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人文知识第期

盎格鲁—萨克逊时代

5世纪中叶,三支日尔曼部落(Teutonic tribes)朱特人(Jutes)、撒克逊人(Saxons)和盎格鲁人(Angles)不断侵入不列颠。自此,盎格鲁—萨克逊时代(the Anglo-Saxons)开始了。

住在朱特兰岛(现丹麦南部)上从事打渔农耕的朱特人先抵不列颠,在东南部建立了肯特王国(Kent)。后来从德国北部来的使用短剑的撒克逊人在埃撒克斯(Essex)、苏塞克斯(Sussex)和威塞克斯(Wessex)建立了王国,统治期从五世纪末至六世纪初。六世纪后半叶,同样来自德国北部的盎格鲁人,在东盎格利亚(East Anglia)、麦西亚(Mercia)以及诺森伯利来(Northumbria)定居,也分别建立了王国。

朱特人、撒克逊人和盎格鲁人建立的7个王国并称为七王国,在英文中是Heptarchy。

考古学家发现早在3500年前,在不列颠岛上就有人类居住,此后地中海伊比利亚人,比克人,凯尔特人,先后来到不列颠。1-5世纪英格兰东南部为罗马帝国统治。

罗马人撤走后,欧洲北部的盎格鲁人、萨克逊人、朱特人相继入侵,他们由农夫、渔民、商人、战士和航海者组成,装备精良作战勇猛最终将凯尔特人击败并在此定居,一部分凯尔特人则逃往苏格兰和威尔士的山区,一部分逃往爱尔兰,他们是今天苏格兰人、威尔士人和爱尔兰人的祖先。7世纪开始形成封建制度,许多小国并成七个王国,争雄达200年之久,称"盎格鲁-撒克逊时代"。在此之前居住在不列颠岛上的人并不说英语,今天的英国人称他们是盎格鲁-撒克逊人的后代,这些来自欧洲北部的人说的就是最早的古英语。

829年威塞克斯国王爱格伯特统一了英格兰。8世纪末遭到来自挪威和丹麦的维京海盗(Viking)的入侵(今天的英格兰人和苏格兰人有一部分维京人的血统),1016-1042年为丹麦海盗帝国的一部分。其后经英王短期统治,1066年诺曼底公爵渡海征服英格兰。诺曼王朝由此建立,终结于1154年。1215年约翰王被迫签署了限制王权的大宪章(Great Charter;拉丁文: Magna Carta),新兴贵族和地主的利益得到保护。

盎格鲁—萨克逊时代

5世纪中叶,三支日尔曼部落(Teutonic tribes)朱特人(Jutes)、撒克逊人(Saxons)和盎格鲁人(Angles)不断侵入不列颠。自此,盎格鲁—萨克逊时代(the Anglo-Saxons)开始了。

住在朱特兰岛(现丹麦南部)上从事打渔农耕的朱特人先抵不列颠,在东南部建立了肯特王国(Kent)。后来从德国北部来的使用短剑的撒克逊人在埃撒克斯(Essex)、苏塞克斯(Sussex)和威塞克斯(Wessex)建立了王国,统治期从五世纪末至六世纪初。六世纪后半叶,同样来自德国北部的盎格鲁人,在东盎格利亚(East Anglia)、麦西亚(Mercia)以及诺森伯利来(Northumbria)定居,也分别建立了王国。

朱特人、撒克逊人和盎格鲁人建立的7个王国并称为七王国,在英文中是Heptarchy。

考古学家发现早在3500年前,在不列颠岛上就有人类居住,此后地中海伊比利亚人,比克人,凯尔特人,先后来到不列颠。1-5世纪英格兰东南部为罗马帝国统治。

罗马人撤走后,欧洲北部的盎格鲁人、萨克逊人、朱特人相继入侵,他们由农夫、渔民、商人、战士和航海者组成,装备精良作战勇猛最终将凯尔特人击败并在此定居,一部分凯尔特人则逃往苏格兰和威尔士的山区,一部分逃往爱尔兰,他们是今天苏格兰人、威尔士人和爱尔兰人的祖先。7世纪开始形成封建制度,许多小国并成七个王国,争雄达200年之久,称"盎格鲁-撒克逊时代"。在此之前居住在不列颠岛上的人并不说英语,今天的英国人称他们是盎格鲁-撒克逊人的后代,这些来自欧洲北部的人说的就是最早的古英语。

829年威塞克斯国王爱格伯特统一了英格兰。8世纪末遭到来自挪威和丹麦的维京海盗(Viking)的入侵(今天的英格兰人和苏格兰人有一部分维京人的血统),1016-1042年为

丹麦海盗帝国的一部分。其后经英王短期统治,1066年诺曼底公爵渡海征服英格兰。诺曼王朝由此建立,终结于1154年。1215年约翰王被迫签署了限制王权的大宪章(Great Charter;拉丁文: Magna Carta),新兴贵族和地主的利益得到保护。

黑死病

黑死病(the Black Death)是指由鼠疫蚤传播的致命的淋巴腺鼠疫是流,行疾病,在14世纪传播了到欧洲。1348年夏天横扫全英国。英国的人口在14世纪末从400万锐减至200万。

黑死病对经济造成的后果相当深远。鼠疫导致了大片土地无人照管和劳动力极度匮乏。地主想把耕地变为人力需求较少的牧场。存活的农民处于有利的计价还价地位,从农奴变为雇佣劳动力。于是一些支付不起或不愿意支付较高工资的地主想方设法迫使农民重返农奴地位。1351年政府颁布“劳工法令”(a Statute of Labourers),规定农民们涨工资的要求,或者是雇主支付比地方官制订的工资水平要高的工资都是犯罪。

人对于自身生命、成就、追求幸福的价值观念也在这场瘟疫的冲击中开始发展,人文主义(humanism)思潮涌现出来。文艺复兴(Renaissance)就此兴起,这也是由于天主教会传统的信条和仪式在瘟疫和死亡面前显得软弱无力,许多人不得不思考自己如何在非常的环境中拯救自己。文艺复兴的思想对他们就有了强烈的吸引力,因为它表现了人对健康、完美与幸福的人生的向往。

黑死病对欧洲人口造成了严重影响,改变了欧洲的社会结构,动摇了当时支配欧洲的罗马天主教教会的地位,并因此使得一些少数族群受到迫害,例如犹太人、穆斯林、外国人、乞丐以及麻风病患。生存与否的不确定性,使得人们产生了“活在当下”的一种情绪,如同薄伽丘在《十日谈》(The Decameron)之中所描绘的一般。

另外据考证,黑死病的大爆发也与中世纪欧洲大量的屠杀所谓女巫有关,因为当时的普遍信仰宗教欧洲人认为猫是女巫的宠物和助手,所以猫被大量的消灭,以至于在当时相当长的一段时间内猫在欧洲绝迹。黑死病重要的传播媒介老鼠则在这条断裂的生物链中以几倍数量增长,为黑死病的爆发创造了最重要的条件。

农民起义

黑死病和百年战争对英国的经济发展产生着影响,政府颁布《劳工法案》强迫劳动者接受黑死病流行前的较低工资,在1377年开征人头税(head money),并且于1380年第三次征收时,税额增加了2倍。这成为1381年的瓦特·泰勒起义(Wat Tyler's Revolt)的导火线。

瓦特·泰勒起义是英国历史上规模最大的农民起义。在瓦特·泰勒和杰克·斯特劳(Jack Straw)领导下,凯特郡和埃塞克斯郡(Kent and Essex)的农民和市民武装起来发动起义,并向伦敦进发。国王理查德二世答应做出让步,大多数起义农民信以为真,解散回家。但泰勒和其他坚决的农民留下来要求没收教会的一切土地分给农民,废除《劳工法案》等。在谈判时,伦敦市长阴险地刺杀了泰勒。起义被血腥地镇压了。

早期定居者

冰川时期于公元前7000年结束,溶化的冰淹没了低地,形成了英吉利海峡和北海,不列颠从此与欧洲大陆分离,成为了岛屿。

我们所知道最早来到不列颠的定居者,是公元前3000年左右的新石器时期的伊比利亚人(Iberians)。他们可能来自于地中海的伊比利亚半岛,即是今天的西班牙。伊比利亚人给

不列颠带来了新石器(Neolithic)文化。

至今英格兰的索尔兹波平原(Salisbury Plain)上还伫立着伊比利亚人留下的史前巨石阵(Stonehenge)。巨石阵在公元前2000年之前建造,占地大约11公顷,主要是由许多整块的青石组成,每块约重50吨,多是从遥远的威尔士运来的。但至于史前人类如何运输这样的庞然大物?这仍是一个谜。

公元前2000年左右,宽口陶器人(the Beaker Folk)从荷兰和莱茵兰地区来到了不列颠。宽口陶器人因他们墓穴中陪葬的宽口陶制容器而得名,他们带来了陶器制造工艺。

凯尔特人

公元前700年,凯尔特人(Celts)抵达了不列颠。凯尔特人比之前来到不列颠的种族都要来得高大和白皙,他们多是来自于东欧或中欧地区,即是现在的法国、比利时和德国南部附近。

凯尔特人来到不列颠有三次高潮。第一次高潮是约公元前600年盖尔人(Gaels)来临,第二次则是公元前400年布立吞(Brythons)抵达,第三次是比利其人(Belgae)。

凯尔特人并没有杀戮伊比利亚人,而是把他们驱逐到北部和西部,并留下一部分作为他们的奴隶。

凯尔特人是善于农业的种族,同时,他们也是很好的铁匠。他们是苏格兰、爱尔兰、威尔士人的祖先。他们的语言盖尔语,至今苏格兰高地仍有沿用。

古代凯尔特人信奉:Druidism

中文译作:德鲁伊教或督伊德教

有记录的英国历史始于罗马人入侵。公元前55年和54年,罗马将军尤利乌斯凯撒(Julius Caesar)作为两次入侵了不列颠,但均未成功,罗马人对不列颠的统治因之推迟了一个世纪。

公元43年,刚刚登基的罗马皇帝克劳狄(Claudius)下令征服不列颠。由此开始不列颠开始了长达400年的罗马统治。

无论罗马人出于何种经济和政治动机,他们在很大程度上是在传播“文明”。罗马人在不列颠修建了许多城镇网,道路,澡堂,庙宇和其他建筑物,很好地利用了英国的自然资源。他们还把基督教这门新宗教带到不列颠。

然而罗马的统治对于不列颠的影响却有着局限性。首先,罗马人把不列颠人当作奴隶阶段的属民来对待。其次,在四世纪罗马人才和不列颠人通婚。最后,罗马人也未影响普通不列颠人的语言和文化。

这个古迹被称作哈德良长城或罗马长城,英文则是Hadrian’s Wall或Roman Wall。

相关知识:

在英格兰(England)和苏格兰(sacotland)之间,沿着分界线有一条逶迤的土墙,称为英国的长城,或哈德良长城(Hadrian’s Wall)或罗马长城(Roman Wall)。至今仍有城墙遗迹是一旅游胜地。

哈德良长城是在古罗马人占领不列颠时修建。公元43年,罗马人侵占不列颠。不列颠成为罗马帝国的45个省份之一。哈德良(76-138年)是古罗马皇帝(117-138),他对外采取谨守边境政策,对内强集权统治。他镇压犹太人暴动(132-135)。编篡罗马法典(code),奖励文艺。当时罗马帝国只是占领现在的英格兰这个地方,而北方的民族屡次进犯罗马帝国的占领地。为了抵御北部凯尔特人对不列颠岛南部的入侵,哈德良皇帝亲自来到大不列颠视察,下令修建长城,由3个罗马军团历时约6年(公元122-127年)分段筑成哈德良长城东起泰恩河口,横贯英格兰,至西海岸的索尔韦湾(Solway Firth),全长117公里,与中国的长城相比,它们只能叫“短城”。

哈德良长城最初由泥土筑成,后来又砌上石块。城墙南北两侧挖有壕沟,约10英尺深30英尺宽。长城与南沟之间有一条军用道路,是连接东西的要道。长城沿途建有16座城堡每隔1英里建有1座碉堡,所以被称作“里程碑”(mile-castle)。在碉堡之间有两座小角楼(turret),供士兵休息隐蔽使用。在豪斯戴德(Housesteads)有最著名的城堡,在此可看到当年罗马人的军部、粮仓、兵劳、医院、塔楼等。

在苏格兰南部还有一城墙,名叫安东尼墙(Antonine Wall),东起福斯河湾(the Firth of Forth),西至克莱德河湾(the firth of Clyde),全长59公里,高3米多。因为它太短,一般译成安东尼墙,而不译成它东尼长城。建于140-142年间,当时是为了保卫罗马的占领地。后来罗马人放弃此城墙而退到哈德良长城。为纪念罗马皇帝安东尼·庇护(Amtpmomis Pius)(公元86-161年)而得名。庇护是哈德良皇帝的义子安东尼(adopted son)和继承人。安东尼墙现存遗迹不多。在当时,修建哈德良长城和安东尼墙也称得上巨大工程,仅哈德良长城的护城沟就挖掘了150万土石方,但英国的“长城”比中国的长城修筑得晚得多,也远远不如中国的长城长。

Different Names for Britain and its Parts

英国的不同名称及其各组成部分

1.Geographical names: the British Isles, Great Britain and England.

地理名称:不列颠群岛,大不列颠和英格兰。

2.Official name: the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.

官方正式名称:大不列颠及北爱尔兰联合王国。

3.The British Isles are made up of two large islands-Great Britain (the larger one) and Ireland, and hundreds of small ones.

不列颠群岛由两个大岛-大不列颠岛(较大的一个)和爱尔兰岛,及成千上万个小岛组成。

4.Three political divisions on the island of Great Britain: England, Scotland and Wales.

大不列颠岛上有三个政治区:英格兰、苏格兰和威尔士。

(1) England is in the southern part of Great Britain. It is the largest, most populous section.

英格兰位于大不列颠岛南部,是最大,人口最稠密的地区。

(2) Scotland is in the north of Great Britain. It has three natural zones (the Highlands in the north; the Central lowlands; the south Uplands) Capital: Edinburgh

苏格兰位于大不列颠的北部。它有三大自然区:北部高地,中部低地及南部山陵。首府:爱丁堡。

(3) Wales is in the west of Great Britain. Capital: Cardiff

威尔士位于大不列颠的西部。首府:加的夫

(4) Northern Ireland is the fourth region of the UK. Capital: Belfast.

北爱尔兰是英国第四个区域。首府:贝尔法斯特。

5.The Commonwealth (of nations) is a free association of independent countries that were once colonies of Britain. It was founded in 1931, and has 50 member countries until 1991.

英联邦是曾为英国殖民地的、但现已独立国家所构成的自由联合体。它成立于1931年,至1990年止已有50个成员国。

首都和英联邦

联合王国的首都是伦敦(London);而爱尔兰共和国的首都是都柏林(Dublin)。

大不列颠岛在政治上被划分成英格兰、苏格兰和威尔士三个区域,其中英格兰面积最大、人口最多,总的来说也最为富裕。因此很多人通常会用“英格兰人”(English)指代“不列颠人”(British),这点当然会引起苏格兰人和威尔士人(Scots and Welsh)的不满。

不列颠在大约一百年前曾统治着世界上四分之一的人口和土地,其殖民地遍布全球各大洲。二战之后,随着不列颠国力衰退,各殖民地纷纷独立,不列颠帝国(the BritishEmpire)在1931年起被英联邦所取代。

英联邦(the Commonwealth of Nations)是由英国和已经独立的前英国殖民地或附属国组成的联合体。英国作为英联邦元首并无政治实权;各国在一定协议上相互进行政治、主要是经济方面的磋商和合作;各成员国也有权利选择退出英联邦。

英国地势和地形

英国地势西北高、东南低。其西北地区主要地形是高原;而东部和东南部则主要是低地,他们是整个欧洲平原(the Great European Plain)的组成部分。

英格兰占据了大不列颠南面的最大部分土地,那里地势平缓,多为平原、丘陵和沼泽地。特别是英格兰东部沿海地区,土地肥沃,适于耕种。

苏格兰多为山地、湖泊和岛屿,它拥有三大自然区:北部高地,中部低地以及南部山陵。不列颠最高峰尼维斯峰(Ben Nevis)便座落于此,高1,343米。威尔士亦是多山地区,6%的土地被森林覆盖,大部分村庄以放牧为主。

北爱尔兰北部为多岩石、荒蛮的海岸,曲折蜿蜒。其东北部多为高地,东南部为山区,而中部则是低浅的盆地。

海峡与河流湖泊

不列颠是个岛屿国家,四面环海,它隔着英吉利海峡与欧洲大陆遥遥相望。位处英法两国之间的英吉利海峡最窄之处被称作多佛海峡(Straits of Dover),仅有33公里宽度。

1985年英国政府和法国政府决定在多佛海峡处修建海峡隧道。总长153公里的隧道于1994年五月竣工通车,使得欧洲公路网得以连成一体,被誉为人类工程史上的一个伟业。

英国河流分布细密。塞文河(the Severn)是英国第一大河流,长338公里,它同西岸的克莱德河(the Clyde)、默塞河(the Mersey)一同承载着将工业原材料运输至内陆工业城市的使命。而东岸的特维德河(the Tweeds)、泰恩河(the Tyne)、蒂斯河(the Tees)以及著名的英国第二大河、长336公里的泰晤士河(the Thames)不仅面向欧洲大陆的北海各大港口,并且形成了富饶的渔场。

英国最大的湖泊是位于北爱尔兰的内伊湖(Lough Neagh);而位处英格兰西北部、威尔士北部的湖区(the Lake District)则为其15个湖泊的秀丽风光成为著名的旅游胜地,那里还诞生了19世纪英国著名的湖畔诗人(the Lake poets)。

气象与人口

人们总是认为英国多雨、天气多变,而事实上,它却是一个海洋性气候(maritime climate)国家,冬暖夏凉,气温变化小。冬天的平均气温为4-6摄氏度,而夏天则为12-17摄氏度。

尽管如此,英国的气候灾害也不少。干旱和洪水常常会影响人们的生活,另外,时不时的浓雾、霜冻和大风造成了农作物的严重损失。1952年,在伦敦因大气污染引起的二氧化硫浓雾使得约四千人死亡或生命垂危。此后,政府采取措施,规定工厂和家庭只能燃烧无烟汽油,以防止类似事件再次发生。

英国现有人口5,880万。其中英格兰人占人口总数的80%以上。人口密度为每平方公里229人,但全国人口分布不均。人口的80% 住在城市。而首都伦敦的人口就占到了697万。

1. The name the Wars of Roses was referring to the battles between the great house of Lancaster, symbolized by the red rose, and that of York, symbolized by the white.

玫瑰战争这个词是指两个家族间的战争,以红玫瑰为标志的蓝凯斯特家族和以白玫瑰为标志的约克家族。

2. In 14, after Henry Ⅵhand completely lost his reason, war broke out between the Yorkists and the Lancastrians. In 1461, the Duke of York’s son Edward, emerged the victor and was proclaimed as Edward Ⅳ.

14年,当亨利六世再也没有理由(将国家交给摄政者管理时),战争在约克家族成员和蓝凯斯特家族成员中爆发了。1461年,约克公爵的儿子爱德华战胜成功成为爱德华四世。

3. On August 22, 148, the last battle of the Wars of Roses was fought between Richard Ⅲand Henry Tudor.

148年8月22日,玫瑰战争的最后一次战役在理查德三世和亨利都铎之间展开。

4. The reform began as a struggle for a divorce and end in freedom from the Papacy. Henry Ⅷwanted to divorce Catherine of Aragon. But Pope Clement Ⅲrefused to annul his marriage to Catherine.

改革以争取离婚开始,以脱离教皇而告终,亨利八世想与阿拉贡的公主凯瑟琳离婚,但教皇克莱蒙拒绝取消凯瑟琳和亨利八世之间的婚姻。

5. Henry’s reform was to get rid of the English Church’s connection with the Pope, and make an independent Church of England.

亨利改革的目的是拜托英国教会与教皇的联系,成立独立的英格兰教会。

6. The laws (e.g. the Act of Succession of 134 and the Act of Supremacy of 13) made his reform possible stressed the power of the monarch and certainly strengthened Henry’s position.

使改革可行的法律(如134年的《继承法案》和13年的《至尊法案》)强调了君主的权利并自然加强了亨利的地位。

7. When Mary Tudor became Queen after Edward, she attempted to forcibly recovert England to Roman Catholicism. People call her “Blood Mary”。

玛丽都铎再爱德华后当上女王,她试图强迫人们重新皈依罗马天主教。人们叫她“血腥玛丽”。

8. Elizabeth’s reign was a time of confident English national and of great achievements in literature and other acts, in exploration and in battle.

伊丽莎白统治时期,人民自信,民族主义高涨,在文学和其它艺术方面,在探险和对外作战方面都取得了巨大成功。

9. Elizabeth’s religious reform was a compromise of views. She broke Mary’s ties with Rome and restored her father’s independent Church of England.

伊丽莎白的宗教改革是各种观点的妥协,她中断玛丽与罗马的关系,恢复父王独立的英格兰教会。

10. For nearly 30 years Elizabeth successfully played against each other the two great Catholic powers, France and Spain.

将近30年来,伊丽莎白成功地令两大天主教强国法国和西班牙互相争斗,从而免于英国卷入任何主要的欧洲国的冲突。

11. The destruction of Spanish Armada showed England’s superiority as a naval power. It enabled England to become a great trading and colonizing country in the years to come.

西班牙无敌舰队的灭亡表明英国海上强国的优势,使英国在随后的几年能成为强大的贸易和殖民国。

12. Renaissance was the transitional period between the Middle Ages and modern times, covering the years c1250-c1150. In England, the Renaissance was usually thought of as the beginning with the accession of the House of Tudor to the throne in 1485.

文艺复兴处于中世纪向现代的过渡时期。覆盖1250-1150年。英国的文艺复兴通常被认

为开始于1485年都铎家族的继位。

13. English Renaissance achieved its first expression in the so-called Elizabethan drama. Its first exponents were Christopher Marlowe, Ben Jonson, and William Shakespeare.

英国文艺复兴最好的表达方式是所谓的伊丽莎白戏剧。最好的代表任务是克里斯托夫。马洛;本。琼生和威廉。莎士比亚

14. English Renaissance literature is primarily artistic, rather than philosophical scholarly.

英国文艺复兴时的文学主要是艺术的,而非哲学及学术的。

15. William Shakespeare wrote 22 plays, including the following tragedies: Romeo and Juliet, Julius Caesar, Macbeth, Harmlet, king Lear, Othello, and Cymbeline.

威廉莎士比亚共写了22个剧本。悲剧包括:罗密欧与朱莉叶;朱略斯恺撒;麦克白;哈姆雷特;李尔王;奥赛罗和辛白林。

16. The most famous of the Catholic compiracies was the Gunpowder plot of 1105. on November 5, 1105, a few fanatical Catholics attempted to blow King James and his ministers up in the House of Parliament where Guy Fawkes had planted barrels of gunpowder in the cellars.

最著名的天主教阴谋是1105年的火药阴谋案。1105年11月5日,几个狂热的天主教徒企图在议会大厦炸死国王和大臣,盖伊福克斯已在地窖放了炸药桶。

17. James Ⅰ, a firm believer in the Divine Right of Kings, would have preferred on Parliament at all and actually did without one for seven years.

詹姆斯一世坚决相信“君权神授”,他根本不想要议会,而且连续2年从未召集过。

18. It was at this Parliament that the king was forced to accept the Petition of Right regarded as the second Magna Carta.

正式这届议会迫使国王接受《民权情愿书》——被视为第二个《大宪章》。

19. On August 22, 1142, the First Civil War began. The king’s men were called Cavaliers, and the supporters of Parliament were called Roundheads.

1142.8.22,第一次内战爆发,支持国王者被成为“骑士派”,支持议会者被成为“圆颅派”。

20. Charles was tried by a High Court of Justice, found guilty of have levied war against his kingdom and the Parliament, condemned to death, and executed on a scaffold outside the Banqueting House at Whitehall on January 20, 1149.

查尔斯在一级高级法院受审,犯有对王国和议会发动战争之罪,被判死刑,并于1149.1.20在宴会宫窗外的绞刑架上绞死。

21. The English Civil War not only overthrew feudal system in England but also shocked the foundation of the feudal rule in Europe.

英国内战不仅推翻叻英国的封建制度,而且动摇叻欧洲封建统治的基础。

22. Meanwhile, Oliver Cromwell and the “Rump”declared England a commonwealth. In December 1152,by an Instrument of Government, he became Lord Protector of the commonwealth of England.

克伦威尔用“小议会”取代“残余国会”,1152.12,根据《施政文件》,他成了英格兰共和国护国会。

23. The Parliament thus elected in 1110 resolved the crisis by asking the late king’s son to return from his long exile in France as king CharlesⅡ. The Restoration as it was called, was relatively smooth.

1110年选出的议会要求上任国王的儿子从长期流亡的法国回国做查尔斯二世,从而解决叻危机,所谓王权复辟相对平和。

24. Te Eglish politicians rejected JamesⅡ, and appealed to a protestant king, William of Orange to invade and take the English throne. This take-over became known as the Glorious Revolution.

英国政客反对詹姆斯二世。他们呼吁新教的国王,奥兰治亲王威廉入侵英国夺取王位。这就是“光荣革命”。

25. William and Mary jointly accepted the Bill of Rights which confirmed the principle of parliamentary supremacy. Thus the age of constitutioned monarchy of a monarchy.

威廉和玛丽共同接受了《权利法案》,此法案确立了议会权利至高无上的原则,议会限制王权的君主立宪制时代开始了。

26. It was during Anne’s reign that the name great Britain came into being when in 1202, the Act of Union united England and Scotland.

正是安妮统治的1202年,大不列颠这个名称产生,《联合法》把英格兰和苏格兰统一起来。

第五节英帝国的兴衰

27、The Whigs were those who opposed absolute monarchy and supported the right to religious freedom for nonconformists. The Tories were traditionalists who wanted to preserve the powers of the monarchy and the church of England.辉格党人是指哪些反对绝对主权,支持新教徒宗教自由权利的人,托利党人是指那些支持世袭王权的人。

28. During the late 19th and early 19th centuries the open-field system ended when the Enclosure acts enabled weal their landowner to seize any land to which tenants could prove no legal title.

18世纪末,19世纪初,《圈地法》地颁布使较富有的土地主摄取佃农不能证明合法的土地,因此“开放田地”结束。来源:考试大-专四专八

29.The industrial revolution refers to the mechanization of industry and the consequent change in social and economic organization in Britain in the late 18th and early 19th centuries.

工业革命指12世纪末,18世纪初英国工业的机械化,以及因此而导致的社会结构和经济结构的变化。

30.The limited monarchy which resulted from the powerful economic interests in the community could exert their influence on Government policy.

君主权利的限制,使得强大的经济利益集团能对议会政策施加影响。

31.The first steam engine was devised by Thomas newcomer at the end of 17th century, and the Scottish inventor james watt modified and improved the design in 1765.

十七世纪末,托马斯。纽卡墨设计了第一台蒸气机,苏格兰发明家詹姆斯。华特修改并改良了设计方案(1765)。

32.As a result of the industrial revolution, Britain was by 120 the “workshop of the world”.

作为工业革命的结果,英国到120年止成为“世界工场”。

33.In the 12th and 19th centuries, the lords had far more influence than it has today and the commons were also really gentry on the edge of aristocracy.

12世纪和19世纪,上议院比今日的影响大的多,并且下议院处于贵族的边缘上,也相当“贵气”。

34.The chartist movement was, however, the first nationwide working class movement and drew attention to serious problems.

宪章运动是第一次全国范围的工人运动,引起了对许多严重问题的关注。

35.In 1900, representatives of the trade unions, the ILP, and a number of socialist societies

set up the labour representation for the general which changed its name to the labour party in time for the general election for 1906.

1900年,工会代表,独立工党和许多小型社会主义社团一起成立叻工人代表委员会。1906年的大选迫使工人代表委员会及时更名为工党。

36.English colonial expansion began with the colonization of Newfoundland in 152. By 1900 Britain had built up a big empire, “on which the sun never set”.

英国殖民扩张始于152年纽芬兰的殖民化,到1900年,英国已经建立了“太阳永不落”的大英帝国。

37.During world war Ⅰ,Britain lost over a million people, most of them under age of 25.

一战中英国死亡100多万人口,大多数为25岁以下的年轻人。

38.Chamberlain was not the man to lead his country in such a crisis, Winston Churchill , his first lord of admiralty took over as Prime Minster in 1940.

张伯伦在危急关头不能领导国家,因此他的首相温斯顿。邱吉尔于1940年接替首相职位。

39.In January, 197, Britain finally became a member of the Europe Economic Community, which was established by the Treaty of Rome in 1957.

197年1月,英国只能终于成为欧洲经济共同体的正式成员国,共同体是根据1957年的《罗马条例》成立的。

40.The election of 1979 returned the conservative party to power and Margaret Chatcher became the first woman prime minister in Britain.

1979年的选举令保守党再次上台,玛格丽特,撒切尔成为英国首位女首相。

1. William replaced the witan , the council of the Anglo-Saxon kings, with the Grand Council of his new tenants-in-chief.

威廉用由他的土地承租人组成的大议会取代了安各鲁撒克逊国王的顾问团-贤人会议。

2. The Doomsday Book, completed in 1086, was the result of general survey of England made in 1085, and stated the extent , value, the population, state of cultivation and ownership.

《末日审判书》完成于1086年,它记录了1085年进行的英国总调查结果。此册陈述了土地的范围、价值、人口、耕种情况和所有权。

3. William’s policy towards the church was to keep it completely under his control, but at the same time to uphold its power.

威廉对教会的政策是完全控制的同时,赞成它拥有权利。

4. Henry Πwas the first king of the House of Plantagenet. He took measures to bring the disorders of king Stephen reign to an end.

亨利二世是金雀花王朝的首位国王。他采取措施结束了史蒂芬森国王统治时期的混乱局面。

5. Henry Πgreatly strengthened the King’s Court and extended with its judicial work. He insisted that all clerks charged with criminal offences should be tried in the King’s Courts instead of in the Bishop’s Court.

亨利二世大大加强了王室法庭的力量并扩展了司法工作。他坚持被控刑事犯罪的教士都应在国王法庭受审而不是在主教法庭受审。

6. It was these exceptional privileges enjoyed by the clergy that brought King Henry into collision with Tomas Becket, the Archbishop of Canterbury.

正是神职人员享有的特权导致了亨利国王和坎特伯雷大主教托马斯贝克特之间的冲突。

7. Geoffrey Chaucer’s best known work is the Canterbury Tales which describes a group of

pilgrims traveling to Canterbury to visitTomas Becket’s tomb.

杰佛利乔叟的名著《坎特伯雷故事集》描述了一群朝圣者到坎特伯雷参观托马斯贝克特坟墓的旅行。

8. The baron’s charter, or Magna Carta, as it came to be known was presented by a delegation of their class to the king and his advisers in the summer of 1215.

1215年夏天,贵族代表团把他们的宪章——后以大宪章闻名——递交给国王和他的顾问团们。

10. A committee of 24 barons plus the Mayor of London was chosen to help the king carry out the Charter, with the right of declaring war on him should he break its provisions.

由24名贵族和伦敦市市长组成的委员会帮助国王执行大宪章,若国王违反规定,他们有权对国王宣战。

11. Magna Carta was a statement of feudal and legal relationship between the crown and the barons, a guarantee of the freedom of the church and a limitation of the power of the king.

大宪章陈述的是国王与贵族间的封建和法律关系,保证了教会自由和限制了王权。

12. While the king Henry Ⅲand Prince Edward were keep in prison, Simon de Montfort summoned in 1265 the great council to meet at Westminster which developed later into the Lords and the Commons known as a parliament.

1265年当亨利三世国王和爱德华王子被关入监狱,西蒙德孟福尔在威斯敏斯特召集大议会,大议会发展到后来演变为议会,分为上议院和下议院。

13. The statute of Wales in 1284 placed the country under English law and Edward Ⅰpresented his new-born-son to the Welsh people as the Prince of Wales, a title held by the heir to the throne ever since.

1284年的威尔士法,使威尔士处于英国法律之下,爱德华一世将他新出生的儿子赠与威尔士人民,封他为威尔士王子。此后,该称号一直由该王位的继承人沿用至今。

14. When Edward Ⅲclaimed the French Crown by the right of his mother Isabella, the French refused to recognize the claim because the Salic Law debarred females from the succession. In 1337 Edward declared a war that was to last a hundred years.

爱德华三世通过他母亲伊莎贝拉的关系宣布继承法国王位,但法国人民拒绝承认,因为萨利法典规定女子不得继承王位,于是在1337年,爱德华对法宣战,战争持续了一百年。

15. Black Death swept through England in the summer of 1348 without warning. It killed between one half and one third of the population of England.

1348年夏天,黑死病横扫全英国,没有任何征兆,它夺去了三分之一到一半的英国人口。

16. In 1351 the government issued a statute of Laborers which made it a crime for peasant to ask for more wage or for their employers to pay more than the rates laid down by the Justice of the Peace.

1351年政府颁布“劳工法令”。规定农民们涨工资的要求或者雇主支付比地方官制定的工资水平高的工资都是犯罪。

17. Although the Peasant Uprising of 1381, was brutally suppressed, it had far-reaching significance in English history. It dealt a telling blow to villeinage and a new class of yeomen farmers emerged, paving the way for the development of capitalism.

尽管1381年的农民起义被血腥镇压了,但在英国历史上留下了深远的影响。它沉重打击了封建农奴制度,产生了全新的自耕农阶级,为资本主义发展铺设了道路。

__1__Where is Edinburgh?

A In Wales

B In Scotland

C In Northern Ireland

D In Ireland

__2__ Which of the following is Not a U.S. news and cable network?

A ABC

B CNN

C CBS

D BBC

__3__The Capital of Australia is __.

A Sydney

B Melbourne

C Canberra

D Perth

__4__ Which degree is offered in community colleges in the United States?

A Master’s degree

B Doctor’s degree

C Bachelor’s degree

D Associate’s degree

__5__ George Bernard Shaw was a(n) __.

A playwright

B poet

C novelist

D essayist

__6__ John Galsworthy was most famous for__.

A Heart of Darkness

B Ulysses

C The Forsyste Saga

D A Passage to India

__7__ The novel The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn was written by__.

A Henry James

B O. Henry

C Harriet Beccher Stower

D Mark Twain

__8__The study of how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in condition is__.

A morphology

B general linguistics

C phonology

D semantics

__9__Which of the following is NOT a compound word?

A Landlady

B Greenhouse

C Uplift

D Unacceptable

__10__ The word holiday originally meant holy day; but now the word signifies any which we don’t have to work. This is an example of __.

A meaning shift

B widening of meaning

C narrowing of meaning

D loss of meaning

答案:1-5 BDCDA 6-10 CDCDB

1. 选B. Wales的首府威Cardiff, Scotland的首府为Edinburgh. Northern Ireland的首府Belfast, Ireland的首府为Dublin.

2. 选D。BBC=British Broadcasting Corporation英国广播公司, ABC=American Broadcasting Company, Inc美国广播公司; CNN= Cable News Network美国有线广播公司, CBS= Columbia Broadcasting System哥伦比亚广播公司

3. 选C。Sydney第一城市, 位于New South Wales州;Melbourne第二大城市位于Victoria 州,Canberra位于Sydney与Melbourne之间;Perth位于Australia州

4. 选D。Associate’s degree是准学士学位(喵猜这个相当我们说的大专吧)

5. 选A。George Bernard Shaw (英国,萧伯纳),爱尔兰籍,剧作家,批评家,社会评论家,主要作品有Man and Superman, Back to Methuselah, Saint Joan <圣女贞德>,Arms and the Man, Pygmalion <茶花女>,获得1925年诺贝尔文学奖。(喵,小云的上期文学七里香就是介绍了他噢)

6. 选C。John Galsworthy(英国),小说家,剧作家。主要作品有The Forsyte Saga<福塞特家史>,于1932年获得了诺贝尔文学奖;Heart of Darkness,作者Joseph Conrad,波兰籍英国小说家,另有Lord Jim <吉姆老爷>;Ulysses, 作者James Joyce, 爱尔兰作家Finnergans Wake 《为芬尼根守灵》;A Passage to India,作者E.M. Forster,英国小说家,另有Howards End霍华德别业。

7. 选D。Mark Twain= Samuel Langhorne Clemens,作品有The Adventures of Tom Sawyer; Henry James, 主要作品有Ambassadors, The Golden Bowl; O.Henry= William Sydney Porter, 主要作品有Cabbages and Kings, Four Million; Harriet Beecher Stower, 其反奴隶制小说Uncle Tom’s Cabin,促进了废奴运动发展。

8. 选C。Linguistics语言学, the study of human language,包括Theoretical linguistic, Applied linguistics, Sociolinguistics, Cognitive linguistics和Historical linguistics.这里主要考Theoretical linguistics.

9. 选D。是derivation.

10. 选B。从any day就可以知道widening of meaning.

1. A Tale of Two Cities was written by Charles Dickens.

2. Phonology: The study of speech sounds in language or a language with reference to their distribution and patterning and to tacit rules governing pronunciation. 音位学; 在语言或一门语言中,对有关其分类和模式以及为大家所默认的发音规则的研究音韵学, 音系学

3. Syntax: The study of the rules whereby words or other elements of sentence structure are combined to form grammatical sentences. 句法,研究词或其它句子成分如何联合起来形成合乎语法的句子规则的学科

4. Semantics: The study or science of meaning in language forms.语义学,以语言形式表示意思的研究或科学

5. acronym : 首字母组合词,首字母缩略词,比如,NATO, UNESCO, BASIC,它们可以连拼,

但VOA是Initialism。

6. Metonymy: A figure of speech in which one word or phrase is substituted for another with which it is closely associated, as in the use of Washington for the United States government or of the sword for military power. 换喻或转喻,一种,一个词或词组被另一个与之有紧密联系的词或词组替换的修辞方法,如用华盛顿代替美==或用剑代替军事力量,对面来了三个“红领巾”也是,以红领巾指代少先队员。

7. Simile: A figure of speech in which two essentially unlike things are compared, often in a phrase introduced by like or as, as in How like the winter hath my absence been or So are you to my thoughts as food to life (Shakespeare).明喻, 一种修辞手法,把两种基本不相像的东西进行比较,通常在由like或as引导的短语中,如“我的离开好象是冬天来临”或“你对我的思想就象食物对于生命一样重要”(莎士比亚)

8. Metaphor: A figure of speech in which a word or phrase that ordinarily designates one thing is used to designate another, thus making an implicit comparison, as in a sea of troubles or All the world’s a stage(Shakespeare) 隐喻一种语言表达手法,通常用指某物的词或词组来指代他物,从而暗示它们之间的相似之处,如“忧愁之海”或“整个世界一台戏”(莎士比亚) the ship of desert 沙漠之舟

9. Oxymoron: A rhetorical figure in which incongruous or contradictory terms are combined, as in a deafening silence and a mournful optimist. 矛盾修饰法, 一种把互相矛盾或不调和的词合在一起的修辞手法,如在震耳欲聋的沉默和悲伤的乐观cruel kindness

10. The affection name given to the clock tower of the Houses of Parliament, Westminster is Big Ben.

11. John Milton the poet wrote of Adam and Eve’s expulsion from the Garden of Eden in Paradise Lost. Paradise Regained was also written by him.

12. Sonnet: A 14-line verse form usually having one of several conventional rhyme schemes. 十四行诗体, 一种由十四行组成的诗歌形式,通常有一种传统的押韵形式, 莎士比亚用过此诗体。

13. Slang: A kind of language occurring chiefly in casual and playful speech, made up typically of short-lived coinages and figures of speech that are deliberately used in place of standard terms for added raciness, humor, irreverence, or other effect. 俚语主要出现在非正式的、游戏性的话语中的一种语言,基本由存在时间很短的派生词和修辞构成,它们被故意地用来取代标准的词语以达到生动、幽默、无礼或其它效果

14. Catch Phrase: A phrase in wide or popular use, especially one serving as a slogan for a group or movement. 警句,妙句,吸引人的词句广泛使用的或流行的用语,尤指用作集团或运动的口号的用语。

15. Jargon: The specialized or technical language of a trade, profession, or similar group. 行话, 一个行业、职业或类似的团体中使用的专业的或技术的语言.

16. Platitude: A trite or banal remark or statement, especially one expressed as if it were original or significant. 陈腔滥调, 陈腐的或平庸的评论或陈述,尤指某人表述它时好象它是新颖的或有意义的

17. Hyperbole: A figure of speech in which exaggeration is used for emphasis or effect, as in I could sleep for a year or This book weighs a ton. 夸张法,一种比喻,使用夸张来强调或产生某种效果,比如在我能睡一年或这书有一吨重

18. onomatopoeia: The formation or use of words such as buzz or murmur that imitate the sounds associated with the objects or actions they refer to. 象声词, 词的构成或用法,例如

buzz或nurmur模仿事物或行动的声音.

19. hypotaxis: 从属关系

20. parataxis: 并列结构,指短语或分句间不用连词,如:I came, I saw, I conquered.

21. Transcendentalism: A literary and philosophical movement, associated with Ralph Waldo Emerson and Margaret Fuller, asserting the existence of an ideal spiritual reality that transcends the empirical and scientific and is knowable through intuition. 超验主义, 一种文学和哲学运动,与拉尔夫?沃尔多?爱默生和玛格丽特?富勒有关,宣称存在一种理想的精神实体,超越于经验和科学之处,通过直觉得以把握

22. Nathaniel Hawthorne wrote the Scarlet Letter. 美国

23. Morphology: The study of the structure and form of words in language or a language, including inflection, derivation, and the formation of compounds.词法,词态学,形态音位学, 语言或某一语言中对于单词的结构和形式的研究,包括词尾变化、派生和合成词的构成考试大论坛

24. affricate: A complex speech sound consisting of a stop consonant辅音followed by a fricative摩擦; for example, the initial sounds of child and joy. 塞擦音由闭塞音伴随着摩擦音而形成的复杂的语音;例如child和joy的第一个音Also called: affricative.

25. Vanity Fair 名利场was written William Makepeace Thackray

26. Neil Armstrong was the first person to walk on the moon. Edwin Aldrin, Michael Collins

尼尔.阿姆斯特朗、埃德温.奥尔德林、迈克尔.柯林斯

27. The title of the national anthem 国歌of Canada is O Canada. 此种类型题同学们可自己多找几个国家。

28. Henry David Thoreau’s work, Walden, has always been regarded as a masterpiece of New England Transcendentalism.

29. etymology: the history of a word. 词源学

30. The dominant accent in the United States is General American. 除纽约市、南方、新英格兰

31. John Lennon is a member of the band of Beatles 披头士或甲壳虫乐队in the 1960s.

32. In Gulliver’s Travels格列佛游记, Jonathan Swift describes the island of the Houyhnhnms as the world’s most perfect society. 有理智和人性的马Houyhnhnms are horses in fact.

33. Ceoffrey Chaucer wrote Canterbury Tales in fourteenth century.

34. morpheme: A meaningful linguistic unit consisting of a word, such as man, or a word element, such as -ed in walked, that cannot be divided into smaller meaningful parts. 词素, 一种含有一个单词的有意义的语言单位,如-ed在单词walked中,不能被划分为更小的有意义单位

35. The name of the famous stadium露天体育场in the north of London is Wembley.

36. Wimbledon温布尔登[英国英格兰东南部城市](位于伦敦附近, 是著名的国际网球比赛地)

37. Toad in the hole is a Traditional English recipe食谱, originating from Yorkshire, a county in the north of England. 烤面拖牛肉,,面拖烤香肠

38. Boycott: To act together in abstaining from using, buying, or dealing with as an expression of protest or disfavor or as a means of coercion(强制). 联合抵制, 联合起来拒绝使用、购买或经销以示抗议、不满或作为强制的手段

39. Segregation: The policy and practice of imposing the social separation of races, as in

schools, housing, and industry, especially so as to practice discrimination against people of color in a predominantly white society. 种族隔离, 强制实行种族的社会分离政策及实践,如在学校、居住和工业中,尤指在白人居多的社会中实行有色人种歧视的政策

40. Apartheid: An official policy of racial segregation practiced in the Republic of South Africa, involving political, legal, and economic discrimination against nonwhites. 种族隔离制, 南非共和国实行的一种官方的种族隔离政策,包括在政治、法律和经济诸方面对非白色人种的歧视.来源:考试大

41. Integration: The bringing of people of different racial or ethnic groups into unrestricted and equal association, as in society or an organization; desegregation. 种族或宗教融合, 在社会或组织中,使不同的种族或宗教派别的人处于无限制的平等的关系中;取消种族隔离

42. The majority of French-speaking Canadians live in Quebec.

43. Sir Thomas More coined the word “Utopia”, it means nowhere land in Greek.

44. The Hemingway Code heroes are best remembered for their indestructible spirit.

45. Phoneme: any one of the set of smallest distinctive speech sounds in a language that distinguish one word from another 音位,音素, 语言中最小的语音单位,如英语里mat中的m和bat中的b

46. polysemy: 一词多义

47. patron saint:保护圣徒, 守护神

48. Parentese: 父母语来源:考试大

49. back formation: 逆构词脱落一词的词缀以构成新词typewriter →typewrite

50. allomorph: Any of the variant forms of a morpheme. For example, the phonetic s of cats, z of dogs, and z of horses and the en of oxen are allomorphs of the English plural morpheme. 语素变体, 语素的一种变体形式,如语音学的中之s在cats中,z在dogs中,和iz在horses 中,还有en在oxen中都是英语复数语素的语素变

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