现代英语专有名词非专有化的隐喻性刍议

2012年3月第14卷第2期宁夏党校学报

Journal of Ningxia Communist Party Institute Mar．2012Vol．14No．2

【探索与争鸣】

现代英语专有名词非专有化的隐喻性刍议

潘若波

(福建闽江学院外语系，福建福州350002)

摘要:探析实际语言运用中英语专有名词非专有化的联想语义所蕴含的文化寓意对充实现代英语词汇，正确理解和把握其在语言具体语境中的得体运用，增强英语语言的文化内涵具有重要意义。

关键词:非专有化;联想语义;修辞特征中图分类号:H313

文献标志码:A

文章编号:1008－2921(2012)02－0094－03

收稿日期:2012－01－25

作者简介:潘若波(1965－)，女，四川达州人，福建闽江学院外语系副教授，主要从事英语文体学与修辞学、英语应用语言学研究.

一、引言

现代英语词汇丰富浩瀚，尤其在全球一体化的今天，随着社会的不断发展，人们在语言表达上多彩多姿，带来了新观念，新词语，语言功用在不断地演变着。越来越多的专有名词经过长期广泛的使用，逐渐被当作普通名词，即专有名词非专有

化。这一现象既特殊又常见

。“语言活动不是凭空出现的，而总是为了要满足表达新的内容的迫

切需要”［1］

。专有名词非专有化现象大多是人们在使用语言交际中所存在的创意求新的心理而产生。英语中许多普通名词来源于专有名词，包含了不同的社会文化、历史背景和典故。在Willian R．ESPY 编纂的英语专有名词非专有化的专著中，收录了由专有名词转化而来的普通词语多达1500多个。由专有名词转化来的普通名词虽为数不多，其意义却不可估量，为英语词汇的表达力增添了光彩和表现力。

在传统语法中，名词分为专有名词和普通名词。非专有名词或普通名词是指用来描述特定的人、

地、物、思想及行为等的名词。例如:fruit (ap-ple ，banana ，orange ，etc．)［2］。专有名词是指具体的人名、地名、国名、月份、星期、节日、杂志名等。某一特定的人，地，物的名称专有名词最为突出的特点是:特指意味强烈，指代关系紧密，有着独一无二性。除了复合专有名词及个别习惯用例之外，既不能与定冠词连用，也不可与不定冠词连用，并

且也不可以复数形式出现。专有名词在特定的语

境中具有特定的语义，不会有数词、或其他词进行修饰。

专有名词非专有化是指专有名词在语言交际过程中脱离了原有的特定意义和常规用法，经过语言使用者的联想而变成了具有新的含义和联想意义的普通名词。专有名词有明确指称对象，他们在使用过程中获得了新的特定含义。这一特定含义经过语言使用者的使用，便完成了专有名词非专有化的过程。在语言交际过程中，人们希望用独特的表达方式，创造性且创新地运用语言，许多专有名词就是随着人们使用频率和对其熟悉程度的加大，演变为普通名词的。探析专有名词非专有化及其语义联想，有助于了解专有名词的本义和衍生含义，可以更好地掌握并运用这一词汇，尤其在得体性和准确性方面。

二、专有名词非专有化的词源演变

(一)用做普通名词的专有名词词源可以追溯到文学作品、历史事件、公众人物、科学家、风土人情、宗教神话、地名人名、商标名等等，数不胜数。透过以下的典型例子可见其现象。如:Cajun (卡津人)，原是祖先为法裔加拿大人的美国路易安娜州人，现在常用来指卡津音乐，即卡津人演奏的一种六角形手风琴的民间音乐。Uncle Tom ，美国女作家斯陀夫人1852年发表的小说《汤姆叔叔的小

4

9

屋》中的主人公，现在用来指逆来顺受的黑人，而Uncle Tomism则指(黑人的)逆来顺受主义。Mc-carthyism源出美国的参议员J．R．McCarthy(1909－1957)，指采用法西斯手段迫害美国民主和进步力量的反动主张，后也被称为麦卡锡主义。Tom Thumb大拇指汤姆，英国童话中的侏儒，现指矮小的人或(植物)。Radical Chic原为美国作家Tom Wolfe著作的书名，现用来指迎合时尚的左翼激进式装模作样或激进左派的生活方式。Platonic来源于古希腊的哲学家柏拉图，指理论性的唯心的或纯精神的。Platonic love则指精神恋爱。

(二)从专有名词转变成普通名词都要经历一个循序渐进的过程，这种转变通常有两种方式。一种是部分转为非专有名词，主要是比喻性的灵活运用。另一种是完全非专有化。比如，在莎士比亚悲剧《罗密欧与朱丽叶》的男主角Romeo因忠于爱情，终致以身殉情，后人就用Romeo来形容情意绵绵的少年。在罗马诗人维吉尔的《埃洛伊斯》中，希腊人久攻特洛伊城不下，便把藏有伏兵的大木马留在城外，佯作退兵。而特洛伊人欲将木马移到城中，特洛伊祭司拉孔反对说“I fear the Greeks，even when they offer gifts”。特洛伊人不听拉孔之言，最终特洛伊城被希腊人攻陷。后来Greek Gift被指为带有阴谋的礼物，或危险的礼物。20世纪20年代美国中量级拳击手用Kid Mc-Coy这个名字，在拳击场上大显身手。一次，一醉汉用粗话骂他，McCoy告诉他，他的名字是Mc-Coy。醉汉不信，继续挑衅，McCoy一拳击倒醉汉，并在醉汉的胸前留下印有McCoy的名片。醉汉酒醒后看到名片说“It is a real McCoy”。此后，Mc-Coy就被用来表示货真价实的东西，出色的人，真正的。Romeo，Greek Gift，McCoy的词义变化了，然而其大写标志仍然还保留着，这些词语部分转为非专有化名词。

在专有名词到普通名词的转变过程中，许多专有名词更进一步地转化成普通名词，有的甚至又再经历词汇学上的转化，通过派生或逆生形成了新的形容词、动词等。此时专有名词就失去了原有的概念指称意义而获得新的意义，外观标志大写失去了，完全非专有化了，即转变成了普通名词，意义也随之扩大。如:Martinet是路易14时期的法国军官，他在法军内实行了严格的治军条例，现在martinet一词已成为严峻的军纪官和历行严格风纪者的代名词。dahlia是指大丽菊。该词来自瑞典植物学家Dahlia，是用他的名字命名的。boycott源出19世纪的爱尔兰地产王Captain Boy-cott，他虐待佃农，因此佃农们联合起来拒绝为他工作，后来该词用来表示联合抵制。lesbian意为女同性恋者。Lesbos位于东爱琴海，是希腊的小岛。传说该岛上的女子多具同性恋倾向和行为。相传在爱尔兰Blarney城里有一种石头，亲吻此石者则变得口齿伶俐，blarney一词后用来指甜言蜜语，奉承话。bowdlerize意为删改，源出英国19世纪的一位编辑Bowdler，他出版了经过严重删减的《莎士比亚全集》。在19世纪奥地利小说家Sach-er Masoch在作品中，他对人物的变态心理作了深入细致的刻画，通过派生masochism一词，意为受虐狂，masochist意为受虐狂者。narcissism是指自我陶醉，自恋，出自于人名Narciisus，因他长得漂亮，就爱上了自己的影子。bant是指节食减肥，来自加拿大的一位医生Banting，他发明了节食减肥法，人们就把banting用来指此疗法，后来又把词ing去掉，逆生出bant作动词。以上种种皆源于专有名词，这些词的内涵意义与其产生的文化背景有着密切联系，在语言发展的过程中被赋予了比喻义。

三、专有名词非专有化的隐喻性

专有名词具有着独一无二的特点，它成为某种象征，唤起固有的联想。以此代换一个普通名词，并赋予这个普通名词同样的联想，从文体修辞角度被称为换称。一般而言，换称所用词语凝为固定用法即一个专有名词，联系不同背景的共同特征，用原有的联想，建立新的联想。并借助换称这种修辞格衍生出种种联想意义，语用意义，实现其普通化。传统语言学对专有名词非专有化的研究基于修辞学角度，侧重分析其文体效果。英语中修辞格换称来源于宗教典故、历史事件、文学作品，甚至是现实生活。恰当地使用换称，能达到强烈的修辞效果。例如:the Pentagon(五角大楼)是指U．S．Defence Department(美国国防部)，Down-ing Street(唐宁街10号)是指the residence and of-fice of the British Prime Minister(英国首相官邸)，Solomon(所罗门)是指awise man(聪明人)，Judas (犹大)是指a traitor(叛徒)。

由专有名词转化而来的普通名词，多数与英美社会背景、风土人情以及历史文化渊源有关，此类词语富于联想，具有鲜明的修辞特色。其一大修辞特色是:言简意赅，形象生动，引人注目，发人深省，大部分词语具有隐喻性。词汇本身是带有语体特征和感情色彩的，运用在语言交际环境中，

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具有真实的意义。达摩克利斯是叙拉古王狄奥尼西奥斯的廷臣，一日应国王邀请赴宴，但席间他猛然发现头顶上有用头发悬着的利剑，吓得他魂不附体。现今人们常用The Sword of Damocles(达摩克利斯利剑)来比喻岌岌可危的境地。又如:Un-employment，like the Sword of Damocles，was always accompanying the workers(失业犹如达摩克利斯之剑一样，随时威胁着工人们)。以下两例其语体特征具有强烈的贬义色彩，栩栩如生，给人印象深刻。例一，众所周知的Watergate(水门事件丑闻)是美国历史上最不光彩的政治丑闻之一，其对美国历史以及整个国际新闻界都有着长远的影响。水门事件之后，每当遭遇执政危机或丑闻时，便通常会被国际新闻界冠之以后缀“－gate”(门)的名称，如“Zippergate，Irangate”等等。例二，大文豪们笔下的人物Shylock，Harpagon，Grandet and Pliush-kin(夏洛克、阿巴公、葛朗台和泼留希金)通常被当作吝啬鬼，守财奴的典型。又如:“After mort-gage to buy this paradise villa，I have been trans-formed into Gelangtai like miser(自从按揭买了这栋天堂洋房后，我就变成了葛朗台般的守财奴)”。再看下面的例子，有一则报道，题为An Endless Odyssey，讲述斯大林的女儿在海外漂流多年后，返回故里苏联，但终不堪忍受冷遇，离开故里继续过着漂流生活。此处借用Odyssey(荷马史诗奥德赛)暗指她漫长的旅程没有尽头。Joan of Arc圣女贞德是15世纪法国女民族英雄，在An Afghan Joan of Arc的描写中，An Afghan被比喻为阿富汗女英雄。由此可看词汇的语义内涵，体现了其隐含意义，附加在概念意义之上，带有赞美之意。这种隐喻性能把一些看似遥远的事物与人们熟悉的事物联系起来，使平淡的事物富有感情色彩，有很强的语言感染力。专有名词非专有化的隐喻性，不仅仅是一种修辞手段，也是语体特征的表现。作为文化的载体，这些专有名词蕴含了丰厚的文化寓意。

四、结束语

现代英语词汇中专有名词非专有化是对语义的有意偏离，对英语词汇的构成产生巨大的影响，是一种颇为有趣的语言现象。这种语言现象涉及范围很广，演变的过程复杂且多彩。人们之所以能理解并接受，是在语言交际过程中对语境加以充分利用的结果。经过长期、广泛的使用，这些词汇所表达的信息就固定下来了。Otto Jespersen指出“从语言学角度而言，根本不可能在专有名词和普通名词之间划出一条截然有别的界限。两者之间的区别与其说是类属之别，不如说是程度不同”［3］。专有名词非专有化的语言运用是时代与社会的特色，有着时代的敏感性，是文化对语言影响的结果，内涵相当丰富，与文化、历史密不可分。对专有名词非专有化的渊源及寓意的解析，有助于语言学习者正确理解和把握其在语言具体语境中的如何得体运用，而且在丰富语言的表现力，充实英语的词汇和增强英语语言的文化内涵方面都有着很重要的作用。

参考文献:

［1］王佐良．英语文体学论文集［M］．上海:外语教学与研究出版社，1986．

［2］Randolph Quirk，A University Grammar of English，London，English Longman GroupLimitrd，1973．［3］Language:its nature，development and origirn，Lon-don:G Allen＆Unwin，1922．

The Terminology of the Modern English Non-proprietary

Metaphor Discussion

PAN Ruo-bo

(Foreign Languages Department of Minjiang College，Fujian350002，China)

Abstract:Discuss the non-proprietary of English proper noun and semantic association with the culture，points out that non-proprietary of English proper noun plays a positive role in the aspects of enriching the modern Eng-lish vocabulary，enhancing the cultural connotation and grasping the English language in the context．

Key words:non-proprietary;semantic association;rhetoric

责任编辑:文会

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【英语】英语名词性从句解题技巧讲解及练习题(含答案)

【英语】英语名词性从句解题技巧讲解及练习题(含答案) 一、初中英语名词性从句 1．_______ makes me feel worried is _______ singing stars are centered on by masses of teenagers today. A. What; what B. That; that C. What; that D. That; what 【答案】 C 【解析】【分析】句意：让我感到担忧的是，今天的歌星是以青少年为中心的。分析句子可知，主语从句中的谓语动词makes 缺少主语，主语从句中缺少宾语一般用what，因此选择 what 来引导主语从句；系动词 is 后面的表语从句句意完整，不缺少成分，因此选择 that 引导表语从句。分析选项可知C项符合题意，故选C。 【点评】考查名词性从句，本题涉及what引导的主语从句和that引导的表语从句的应用。 2．________ is known to us all that the old scientist, for ________ life was hard in the past, still works hard in his eighties. A. As; whose B. It; whose C. As; whom D. It; whom 【答案】 D 【解析】【分析】句意：我们都知道，那位老科学家，过去生活很艰苦，到了八十多岁还在努力工作。第一空it is known to us all that…是个固定句型，意为“众所周知…”；第二空为介词+关系代词引导的定语从句，先行词the old scientist指人，作介词for的宾语，只能用whom，故选D。 【点评】考查名词性从句和定语从句，本题涉及固定句式it is known to us all that…和whom引导的限制性定语从句。 3．Some people believe _______ has happened before or is happening now will repeat itself in the future. A. whatever B. whenever C. wherever D. no matter what 【答案】 A 【解析】【分析】句意：一些人认为之前发生的或现在正在发生的任何事情在将来都会重复发生。Whatever has happened before or is happening now是一个主语从句，whatever既引导起这个主语从句，也在句中做主语。BC项都属于副词的性质，都不能做主语，通常只能做状语；no matter what只能用来引导状语从句，故选A。 【点评】考查名词性从句，本题涉及"特殊疑问词+ever"引导的主语从句。 4． is even more important is the earth cooled down, water began to appear on its surface.

初中英语定语从句的用法解析

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名词性从句 01. ____ I want to know is ____ it is worth doing. A. What; that B. What; whether C. That; why D. That; what 02. ____ visits the Great Wall will be struck by it. A. Anyone B. Each C. Whoever D. Everybody 03.____ the workers insisted on was that they ____ more pay. A. That; must be given B. What; should give C. Whether; would be given D. What; be given 04. She asked ____. A. what I was doing when she rang me up B. What was I doing when she rang me up C. When she rang me up what was I doing D. When did she ring me up what I was doing 05. Writing stories and articles ____ I enjoy most. A. is that B. are that C. is what D. have been what 06. He asked the tailor ____. A. how long would the coat be ready B. how soon would the coat be ready C. how long the coat would be ready D. how soon the coat would be ready 07. The policeman came up to see ____. A. what the matter is B. what the matter was C. what was the matter D. what is the matter 08. ____ he told us is a ____. A. That; lay B. Which; true C. What; lie D. Whose; truth 09. It was not until the headmaster came ____. A. and so the students got down to work B. did the students get down to work C. that the students got down to work D. then the students got down to work 10. I wonder ____ this kind of metal can be used in the construction industry. A. how B. what C. about D. which 11. --- ____ you did? --- No, as a matter of fact I didn’t need to. A. Is that what B. Is what that C. What is that D. Is that which 12. She is pleased with ____ you have given her and all ____ you have told. A. that; that B. what; which C. what; that D. all; what 13. They expressed the hope ____ they would come over to visit China again. A. which B. that C. whether D. for which 14. ____ I wanted to say. A. Such was what B. What was such C. Such was that D. That was such 15. They have no idea at all ____.

英语名词性从句专项训练及答案及解析

英语名词性从句专项训练及答案及解析 一、初中英语名词性从句 1．______ has caused great confusion is ______ he made it without anyone else's help. A. What; that. B. What; how. C. It; how. D. It; that. 【答案】 B 【解析】【分析】句意：让人极大困惑的是他如何在没有别人帮助的情况下做到这一点的。表示“让人困惑的事情”用what引导主语从句，表示“如何做到的”用how表方式，引导表语从句。故选B. 【点评】考查名词性从句，本题涉及what引导的主语从句和how引导的表语从句。 2．While some behaviors may seem strange to you, remember you consider normal probably seems just as unusual to others. A. it; that B. what; that C. that; what D. which; that 【答案】 C 【解析】【分析】句意：虽然有些行为对你来说可能很奇怪，但请记住，你认为正常的行为对别人来说可能也不寻常。第一空为宾语从句，从句结构完整用that起连接作用，第二空为主语从句，从句中consider缺少宾语，应该用what，故选C。 【点评】考查名词性从句，本题涉及that引导的宾语从句和what引导的主语从句。 3． is clear to the members of the committee is that the President will not give in to their demands. A. Who B. It C. As D. What 【答案】 D 【解析】【分析】句意：委员会成员清楚的是，总统不会向他们的要求让步。that the President will not give in to their demands.这个句子作表语； is clear to the members of the committee这是主语从句，这里缺少主语从句的连接词，并且连接词在句中作主语，it是代词，不是了；连接词，故排除B；as作主语时，是在定语从句中，故排除C；who指人，根据表语指的事情，不是人，故排除A；what在主语从句中可以作主语或宾语，指事，符合句意，故选D。 【点评】考查名词性从句，本题涉及what引导的主语从句。 4．________ is known to us all that the old scientist, for ________ life was hard in the past, still works hard in his eighties. A. As; whose B. It; whose C. As; whom D. It; whom 【答案】 D 【解析】【分析】句意：我们都知道，那位老科学家，过去生活很艰苦，到了八十多岁还在努力工作。第一空it is known to us all that…是个固定句型，意为“众所周知…”；第二空为介词+关系代词引导的定语从句，先行词the old scientist指人，作介词for的宾语，只能用whom，故选D。

初中英语定语从句总结(精辟)

1.定语从句: 1) 定语从句的定义 在复合句中，修饰名词或代词的从句叫做定语从句。被定语从句所修饰的词叫先行词。引导定语从句的词叫关系词。关系词包括关系代 词who(宾格whom,所有格whose),that, which 和关系副词where, when, why 等。 The boy who is wearing a black coat bought a dictionary yesterday. The noodles that（which）my mother cooked were delicious. The school where I learned judo was very large. I remember the day when our band was formed. I don’t know the reason why she got so angry this morning. 2) 定语从句的种类：定语从句可以分为限定性定语从句和非限定性定语从句。 (1)限定性定语从句：它是先行词在意义上不可缺少的定语，如果去掉，主句的意思就不完整或失去意义。这种从句与主句的关系十分密切，书写时不可用逗号分开。如果关系代词在限定性定语从句中作宾语，关系代词通常可以省略。 Do you know the girl who just came in? Shanghai is a city（that）I’ve always wanted to visit. Her sister married a man (who/whom/that) she met on a plane. The time when I first met Mr. White was a very difficult period of my life. (2)非限定性定语从句：它只是对先行词作附加补充说明，如果去掉，主句的意思仍然清楚完整。这种从句与主句的关系不是很密切，书写 时往往用逗号分开。非限定性定语从句一般不用that 引导，而且不可以省略关系词。 The old woman, who lives on her own, has a cat for company. Lori is going to marry Mark, whom she does not love. Beijing, which is the capital city of China, is a very beautiful city. 3) 关系代词的用法：在定语从句中，关系代词起着连接主句与从句，指代先行词和在从句中作句子成分的三重作用。关系代词的选用取 决于主句中的先行词以及关系代词在从句中作何种成分。 一．关系代词who, whom 的用法 （1）who 可以代替人（即它的先行词必须是人），在从句中担任主语，往往也可以代替在从句中担任宾格的whom,但它的前面不能有介词，如果带介词则必须用宾格whom，即“介词+whom”. E.g. Jonny is a person who always has novel ideas. The girl who the first prize in the contest is from Zhejiang. The person who/whom you just talked to is Mr. Depp. ---The person to whom you just talked is Mr. Depp. (介词to提到定语从句前，只能用whom.) We’ll go to the hospital to see the patients, most of whom are children. (whom 前常用表示数量的词none/neither/both/each/all of…) (2)在定语从句中，who, that 指人时可以通用，但在下列情况下用who,而不用that. A) 先行词是one, ones, anyone 时，宜用who. One who has nothing to fear for oneself dares to tell the truth. The ones who flatter me don’t please me. Anyone who laughs last laughs best. Anyone who fails to finish the task given should be criticized. B) 先行词为those 时，宜用who. Those who want to go to the Great Wall sign up here. No words are strong enough to express our thanks to those who worked hard to rescue survivors in the earthquake. C) 当先行词有较长的后置定语时，宜用who. I met a girl in the street yesterday who grew up in Yunnan province. D) 一个句子中带有两个定语从句时，其中一个定语从句的关系代词时that，另一个宜用who. E.g. The boy that you met last night is the group leader who studies very hard. E) 在there be 开头的句子中，事宜用who. There is a young man who wants to see your father. There was a king who was kind to his people. There are many old men who are against this plan. 二．关系代词whose 的用法：关系代词whose 是关系代词who 的所有格形式，它既可以代人，也可以代物。当whose 代物时，相当于of which. Whose 引导的定语从句既可以是限定性定语从句，也可以是非限定性定语从句。 Do you know Peter whose father happens to be working in your company? The tourist wanted to book a room whose window faces south.