高层建筑论文中英文资料外文翻译文献
英文原文
Components of A Building and Tall Buildings
1. Abstract
Materials and structural forms are combined to make up the various parts of a building, including the load-carrying frame, skin, floors, and partitions. The building also has mechanical and electrical systems, such as elevators, heating and cooling systems, and lighting systems. The superstructure is that part of a building above ground, and the substructure and foundation is that part of a building below ground.
The skyscraper owes its existence to two developments of the 19th century: steel skeleton construction and the passenger elevator. Steel as a construction material dates from the introduction of the Bessemer converter in 1885.Gustave Eiffel (1832-1932) introduced steel construction in France. His designs for the Galerie des Machines and the Tower for the Paris Exposition of 1889 expressed the lightness of the steel framework. The Eiffel Tower, 984 feet (300 meters) high, was the tallest structure built by man and was not surpassed until 40 years later by a series of American skyscrapers.
Elisha Otis installed the first elevator in a department store in New York in 1857.In 1889, Eiffel installed the first elevators on a grand scale in the Eiffel Tower, whose hydraulic elevators could transport 2,350 passengers to the summit every hour.
2. Load-Carrying Frame
Until the late 19th century, the exterior walls of a building were used as bearing walls to support the floors. This construction is essentially a post and lintel type, and it is still used in frame construction for houses. Bearing-wall construction limited the height of building because of the enormous wall thickness required；for instance, the 16-story Monadnock Building built in the 1880’s in Chicago had walls 5 feet (1.5 meters) thick at the lower floors. In 1883, William Le Baron Jenney (1832-1907) supported floors on cast-iron columns to form a cage-like construction. Skeleton construction, consisting of steel beams and columns, was first used in 1889. As a consequence of skeleton construction, the enclosing walls become a “curtain wall” rather than serving a supporting function. Masonry was the curtain wall material until the 1930’s, when light metal and glass curtain walls wer e used. After the introduction of buildings continued to increase rapidly.
All tall buildings were built with a skeleton of steel until World War Ⅱ. After the war,
the shortage of steel and the improved quality of concrete led to tall building being built of reinforced concrete. Marina Tower (1962) in Chicago is the tallest concrete building in the United States；its height—588 feet (179 meters)—is exceeded by the 650-foot (198-meter) Post Office Tower in London and by other towers.
A change in attitude about skyscraper construction has brought a return to the use of the bearing wall. In New York City, the Columbia Broadcasting System Building, designed by Eero Saarinen in 1962,has a perimeter wall consisting of 5-foot (1.5meter) wide concrete columns spaced 10 feet (3 meters) from column center to center. This perimeter wall, in effect, constitutes a bearing wall. One reason for this trend is that stiffness against the action of wind can be economically obtained by using the walls of the building as a tube；the World Trade Center building is another example of this tube approach. In contrast, rigid frames or vertical trusses are usually provided to give lateral stability.
3. Skin
The skin of a building consists of both transparent elements (windows) and opaque elements (walls). Windows are traditionally glass, although plastics are being used, especially in schools where breakage creates a maintenance problem. The wall elements, which are used to cover the structure and are supported by it, are built of a variety of materials: brick, precast concrete, stone, opaque glass, plastics, steel, and aluminum. Wood is used mainly in house construction；it is not generally used for commercial, industrial, or public building because of the fire hazard.
4. Floors
The construction of the floors in a building depends on the basic structural frame that is used. In steel skeleton construction, floors are either slabs of concrete resting on steel beams or a deck consisting of corrugated steel with a concrete topping. In concrete construction, the floors are either slabs of concrete on concrete beams or a series of closely spaced concrete beams (ribs) in two directions topped with a thin concrete slab, giving the appearance of a waffle on its underside. The kind of floor that is used depends on the span between supporting columns or walls and the function of the space. In an apartment building, for instance, where walls and columns are spaced at 12 to 18 feet (3.7 to 5.5 meters), the most popular construction is a solid concrete slab with no beams. The underside of the slab serves as the ceiling for the space below it. Corrugated steel decks are often used in office buildings because the corrugations, when enclosed by another sheet of metal, form ducts for telephone and electrical lines.
5. Mechanical and Electrical Systems
A modern building not only contains the space for which it is intended (office, classroom, apartment) but also contains ancillary space for mechanical and electrical systems that help to provide a comfortable environment. These ancillary spaces in a skyscraper office building may constitute 25% of the total building area. The importance of heating, ventilating, electrical, and plumbing systems in an office building is shown by the fact that 40% of the construction budget is allocated to them. Because of the increased use of sealed building with windows that cannot be opened, elaborate mechanical systems are provided for ventilation and air conditioning. Ducts and pipes carry fresh air from central fan rooms and air conditioning machinery. The ceiling, which is suspended below the upper floor construction, conceals the ductwork and contains the lighting units. Electrical wiring for power and for telephone communication may also be located in this ceiling space or may be buried in the floor construction in pipes or conduits.
There have been attempts to incorporate the mechanical and electrical systems into the architecture of building by frankly expressing them；for example, the American Republic Insurance Company Building(1965) in Des Moines, Iowa, exposes both the ducts and the floor structure in an organized and elegant pattern and dispenses with the suspended ceiling. This type of approach makes it possible to reduce the cost of the building and permits innovations, such as in the span of the structure.
6. Soils and Foundations
All building are supported on the ground, and therefore the nature of the soil becomes an extremely important consideration in the design of any building. The design of a foundation depends
on many soil factors, such as type of soil, soil stratification, thickness of soil lavers and their compaction, and groundwater conditions. Soils rarely have a single composition；they generally are mixtures in layers of varying thickness. For evaluation, soils are graded according to particle size, which increases from silt to clay to sand to gravel to rock. In general, the larger particle soils will support heavier loads than the smaller ones. The hardest rock can support loads up to 100 tons per square foot(976.5 metric tons/sq meter), but the softest silt can support a load of only 0.25 ton per square foot(2.44 metric tons/sq meter). All soils beneath the surface are in a state of compaction；that is, they are under a pressure that is equal to the weight of the soil column above it. Many soils (except for most sands and gavels) exhibit elastic
properties—they deform when compressed under load and rebound when the load is removed. The elasticity of soils is often time-dependent, that is, deformations of the soil occur over a length of time which may vary from minutes to years after a load is imposed. Over a period of time, a building may settle if it imposes a load on the soil greater than the natural compaction weight of the soil. Conversely, a building may heave if it imposes loads on the soil smaller than the natural compaction weight. The soil may also flow under the weight of a building；that is, it tends to be squeezed out.
Due to both the compaction and flow effects, buildings tend settle. Uneven settlements, exemplified by the leaning towers in Pisa and Bologna, can have damaging effects—the building may lean, walls and partitions may crack, windows and doors may become inoperative, and, in the extreme, a building may collapse. Uniform settlements are not so serious, although extreme conditions, such as those in Mexico City, can have serious consequences. Over the past 100 years, a change in the groundwater level there has caused some buildings to settle more than 10 feet (3 meters). Because such movements can occur during and after construction, careful analysis of the behavior of soils under a building is vital.
The great variability of soils has led to a variety of solutions to the foundation problem. Where
firm soil exists close to the surface, the simplest solution is to rest columns on a small slab of concrete(spread footing). Where the soil is softer, it is necessary to spread the column load over a greater area；in this case, a continuous slab of concrete(raft or mat) under the whole building is used. In cases where the soil near the surface is unable to support the weight of the building, piles of wood, steel, or concrete are driven down to firm soil.
The construction of a building proceeds naturally from the foundation up to the superstructure. The design process, however, proceeds from the roof down to the foundation (in the direction of gravity). In the past, the foundation was not subject to systematic investigation. A scientific approach to the design of foundations has been developed in the 20th century. Karl Terzaghi of the United States pioneered studies that made it possible to make accurate predictions of the behavior of foundations, using the science of soil mechanics coupled with exploration and testing procedures. Foundation failures of the past, such as the classical example of the leaning tower in Pisa, have become almost nonexistent. Foundations still are a hidden but costly part of many buildings.
The early development of high-rise buildings began with structural steel framing. Reinforced concrete and stressed-skin tube systems have since been economically and competitively used in a number of structures for both residential and commercial purposes. The high-rise buildings ranging from 50 to 110 stories that are being built all over the United States are the result of innovations and development of new structural systems.
Greater height entails increased column and beam sizes to make buildings more rigid so that under wind load they will not sway beyond an acceptable limit. Excessive lateral sway may cause
serious recurring damage to partitions, ceilings, and other architectural details. In addition, excessive sway may cause discomfort to the occupants of the building because of their perception of such motion. Structural systems of reinforced concrete, as well as steel, take full advantage of the inherent potential stiffness of the total building and therefore do not require additional stiffening to limit the sway.
中文译文
建筑及高层建筑的组成
1 摘要
材料和结构类型是构成建筑物各方面的组成部分，这些部分包括承重结构、围护结构、楼地面和隔墙。建筑物内部还有机械和电气系统，例如电梯、供暖和制冷系统、照明系统等。建筑中高于地面的部分称为上部结构，而地面以下的部分称为地下结构和基础。
摩天大楼的出现应归功于19世纪的两个新发明：钢结构建筑和载人电梯。钢材作为结构材料的应用起源于1855年贝色麦炼钢法。古斯塔?艾菲尔（1832~1923）在首次介绍钢结构建筑是在法国。他在1889年的巴黎国际博览会所设计的艾菲尔铁塔，完美的展现了钢结构的轻巧。艾菲尔铁塔高300米，是当时人类建造的最高建筑物，而且直到40年后才被美国的摩天大楼超越。
第一部电梯是1857年Elisha Otis给纽约的一家百货公司所安装的。1889年，艾菲尔在艾菲尔铁塔上安装了第一部大型液压电梯，它每小时可以运送2350位乘客到达塔顶。
2 承重框架
直到19世纪后期，建筑物的外墙还仍被用做承重墙来支撑楼层，这种结构是基本的一种过梁类型，而且它也被用在框架结构房屋中。因为所需墙体的厚度很大，承重墙结构限制了建筑物的高度；例如，1880年建于芝加哥的16层高的Monadnock Building，在较低的楼层墙体厚度已达到1.5米。1883年，Willian Le Baron Jenney （1832~1907）用类似鸟笼形状的铁柱来支撑楼层。1889年，框架结构首次由钢梁和钢柱构成。外墙成为了而不只是被用做支撑结构是框架结构的一个成果。自从钢骨架首次推出，建筑物的高度也一直在迅速增加。
第二次世界大战前，所有的高层建筑都是由钢骨架建造的。战争结束后，钢材的缺乏和混凝土质量的改进，促进了钢筋混凝土高层建筑的发展。芝加哥的Marina Towers（1962）是当时美国最高的混凝土建筑；它的高度是588英尺即179米，但是很快它就被高650英尺即195米的伦敦邮政塔和其它一些塔所超过。
人们关于摩天大楼态度的转变使承重墙重新得到了应用。在纽约，由Eero Saarinen于1962年设计的哥伦比亚广播公司大楼，四周的墙由1.5米宽的混凝土柱构成，柱与柱的中心间距为3米。这种围护墙有效地构成了建筑物的承重墙。这种趋势发展的原因之一是建筑物的墙像一个管道一样可以有利地抵抗风的强烈作用；
世贸大楼就是另一个应用管道法的例子。相比之下，坚固的框架或垂直支撑则通常会使建筑的横向更稳定。
3 围护结构
一个建筑的围护结构由透明的窗户和不透明的墙组成。窗户通常采用传统上的玻璃作为材料，然而塑料也被使用，特别在破损严重和难以保持的学校里。墙被用来覆盖结构和起支撑作用，它是由多样化的建筑材料组成：砖、现浇混凝土、石头、不透明玻璃、塑料、钢材和铝材。木头是过去建造房屋的主要材料；但因为易燃，一般不常用于用于商业、工业和公共建筑。
4 楼地面
一幢建筑的楼地面结构取决于它所使用的基本结构框架。在钢框架建筑中，楼地面或者是钢梁上的混凝土楼板，或者是由波纹钢配有混凝土骨料组成的地板。在混凝土结构中，楼地面或者是混凝土梁上的混凝土楼板或者是一系列紧密分布于混凝土梁在方向上端的薄混凝土楼板，在它的下面抹一层抹面。这种楼地面的应用取决于支撑柱之间的距离或者墙和空间的功能性。在一栋公寓大楼中，例如，当墙和柱隔开3.7米到5.5米时，最常见的结构是无梁实心混凝土楼盖。楼盖的下表面是楼盖以下空间的最高限度。而波纹钢地板则常用于办公大楼中，这是因为当波纹钢地板的波纹被另一块金属板盖上时，可以形成电话线和电线管道。
5 机械与电力系统
一个现代建筑不仅要有必要使用空间而且也要包括机械、电力系统等辅助空间，以便提供一个舒适的生活环境。这些辅助空间可能占摩天大楼总建筑面积的25%。在一个办公大楼中，供暖、通风、电力和卫生设备系统的预算额占实际建筑总预算额的40%，这足以显示它们在建筑中的重要性。因为现在许多建筑被建造成密封的，窗户不能被打开，因此便要由机械系统提供通风设备和空气调节设备。管道将新鲜空气从通过中央换气室和空气调节器源源不断的输入建筑物内。悬挂在上面楼层结构下面的天花板可以把通风管和控制器的设备遮挡住以保持美观。提供动力的电力线路和电话通讯线路也可能被安置在天花板或者楼地面结构层中的管道或导线管里。
我们曾试着把机械建造、电力系统加入建筑物的建筑风格中去，让他们裸露在结构的外部；例如建造与1956年位于Des Morines的美国保险公司大楼，管道和楼地面的结构就被有序、优美的悬挂在天花板上。这种建造方法极大降低了建造成本，同时带来了新的结构形式。例如在结构间距方面的革新。
6 土和地基
所有的建筑物都是靠土层支撑在地面上的，因而土的特性成为建筑设计时极其重要的考虑因素。基础的设计很大程度上仍要考虑土的许多因素，例如土的类型，土分层的情况，土层的厚度和它的密实度，以及地下水的情况等。土层很少只含有单一的物质；他们通常是厚度不同的混合状态土层。据评定，土层的等级是根据土分子的大小来划分，从小到大依次是淤泥、粘土、沙、石子、岩石。通常，较大分子的土支撑的荷载要大于那些小分子的荷载力。最坚硬的岩石能够支撑的荷载大约是每平方米100吨，而最软的淤泥仅能够支撑的荷载大约是每平方米0.25吨。所有地表以下的土都处于受压状态，说得更精确些，这些土承受与作用在其上的土柱重量相等的压力。许多土显示出弹性的性质——他们或被重载压坏或卸载后又恢复。土的弹性常随时间而改变，也就是说，土层的变形在恒载作用下随着时间的增长而不断地改变。过一段时间后，如果加于土层上的荷载大于土自然压紧状态下的重量，则建筑物不会产生沉降，反之则会沉降。建筑物的重量可能会使土产生流动；也就是说，经常会发生土被挤出的现象。
土受压和流动的双重影响，使建筑物发生沉降。不均匀沉降例如比萨斜塔，损坏的结果是建筑物发生倾斜，墙和隔墙可能出现裂缝，窗户和门可能产生变形，或者甚至建筑可能倒塌。均匀沉降不会如此严重，尽管可能出现危险状况，例如墨西哥城的一些建筑，出现各种各样的后果，在过去的一百年里，由于地下水位发生了改变，导致一些建筑下沉了3米多。因为类似的状况可能发生在建造时也可能是建造后，因此小心处理建筑物下的土层是极其重要的。
土层巨大的变化使得解决地基问题的办法也变得多样化。如果表面土层下的土为坚硬土层，最简单的办法是采用混凝土基础。若是软弱土层，则加大柱的面积；这种情况下，整个建筑就可采用筏板基础。假设表面土层不能够支撑建筑物的重量，木结构建筑、钢结构建筑、或者混凝土建筑应建造在坚硬土层上。
建造一幢建筑物一般是从基础开始到上部结构。然而设计的过程是从屋顶开始到基础。在过去，地基处理不是一个系统的研究项目。在20世纪，一种科学的地基设计方法已经发展起来了。美国的Karl Teraghi不断创造研究，使土力学和土地勘测联合起来，让它尽可能准确地预测地基的活动状态。过去典型的地基破坏的例子——比萨斜塔现在变得几乎不存在了。而地基仍然是建筑物中不可见部分费用最大的一部分。
早期的高层建筑的发展是以型钢结构开始的。钢筋混凝土和薄壳筒体体系已经以节俭和竟争为目的被应用于住宅和商业建筑中。作为新结构体系的创新和发展的结果，美国到处都是50到110层的高层建筑。
巨大的高度需要增加柱和梁的尺寸来使建筑物更加坚固，为的是在风荷载作用下不致于使其倾斜度超过限值。反复地侧向摆动可能引起隔墙天花板和其它建筑部
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毕业论文外文翻译模版
吉林化工学院理学院 毕业论文外文翻译English Title（Times New Roman ，三号） 学生学号：08810219 学生姓名：袁庚文 专业班级：信息与计算科学0802 指导教师：赵瑛 职称副教授 起止日期：2012.2.27～2012.3.14 吉林化工学院 Jilin Institute of Chemical Technology
1 外文翻译的基本内容 应选择与本课题密切相关的外文文献（学术期刊网上的），译成中文，与原文装订在一起并独立成册。在毕业答辩前，同论文一起上交。译文字数不应少于3000个汉字。 2 书写规范 2.1 外文翻译的正文格式 正文版心设置为：上边距：3.5厘米，下边距：2.5厘米，左边距：3.5厘米，右边距：2厘米，页眉：2.5厘米，页脚：2厘米。 中文部分正文选用模板中的样式所定义的“正文”，每段落首行缩进2字；或者手动设置成每段落首行缩进2字，字体：宋体，字号：小四，行距：多倍行距1.3，间距：前段、后段均为0行。 这部分工作模板中已经自动设置为缺省值。 2.2标题格式 特别注意：各级标题的具体形式可参照外文原文确定。 1．第一级标题（如：第1章绪论）选用模板中的样式所定义的“标题1”，居左；或者手动设置成字体：黑体，居左，字号：三号，1.5倍行距，段后11磅，段前为11磅。 2．第二级标题（如：1.2 摘要与关键词）选用模板中的样式所定义的“标题2”，居左；或者手动设置成字体：黑体，居左，字号：四号，1.5倍行距，段后为0，段前0.5行。 3．第三级标题（如：1.2.1 摘要）选用模板中的样式所定义的“标题3”，居左；或者手动设置成字体：黑体，居左，字号：小四，1.5倍行距，段后为0，段前0.5行。 标题和后面文字之间空一格（半角）。 3 图表及公式等的格式说明 图表、公式、参考文献等的格式详见《吉林化工学院本科学生毕业设计说明书（论文）撰写规范及标准模版》中相关的说明。
毕业论文外文翻译模板
农村社会养老保险的现状、问题与对策研究社会保障对国家安定和经济发展具有重要作用，“城乡二元经济”现象日益凸现，农村社会保障问题客观上成为社会保障体系中极为重要的部分。建立和完善农村社会保障制度关系到农村乃至整个社会的经济发展，并且对我国和谐社会的构建至关重要。我国农村社会保障制度尚不完善，因此有必要加强对农村独立社会保障制度的构建，尤其对农村养老制度的改革，建立健全我国社会保障体系。从户籍制度上看，我国居民养老问题可分为城市居民养老和农村居民养老两部分。对于城市居民我国政府已有比较充足的政策与资金投人，使他们在物质和精神方面都能得到较好地照顾，基本实现了社会化养老。而农村居民的养老问题却日益突出，成为摆在我国政府面前的一个紧迫而又棘手的问题。 一、我国农村社会养老保险的现状 关于农村养老，许多地区还没有建立农村社会养老体系，已建立的地区也存在很多缺陷，运行中出现了很多问题，所以完善农村社会养老保险体系的必要性与紧迫性日益体现出来。 （一）人口老龄化加快 随着城市化步伐的加快和农村劳动力的输出，越来越多的农村青壮年人口进入城市，年龄结构出现“两头大，中间小”的局面。中国农村进入老龄社会的步伐日渐加快。第五次人口普查显示：中国65岁以上的人中农村为5938万，占老龄总人口的67.4%.在这种严峻的现实面前，农村社会养老保险的徘徊显得极其不协调。 （二）农村社会养老保险覆盖面太小 中国拥有世界上数量最多的老年人口，且大多在农村。据统计，未纳入社会保障的农村人口还很多，截止2000年底，全国7400多万农村居民参加了保险，占全部农村居民的11.18%，占成年农村居民的11.59%.另外，据国家统计局统计，我国进城务工者已从改革开放之初的不到200万人增加到2003年的1.14亿人。而基本方案中没有体现出对留在农村的农民和进城务工的农民给予区别对待。进城务工的农民既没被纳入到农村养老保险体系中，也没被纳入到城市养老保险体系中，处于法律保护的空白地带。所以很有必要考虑这个特殊群体的养老保险问题。
英语专业毕业论文翻译类论文
英语专业毕业论文翻译 类论文 Document number：NOCG-YUNOO-BUYTT-UU986-1986UT
毕业论文（设计）Title:The Application of the Iconicity to the Translation of Chinese Poetry 题目:象似性在中国诗歌翻译中的应用 学生姓名孔令霞 学号 BC09150201 指导教师祁晓菲助教 年级 2009级英语本科（翻译方向）二班 专业英语 系别外国语言文学系
黑龙江外国语学院本科生毕业论文（设计）任务书 摘要
索绪尔提出的语言符号任意性，近些年不断受到质疑，来自语言象似性的研究是最大的挑战。语言象似性理论是针对语言任意性理论提出来的，并在不断发展。象似性是当今认知语言学研究中的一个重要课题，是指语言符号的能指与所指之间的自然联系。本文以中国诗歌英译为例，探讨象似性在中国诗歌翻译中的应用，从以下几个部分阐述：（1）象似性的发展；（2）象似性的定义及分类；（3）中国诗歌翻译的标准；（4）象似性在中国诗歌翻译中的应用，主要从以下几个方面论述：声音象似、顺序象似、数量象似、对称象似方面。通过以上几个方面的探究，探讨了中国诗歌翻译中象似性原则的重大作用，在诗歌翻译过程中有助于得到“形神皆似”和“意美、音美、形美”的理想翻译效果。 关键词：象似性；诗歌；翻译
Abstract The arbitrariness theory of language signs proposed by Saussure is severely challenged by the study of language iconicity in recent years. The theory of iconicity is put forward in contrast to that of arbitrariness and has been developing gradually. Iconicity, which is an important subject in the research of cognitive linguistics, refers to a natural resemblance or analogy between the form of a sign and the object or concept. This thesis mainly discusses the application of the iconicity to the translation of Chinese poetry. The paper is better described from the following parts: (1) The development of the iconicity; (2) The definition and classification of the iconicity; (3) The standards of the translation to Chinese poetry; (4) The application of the iconicity to the translation of Chinese poetry, mainly discussed from the following aspects: sound iconicity, order iconicity, quantity iconicity, and symmetrical iconicity. Through in-depth discussion of the above aspects, this paper could come to the conclusion that the iconicity is very important in the translation of poetry. It is conductive to reach the ideal effect of “the similarity of form and spirit” and “the three beauties”. Key words: the iconicity; poetry; translation
大学毕业论文---软件专业外文文献中英文翻译
软件专业毕业论文外文文献中英文翻译 Object landscapes and lifetimes Tech nically, OOP is just about abstract data typing, in herita nee, and polymorphism, but other issues can be at least as importa nt. The rema in der of this sect ion will cover these issues. One of the most importa nt factors is the way objects are created and destroyed. Where is the data for an object and how is the lifetime of the object con trolled? There are differe nt philosophies at work here. C++ takes the approach that con trol of efficie ncy is the most importa nt issue, so it gives the programmer a choice. For maximum run-time speed, the storage and lifetime can be determined while the program is being written, by placing the objects on the stack (these are sometimes called automatic or scoped variables) or in the static storage area. This places a priority on the speed of storage allocatio n and release, and con trol of these can be very valuable in some situati ons. However, you sacrifice flexibility because you must know the exact qua ntity, lifetime, and type of objects while you're writing the program. If you are trying to solve a more general problem such as computer-aided desig n, warehouse man ageme nt, or air-traffic con trol, this is too restrictive. The sec ond approach is to create objects dyn amically in a pool of memory called the heap. In this approach, you don't know un til run-time how many objects you n eed, what their lifetime is, or what their exact type is. Those are determined at the spur of the moment while the program is runnin g. If you n eed a new object, you simply make it on the heap at the point that you n eed it. Because the storage is man aged dyn amically, at run-time, the amount of time required to allocate storage on the heap is sig ni fica ntly Ion ger tha n the time to create storage on the stack. (Creat ing storage on the stack is ofte n a si ngle assembly in structio n to move the stack poin ter dow n, and ano ther to move it back up.) The dyn amic approach makes the gen erally logical assumpti on that objects tend to be complicated, so the extra overhead of finding storage and releas ing that storage will not have an importa nt impact on the creati on of an object .In additi on, the greater flexibility is esse ntial to solve the gen eral program ming problem. Java uses the sec ond approach, exclusive". Every time you want to create an object, you use the new keyword to build a dyn amic in sta nee of that object. There's ano ther issue, however, and that's the lifetime of an object. With Ian guages that allow objects to be created on the stack, the compiler determines how long the object lasts and can automatically destroy it. However, if you create it on the heap the compiler has no kno wledge of its lifetime. In a Ianguage like C++, you must determine programmatically when to destroy the
高层建筑结构论文
高层建筑结构论文高层建筑工程论文 高层建筑结构桩基础的简化分析研究 【摘要】针对高层建筑结构桩基础受力不明确、影响因素多、研究难度大的现状，本论文对高层建筑结构桩基础的设计进行了简化研究，首先分析了当前高层建筑结构桩基础的设计与应用现状，在此基础上重点借助于有限元计算方法，对结构桩基础进行了简化设计，有助于进一步提高高层建筑结构桩基础的简化设计和应用水平。 【关键词】高层建筑；建筑工程；结构桩基础 1 引言 随着高层建筑的兴起和持续发展，在高层建筑基础研究领域，随着城市化程度不断进步，经济的发展，高层建筑越来越多。目前，超高层建筑基础设计在很多方面还不够完善，可谓是理论研究远远落后于工程实践。而针对超高层建筑基础设计工作的需要来看，对一些问题还需要深入的研究。工程现场实测和模型试验均已证明结构桩基础的地基反力，既不是直线型分布，也不符合弹性地基理论的计算结果。为此有必要开展对高层建筑结构桩基础的设计研究。 近来，虽然对结构桩基础进行了理论研究，但是对其工作机理认识还不够深刻，对桩土分担荷载，及其各部分的应力计算还需要深入分析研究。此外，对上部结构、基础与地基的共同作用问题的研究尚未进入工程实用阶段，特别是地震作用下的共同作用分析，现有的工程规范涉及很少。本论文重点对高层建筑结构桩基础的设计进行简化分析设计，以期从中能够找到合理可靠的简化结构桩基础设计方法，并以此和广大同行分享。 2 高层建筑结构桩基础设计与工程应用现状 目前实际工程中，很多桩基工程试桩设计与静载试验结果不相符。静载试验结果达不到设计要求，设计师通过调整设计参数，修改加密桩基设计图予以补救，这样静载试验结果超过设计要求太多，虽然安全性更易得到保证，但太保守的设计降低了经济效益。在建筑业这种情况是要进行优化的，超过设计太多需要进行二次试桩，项目建设周期也随之延长。如果设计师等静载试验结果出来再进行桩基施工图的设计，既影响整个设计的进度，也满足不了建设的需要。解决单桩静载试验结果与试桩设计偏差过大的问题，也就是怎样使试桩设计尽量接近单桩静载试验结果，又简便又精确地对单桩静载试验结果进行预估计是值得研究的。 在桩基工程实践中，应用最广的是在竖向荷载作用下的桩，竖向荷载作用下的桩土相互作用问题对桩基的设计和施工影响很大，因此，国内外的大量的研究工作者在这一领域里做了很多工作，提出了很多计算方法。但关于桩群向邻近土传递应力的机理，至今还有许多方面尚未弄清。 多年来，许多学者致力于“桩基础”理论和试验研究，得出了了众多的成果。但是由于问题本身的复杂性，桩基础受承台刚度、桩基承台连接条件、桩基体系传力机制及单桩和群桩工作形态差别等的影响，使其与一般的土一结构相互作用的问题大不相同，是岩土工程界目前尚未很好解决的难题。远未形成一套系统的理论和简便实际的计算方法。特别是在工程应用上，所进行的工作相对较少，有必要进行更加系统地分析研究。 3 高层建筑结构桩基础简化设计分析 高层建筑结构作用在基础上的荷载大，基础埋置深，一般设置地下室并常常有作为人防工程或地下停车库等要求，因此，基础工程的材料用量多、施工复杂
高层建筑施工关键技术论文
高层建筑施工关键技术探析 摘要：随着近年来我国高层建筑的飞速发展，我国现代建筑尤其高层建筑的现代施工技术的进步充分展现了我国建筑水平的提升，如何在已形成的成熟工艺上继续加以改进，是现阶段我国建筑行业从业人员所应思考的重要问题。 关键词：高层建筑施工技术特点 abstract: in recent years, with the rapid development of high-rise buildings in our country, our country modern architecture of high-rise building especially modern construction technology progress fully showing the our country building, the level of ascent, how in the mature technology has already formed continue the improved, is the construction industry in our country from personnel should think about important issues. keywords: high building construction technical characteristics 中图分类号：tu74 文献标识码：a 文章编号 引言 高层建筑作为现代社会中的新型的建筑形式，其建筑施工水平综合反映了科技发展水平，是展示经济发展和社会进步成果的有力体现，也是综合实力的重要标志。随着我国社会生产生活的飞速发展，
毕业论文 外文翻译#(精选.)
毕业论文（设计）外文翻译 题目：中国上市公司偏好股权融资：非制度性因素 系部名称：经济管理系专业班级:会计082班 学生姓名：任民学号： 200880444228 指导教师：冯银波教师职称:讲师 年月日
译文： 中国上市公司偏好股权融资：非制度性因素 国际商业管理杂志 2009.10 摘要：本文把重点集中于中国上市公司的融资活动，运用西方融资理论，从非制度性因素方面，如融资成本、企业资产类型和质量、盈利能力、行业因素、股权结构因素、财务管理水平和社会文化，分析了中国上市公司倾向于股权融资的原因，并得出结论，股权融资偏好是上市公司根据中国融资环境的一种合理的选择。最后，针对公司的股权融资偏好提出了一些简明的建议。 关键词：股权融资，非制度性因素，融资成本 一、前言 中国上市公司偏好于股权融资，根据中国证券报的数据显示，1997年上市公司在资本市场的融资金额为95.87亿美元，其中股票融资的比例是72.5％，，在1998年和1999年比例分别为72.6％和72.3％，另一方面，债券融资的比例分别是17.8％，24.9％和25.1％。在这三年，股票融资的比例，在比中国发达的资本市场中却在下跌。以美国为例，当美国企业需要的资金在资本市场上，于股权融资相比他们宁愿选择债券融资。统计数据显示，从1970年到1985年，美日企业债券融资占了境外融资的91.7％，比股权融资高很多。阎达五等发现，大约中国3/4的上市公司偏好于股权融资。许多研究的学者认为，上市公司按以下顺序进行外部融资：第一个是股票基金，第二个是可转换债券，三是短期债务，最后一个是长期负债。许多研究人员通常分析我国上市公司偏好股权是由于我们国家的经济改革所带来的制度性因素。他们认为，上市公司的融资活动违背了西方古典融资理论只是因为那些制度性原因。例如，优序融资理论认为，当企业需要资金时，他们首先应该转向内部资金（折旧和留存收益），然后再进行债权融资，最后的选择是股票融资。在这篇文章中，笔者认为，这是因为具体的金融环境激活了企业的这种偏好，并结合了非制度性因素和西方金融理论，尝试解释股权融资偏好的原因。
英语专业翻译类论文参考文献
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电子信息工程专业毕业论文外文翻译中英文对照翻译
本科毕业设计（论文）中英文对照翻译 院（系部）电气工程与自动化 专业名称电子信息工程 年级班级 04级7班 学生姓名 指导老师
Infrared Remote Control System Abstract Red outside data correspondence the technique be currently within the scope of world drive extensive usage of a kind of wireless conjunction technique,drive numerous hardware and software platform support. Red outside the transceiver product have cost low, small scaled turn, the baud rate be quick, point to point SSL, be free from electromagnetism thousand Raos etc.characteristics, can realization information at dissimilarity of the product fast, convenience, safely exchange and transmission, at short distance wireless deliver aspect to own very obvious of advantage.Along with red outside the data deliver a technique more and more mature, the cost descend, red outside the transceiver necessarily will get at the short distance communication realm more extensive of application. The purpose that design this system is transmit cu stomer’s operation information with infrared rays for transmit media, then demodulate original signal with receive circuit. It use coding chip to modulate signal and use decoding chip to demodulate signal. The coding chip is PT2262 and decoding chip is PT2272. Both chips are made in Taiwan. Main work principle is that we provide to input the information for the PT2262 with coding keyboard. The input information was coded by PT2262 and loading to high frequent load wave whose frequent is 38 kHz, then modulate infrared transmit dioxide and radiate space outside when it attian enough power. The receive circuit receive the signal and demodulate original information. The original signal was decoded by PT2272, so as to drive some circuit to accomplish