nancial sector can yield both increasing investment rates and a growing foreign surplus during transition.

The following proposition summarizes the main results so far.

Proposition1Suppose Assumption1holds.During a transition,the equilibrium em-ployment in the two sectors is given by N Et=K Et= A t F(1 ) 1 1 and N F t= N t N Et,where F is given by(6),and K Et and A t are predetermined at t.The rate of return to capital is constant over time in both sectors,and higher in the E than in the F sector: F=R l and E=(1 )1 1 R l:The capital and employment growth of the E sector are given by(8).If condition A2holds,then the employment share of the E sector grows over time.The stock of foreign assets,given by(11),is growing.

3.5Post-transition Equilibrium

Once the transition is completed at period T all workers are employed in E…rms, N Et=N t for t>T.Moreover,the aggregate capital stock is given by K Et+1= ( =(1+ )) m t,which implies standard neoclassical dynamics of capital per e￠ciency

units;

Et+1=

1+ (1+z)(1+ )

( Et) :

Thus,there is capital deepening over time until the capital per e￠ciency unit converges.

Consequently,wage growth will increase,and output and net foreign surplus will increase

until the capital deepening is completed.However,the rate of return on capital will

decrease.Figures7and8illustrate the post-transition dynamics of the main variables.

3.6Discussion

The theory…ts some salient qualitative features of the recent Chinese growth experience

discussed in section2.First,in spite of the high investments and growth of industrial

production the corporate rate of return does not fall.Second,E…rms–similarly to DPE

in China–have a higher TFP and less access to external…nancing.This induces a lower Page 19 of 53

Page 20 of 53

capital intensity in E…rms than in F…rms(Lemma1)–again in line with the empirical

evidence.Moreover the rate of return on capital is higher in E…rms than in F…rms,as

in the data DPE are more pro…table than SOE.Third,the transition is characterized

by factor reallocation from…nancially integrated…rms to entrepreneurial…rms–similar

to the reallocation from SOE to DPE in the data.Fourth,such reallocation leads to an

external imbalance–as in the data the economy runs a sustained trade surplus.Finally,

the model predicts a growing inequality between wages and entrepreneurial earnings.

The most problematic prediction is that of a falling investment rate during the tran-

sition.As explained above,the mechanism behind this prediction is very di¤erent from

that of a standard neoclassical growth model.There,the investment rate falls due to

capital deepening and decreasing returns.In contrast,in our model,the investment

rate falls due to a composition e¤ect:…nancially constrained…rms-which have a lower

capital-output ratio-expand,while…nancially unconstrained…rms contract.However,

in the data there is no evidence of a falling investment rate:Bai,Hsieh and Qiang(2006)

document that the aggregate investment-GDP ratio has been U-shaped since1992,with

a trough in1997.In2006,the investment rate was a staggering52%!

One way to reconcile our theory with the data is to introduce a mechanism generating

capital deepening within each sector.This would be consistent with the evidence that

both private and state-owned…rms in China have increased their capital-output ratio

over time(whereas capital-output ratios are constant within each sector in our model).

One simple mechanism delivering capital deepening is a reduction of…nancial frictions

during the transition.We turn to…nancial development in the next section.

4Financial development

There have been some attempts to improve the Chinese…nancial system during recent

years.For instance,the lending market has been deregulated,allowing for both more

competition and more?exibility in pricing of loans.19This has brought an increase in

the e￠ciency of the banking system,witnessed for instance by a sharp reduction in the

ratio of non-performing loans.20To incorporate…nancial development into the theory,

19Before1996,banks had to lend at the o￠cial lending rate.In1996,a reform allowed them to set

the rate between0.9and1.1times the o￠cial rate.The upper limit gradually increased to1.3times

for small and medium enterprises in the late1990s and was eventually removed completely in2004

(see Ouanes,2006).The increase in competition is also witnessed by the loan share of the four major

state-owned banks falling from61%in1999to53%in2004and by the growing equity market.

20In state-owned banks,the non-performing loan ratio has fallen from26%in2002to10%in2005.

Although part of this improvement can be attributed to a government bailout,this ratio for new loans

复旦物化1000题

61 对于由AgNO 3和过量的KBr溶液制备得到的溶胶以下的说法中何者是正确的 A 定位离子是Ag+ B 反离子是Br– C 扩散层带负电 D 它是负溶胶 D 由于KBr过量生成的AgBr吸附Br–而成为负溶胶反离子是K+扩散层带正电 62 对于As2S3溶胶下列电解质中聚沉能力最强的是 A LiCl B NaCl C CaCl2 D AlCl3 D As 2S3是负溶胶它的反离子正离子的价数越高聚沉能力越强Al3+价数最高 63 对于Al2O3溶胶下列电解质中聚沉能力最强的是 A KCl B KNO3 C K3[Fe(CN)6] D K2C2O4 C Al 2O3是正溶胶它的反离子负离子的价数越高聚沉能力越强[Fe(CN)6]3–价数最高 64 用AgNO 3和KI过量制备的AgI溶胶下列电解质中对溶胶聚沉能力最强的是 A La(NO3)3 B Mg(NO3)2 C NaNO3 D KNO3 A 当KI过量时制备的AgI溶胶是负溶胶它的反离子正离子的价数越高聚沉能力越强La3+价数最高 65 测定不同电解质对某一浓度的Fe(OH) 溶胶的聚沉值mmol/L数据如下 1/2BaCl2K2SO4 NaCl KCl 0.205 9.65 9.25 9.00 由此得到下面的结论中哪个是不正确的

A Fe(OH)3是正溶胶 B 正离子对聚沉影响不大 C 二价负离子比一价负离子聚沉能力强 D 相同浓度的KCl和BaCl2聚沉能力相似 D 带有二价负离子的K2SO4的聚沉值最小即聚沉能力最强说明Fe(OH)3是正溶胶选项A B C都是正确的相同浓度的KCl和BaCl2后者Cl–浓度比前者大一倍因此聚沉能力不等 66 测定不同电解质对某一浓度Fe(OH) 溶胶的聚沉值mmol/L数据如下 KCl KI K2SO4 KBr 0.205 16.0 12.5 9.00 由此得到下面的结论中哪个是不正确的 A Fe(OH)3是正溶胶 B 二价负离子比一价负离子聚沉能力强 C 一价负离子聚沉能力排序为Cl–>Br–>I– D 一价负离子聚沉值排序为Cl–>Br–>I– D 带有二价负离子的K2SO4的聚沉值比一价离子小得多即聚沉能力强得多说明Fe(OH)3 是正溶胶选项A B C都是正确的选项D按聚沉值排序排反了 67 在Fe(OH)3Mg(OH)2As2S3和AgI制备时AgNO3过量四种溶胶中哪一个与其他三种溶胶混合时会发生聚沉 A Fe(OH)3 B Mg(OH)2 C As2S3 D AgI C As2S3是负溶胶其他三种多为正溶胶正负溶胶混合会发生聚沉 68 江河水中含有的泥沙混悬物在出海口附近发生沉淀原因有多种其中与胶体化学有关的因素是 A 盐析作用 B 电解质聚沉作用 C 溶胶互沉作用 D 破乳作用 B 江河水在出海口与海水混合海水中含大量电解质使泥沙混悬物发生沉淀

(完整word版)复旦大学博士研究生入学考试试题及答案详解

复旦大学2003年博士研究生入学考试试题 Part Ⅰ （略） Part Ⅱ Directions: There are 20 incomplete sentences in this part. For each sentence there are four choices marked A, B, C and D. Choose the ONE that best completes the sentence. Then mark the 21. She A. missed B. budgeted C. loathed 22. They tried to keep it quiet but eventually everyone learned about the A. intangible B. sedate C. impudent 23. Many citizens appealed to the city government for enacting laws to protect the A. rigorous B. equivocal C. stringent 24. People who like to wear red clothes are more likely to be talkative and A. lucrative B. introverted C. vivacious 25. This is but a of the total amount A. friction B. fraction C. faction 26. They were tired, but not any less enthusiastic A. on B. by C. for 27. I think it is high time we the fact that environmental pollution in this area is A. woke up to B. must wake up to C. wake up to 28. So was the mood of the meeting that an agreement was s A. resentful B. amiable C. suffocating 29. Rescue workers continued the delicate task of sifting through tons of concrete and A. scraps B. leftovers C. debris 30. When she A. came to B. came off C. came through 31. The shortage of water became more this summer with the highest temperatures in 40 yea A. needy B. latent C. uneasy 32. They tried to drive their horse into the river, but he simply could A. budge B. surge C. trudge 33. Even the best medical treatment can not cure all the diseases that men and A. beseech B. beset C. bewitch 34. The boy's talent might have lain had it not been for his uncle's A. extinguished B. dormant C. malignant D. 35. The two leaders made a show of unity at the press conference, though they had notably

高分子材料化学与物理-复旦大学材料科学系

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③727生物化学(理) ④872细胞生物学 四、复习指导 一、参考书的阅读方法 （1）目录法：先通读各本参考书的目录，对于知识体系有着初步了解，了解书的内在逻辑结构，然后再去深入研读书的内容。 （2）体系法：为自己所学的知识建立起框架，否则知识内容浩繁，容易遗忘，最好能够闭上眼睛的时候，眼前出现完整的知识体系。 （3）问题法：将自己所学的知识总结成问题写出来，每章的主标题和副标题都是很好的出题素材。尽可能把所有的知识要点都能够整理成问题。 二、学习笔记的整理方法 （1）第一遍学习教材的时候，做笔记主要是归纳主要内容，最好可以整理出知识框架记到笔记本上，同时记下重要知识点，如假设条件，公式，结论，缺陷等。记笔记的过程可以强迫自己对所学内容进行整理，并用自己的语言表达出来，有效地加深印象。第一遍学习记笔记的工作量较大可能影响复习进度，但是切记第一遍学习要夯实基础，不能一味地追求速度。第一遍要以稳、细为主，而记笔记能够帮助考生有效地达到以上两个要求。并且在后期逐步脱离教材以后，笔记是一个很方便携带的知识宝典，可以方便随时查阅相关的知识点。 （2）第一遍的学习笔记和书本知识比较相近，且以基本知识点为主。第二遍学习的时候可以结合第一遍的笔记查漏补缺，记下自己生疏的或者是任何觉得重要的知识点。再到后期做题的时候注意记下典型题目和错题。 （3）做笔记要注意分类和编排，便于查询。可以在不同的阶段使用大小合适的不同的笔记本。也可以使用统一的笔记本但是要注意各项内容不要混杂在以前，不利于以后的查阅。同时注意编好页码等序号。另外注意每隔一定时间对于在此期间自己所做的笔记进行相应的复印备份，以防原件丢失。统一的参考书书店可以买到，但是笔记是独一无二的，笔记是整个复习过程的心血所得，一定要好好保管。

大学生投毒案反思

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越高智商化，许多矛盾也因此得不到解决而进一步恶化，最终达到不可调和的程度。 作为大学生的我们如何处理同学关系。那么身在复杂的人际关系当中的大学生们该如何处理同学关系，在象牙塔里读过美好充实的大学时光呢？我认为我们从以下几个方面着手。 第一，学会换位思考。当同学发生冲突的时候，要多站在对方的角度来思考。或许冲突只是因为各自的文化背景、生活习惯的不同，那么尝试包容这些差异，尊重他人的的文化和习惯。这样，你也会得到他人尊重，这便为良好的同学关系奠定了基础。 第二，自省。在发生矛盾的时候不要一味地把目光投入到外界。其实在发生人际冲突时，最应该做的就是内观自我，不断反省。一个巴掌拍不响，不管事情是谁对谁错，作为当事人的你都要负责任。分析矛盾的原因，在矛盾过程中自己的行为表现等等，找出自己不对的地方，然后改正它。当你把注意力投放到自己身上，并想着不断完善自我时候，他人的对与错已经不再重要了，你会变得更加包容与平和。 第三，加强交往，但要适度。良好的同学关系是建立在相互了解的基础上的，而对彼此的了解又是从日常的交往中获得的。因此，同学间可以多交流，分享各自的兴趣爱好、个人情感、未来的计划等等，也可以一起出去聚餐、唱歌、运动等。相处多了，了解自然会加深，友谊也在这样的交往当中变得越来越深厚。但是，凡事都要有个度。要是交往过密，一是很容易使原本只是一丁点的缺点被无限放大从而影响原本友好的关系，二是很容易侵犯到别人的个人空间。亲近有度，

复旦大学投毒案引发的思考

复旦大学投毒案引发的思考 摘要：2013年4月16日，复旦大学发布官方微博，2010级医科在读研究生黄洋于当天下午3点23分在上海中山医院不治身亡。 上海警方表示，在该生寝室饮水机内残留水中检测出某有毒化合物成分。并锁定同寝室某同学有投毒的嫌疑。 2013年4月25日，上海市黄浦区人民检察院以涉嫌故意杀人罪对复旦大学“4·1” 案犯罪嫌疑人林某（与黄洋同宿舍）依法批准逮捕。 关键词：大学生死亡，同学作案，琐事引发案件，近年类似事件频发，大学生心理健康。 正文： 复旦大学研究生黄洋，4月1日，因生体不适住院，后来警方在其寝室饮水机内残留水中检测出某有毒化合物成分，经警方调查，锁定作案嫌疑人为黄洋同宿舍同学林某，并于4月25日将林某依法逮捕。 两位风华正茂的学子，本是前途无量，却一个离我们而去，一个进入高墙！着实令人悲哀，愤怒与无奈，让人无法不为之动容。 随着嫌疑人林某被捕，他所交代的杀人动机为“和死者黄某因生活琐事引起不和，心存不满”。动机一经曝出，引发公众惊愕，包括林某家人在内很多人都表示怀疑，他们“不理解”和“不相信”复旦大学的一名校高材生会仅仅因为生活琐事就毒杀舍友。因为林某不但成绩优异，并且在网络上发布过不少类似“医学是神圣的！”和“医乃仁术，爱心是一个医务工作者所必不可少的”内容的微博。一方面在立志救人，一方面却谋划实施投毒的“双面性格”也让公众无所适从，不少人感性上很难接受林某就是杀人嫌疑人。 呜呼哀哉，一位应该救人于生死的高学历医务人员，本应认真努力履行自己的职责，但却因为一些琐事将同宿舍同学投毒杀害，着实让我无法理解，我们应该反思为什么高学历人才却心理不健康，甚至有些是多面人格！ 毒杀案因“特殊”引关注，但我们更应重视背后的普遍问题，因为近年来在学校中因琐事引发的血案有些数不胜数！ 1994年，清华大学才女朱令，生了怪病，后经确诊为铊中毒，造成100%伤残，至今该案因缺少证据不能直接断定是其室友投毒，成为悬案。 2004年在云南大学学生马加爵因他人看不起自己，在宿舍连杀四位同学，引发了轰动全国的“马加爵事件”。 2012年12月20日早上8时许，安徽医科大学图书馆6楼，08级临床医学专业学生胡某将09级生物医学工程专业学生谈某砍死。事因只是争风吃醋。 2013年，4月6日，华北水利水电学院郑州市龙子湖校区5号教学楼东北角洗手间发现女尸，后经警方确定是其前男友将其杀害。 2013年4月17日，南京航空航天大学金城学院两名学生在宿舍内因为玩游戏发生口角，并大动干戈，终导致一名学生抢救无效而死亡。 类似的事件还有很多很多，我已不敢再写下去。我只想说“本是同根生，相煎何太急”。同学是我们上学期间除了家人之外接触最多的人，甚至与同学的相处时间已远远超过了与家人的相处时间，为什么这些人还下得去手？去杀害自己朝夕相处的同学？ 学者宋石男在微博中这样评论“复旦投毒案”：“每出一个轰动的案子，不少人就会呼吁反思，但这种反思毫无意义。未来的杀人犯没有一个会因为看到这种呼吁而从现在就开始立地成佛。”我非常赞同他的看法，仅仅依靠这些不痛不痒的反思是无法改变现状的，我们应