语言学 刘润清

刘润清《新编语言学教程》主要内容

Chapter 1 Introduction

I. Definition of linguistics

The scientific or systemic study of language, which is always guided by the three canons of science: exhaustiveness, consistency and economy.

II. Linguistics vs. traditional grammar

Linguistics differs from traditional grammar at least in three basic ways.

1. Linguistics describes languages and does not lay down rules of correctness.

2. Linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.

3. Linguistics describes each language on its own merits.

III. Scope of linguistics

Microlinguistics: Phonetics; Phonology; Morphology; Syntax; Semantics; Pragmatics Macrolinguistics:Sociolinguitics; Psycholinguistics; Neurolinguistics; Stylistics; Discourse analysis; Computational linguistics; Cognitive linguistics; Applied linguistics

IV. Definition of language

Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.

V. Origin of language

Ding-Dong Theory: Human speech developed from primitive man giving vocal expression to the objects he encountered.

Sing-Song Theory: Language developed from primitive ritual songs of praise.

Pooh-Pooh Theory: Language came from interjections, which express the speaker’s emotions. Yo-He-Ho Theory: Language came from the cries uttered, during strain of work.

Ta-Ta Theory: Language came from the combination of certain gestures and tongue movements. Bow-Wow Theory:Language came from imitation of animal cries and other sounds heard in nature.

VI. Design features of language

1. Arbitrariness: This refers to the fact that there is no logical or intrinsic connection between a particular sound and the meaning it is associated with.

2. Duality: Language operates on two levels of structure. At one level are elements which have no meaning in themselves but which combine to form units at another level which do have meaning.

3. Productivity: Productivity or creativity refers to man’s linguistic ability which enables him to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences in our native language.

4. Interchangeability:Interchangeability or reciprocity refers to the fact that man can both produce and receive message, and his roles as a speaker and a hearer can be exchanged at ease.

5. Displacement: Displacement is a property of language enabling people to talk about things remote either in space or in time.

6. Specialization: Specialization refers to the fact that man does not have a total physical involvement in the act of communication.

7. Cultural transmission:Language is culturally transmitted. It cannot be transmitted through heredity.

VII. Functions of language

1. Phatic function / communion: Language is used to establish an atmosphere or maintain social

contact between the speaker and the hearer. Greetings, farewells and comments on the weather serve this function.

2. Directive function:Language is used to get the hearer to do something. Most imperative sentences are of this function.

3. Informative function: Language is used to tell something, to give information, or to reason things out. Declarative sentences serve this function.

4. Interrogative: Language is used to ask for information from others. All questions expecting replies serve this function.

5. Expressive function:Language is used to reveal the speaker’s attitudes and feelings. Ejaculations serve this function.

6. Evocative function:Language is used to create certain feelings in the hearers. Jokes, advertising, and propaganda serve this function.

7. Performative function:Language is used to do things or to perform acts. The judge’s imprisonment sentences, the president’s declaration of war or the Queen’s naming of a ship, etc., serve this function.

VIII. Some major concepts in linguistics

1. Descriptive and prescriptive grammar

(1) Descriptive grammars attempt to tell what is in the language; while prescriptive grammars tell people what should be in the language.

(2) As traditional grammars tried to lay down rules, they are often called prescriptive. Most modern linguistics is descriptive.

2. Synchronic and diachronic linguistics

When we study language at one particular time, it is called synchronic linguistics. When we study language developments through time, it is called diachronic or historical linguistics. Synchronic linguistics focuses on the state of language at any point in history while diachronic linguistics focuses on the differences in two or more than two states of language over decades or centuries.

3. Lange and parole

F. de Saussure made an important distinction between langue and parole: Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. Parole refer to particular realization s of langue. Langue is the social, conventional side of language, while parole is individualized speech.

4. Competence and performance

According to Chomsky, competence refers to the knowledge that native speakers have their language as a system of abstract formal relations, while performance refers to their actual linguistic behavior, that is, the actual use of this knowledge.

5. Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations

Saussure has put forward another pair of concepts: syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations. The former refers to the horizontal relationship between linguistic elements, which form linear sequences. The later means the vertical relationship between forms, which might occupy the same particular place in a structure.

6. Functionalism and formalism

Functionalism or functional linguistics refers to the study of the forms of language in reference to their social function in communication.

Formalism or formal linguistics is the study of the abstract forms of language and their internal relations.

Chapter 2 Sounds in language

I. Phonetics

1. Phonetics:The study of the speech sounds that occur in all human languages is called phonetics.

2. Three major research fields of Phonetics

Articulatory phonetics: It is the study of how speech sounds are produced, or articulated. Acoustic phonetics: It deals with the transmission of speech sounds through the air.

Auditory phonetics: It deals with how speech sounds are perceived by the listener.

II. Articulators

1. Seven major articulators:pharynx, velum or soft palate, hard palate, alveolar ridge or alveolum, tongue, teeth and lips

2. Voiced and voiceless sounds

When the vocal cords are spread apart, the airstream from the lung is not obstructed at the space between vocal cords and passes freely. The sounds produced in this way are described as voiceless sounds.

When the vocal cords are drawn together, the airstream forces its way through and causes them to vibrate. Sounds produced in this way are described as voiced sounds.

3. Nasal and oral sounds

When the velum is lowered, air escapes through the nose as well as the mouth; sounds produced this way are called nasal sounds.

When the velum is raised all the way to touch the back of the throat, the passage through the nose is cut off, the air can escape only through the mouth. Sounds produced this way are called oral sounds.

III. Classification of English speech sounds

1. Consonants

(1) Consonants: consonants are sounds produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some places to divert, impede or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.

(2) Manner of articulation and place of articulation

Manner of articulation refers to the type of stricture involved in the production of a consonant (the particular way the airstream is obstructed).

Place of articulation refers to the involvement of the articulators in the production of a particular consonant (where the airstream is most obstructed).

(3) Classification of consonants

In terms of manners of articulation, consonants can be grouped into stops, fricatives, affricated, liquids, nasals and glides.

In terms of place of articulation, the consonants can be grouped into bilabials, labiodentals, dentals, alveolars, palatals, velars and glottal.

2. Vowel

(1) Vowels: vowels are sounds produced without obstruction, so no turbulence or a total stopping of the air can be perceived.

(2) The height of the tongue: front vowel; central vowels; back vowels

(3) The shape of the lips: rounded vowels; unrounded vowels

(4) The width of the mouth: open vowels; close vowels; semi-open vowels

(5) Monophthongs and diphthongs

Monophthongs: They are those pure vowels that have an unchanging quality, either from the number or the con stant quality.

Diphthongs: A sequence of two sounds produced from one vowel position to anther.

IV. Variations of sounds

1. Liaison: The phenomenon of the linking of two words in speech, in particular when the second word begins with a vowel, is called liaison.

2. Elision: The loss of a sound or sounds in speech is called elision.

3. Assimilation: The way that sounds belonging to one word or one syllable can cause change in sounds belonging to neighboring words or syllables is called assimilation.

V. Phonology

1. Phonology:phonology is the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language.

2. Phoneme:phoneme is a basic unit of phonological study, and it is an abstract collection of phonetic features which can distinguish meaning.

3. Minimal pairs and sets

Minimal pairs are pairs of words which differ from each other only by one sound.

When a group of words can be differentiated each one from the others, by changing one phoneme (always in the same position), then we have a minimal set.

4. Free variation: When two or more sounds occur in the same position without any apparent change of meaning, they are said to be in free variation.

5. Distinctive features: When a feature distinguishes one phoneme from another it is a distinctive feature (or a phonemic feature).

VI. Syllables and consonant cluster

1. Syllables: The English word beautiful consists of three speech units: beau-ti-ful. These units, which are often longer than one sound and smaller than a whole word, are called syllables. Syllable structure:

syllable

onset rime (rhyme)

nucleus (peak) coda

consonant(s) vowel consonant(s)

2. Consonant cluster: In English some words may contain a sequence of two or more consonants in one syllable, for example, /spl/ in /′splendid/. Sequences of consonants like this are called consonant clusters.

VII. Suprasegementals

1. Suprasegmental features: The sound contrasts that extend over several segments (phonemes), are called suprasegmentals.

2. Stress: When a word has more than one syllable, one of them will be pronounced with more prominence than others. This brings us to the speech sounds phenomenon, that of stress.

3. Intonation: Speech sounds which are identical as to their place or manner features may differ in length, pitch or loudness. When speaking, people generally raise and lower the pitch of their voice. This phenomenon is called intonation.

Chapter 3 Morphology

I. Morphology: morphology, as a branch of linguistics, is the study of the internal structure, forms and classes of words.

II. Morpheme

Morpheme: morpheme is the smallest unit of language, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.

2. Types of morphemes

(1) Free morpheme

Free morphemes are those which may occur alone or constitute words by themselves. All monomorphemes are free morphemes and polymorphemic words, which consist wholly of free morphemes, are compounds.

A word must contain an element that can stand by itself, that is, a free morpheme, such as talk. Such an element is called a root. A word may contain more than one root.

When they are used with bound morphemes, the basic word-form involved is technically as the stem.

Free morphemes can be divided into two categories. The first one is the set of message we convey. These free morphemes are called lexical morphemes and, since we can create new lexical morphemes for the language rather easily, they are called an open class of words.

The second category of free morphemes is called functional morphemes. As we almost never add new functional morphemes to the language, they are called a closed class of words.

(2) Bound morphemes

Some morphemes cannot normally stand alone, but function only as parts of words, e.g. –s, -er, -ed and –ing. Such morphemes are called bound morphemes.

Bound morphemes are actually affixes. All affixes in English are bound. Affixes can be joined to the beginning of the root or stem, in which case they are called prefixes. Prefixes can change the meaning or function of the word.

Affixes can also be joined to the end of the root or stem, in which case they are called suffixes. Suffixes can also change the meaning or function of the word.

Bound morphemes can be classified into two categories. One category is derivational morphemes, which are used to make new words in the language and are often used to make words of a different grammatical category from the stem.

The other category is inflectional morphemes, which are not used to produce new words, but rather to show aspects of the grammatical function of a word.

III. Morphs and allomorph

Morphs are the smallest meaningful phonetic segments of an utterance on the level of parole.

An allomorph is a set of morphs which represent the same morpheme. Allomorphs are phonological or orthographic variants of the same morpheme.

IV. Types of word formation

1. Compounding:By means of compounding, two free morphemes are combined to form a

compound. Compounds have strict patterns. The first element in the compound receives the main stress, but it is generally the second element that determines the compound’s new word class.

2. Derivation: Derivation is done by adding affixes to other words or morphemes. In contrast to compounding, a derivational word consists of at least a free morpheme and a bound morpheme.

3. Other ways of word formation

(1) Conversion: Many words have more than one part of speech. A noun can become a verb easily and a verb can be used as a noun. Such instances are called conversion. Conversion is also called zero derivation.

(2) Backformation: There are times when we remove a suffix to get a new word. For example, as we have editor, we get edit by dropping or. This process is called backformation.

(3) Clipping: The process by which parts of a word have been cut off is called clipping. Clipping occurs when a word of more than one syllable is reduced to a shorter form, often in casual speech.

(4) Blending: A single new word can also be formed by combing two separate forms. This process is usually called blending. Typically, blending is finished by taking only the beginning of one word and joining it to the end of another word.

(5) Acronym: Some new words are formed from the first letters of a series of words. They are pronounced as a single word.

(6) Initialism: Some new words are composed of the first letters of a series of words and pronounced by saying each letter in them. These kinds of words are called initialisms.

Chapter 4 Syntax

I. Syntax

1. Syntax: Syntax is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.

2. Word classes

The general word classes include: nouns; adjectives; verbs; adverbs; prepositions; pronouns and conjunctions.

II. Two approaches

1. The prescriptive approach: It is an approach taken by some grammarians, mainly in eighteenth century England, which views grammar as a set of rules for the “proper”use of a language, and it is still to be found today and may be best characterized as the prescriptive approach.

2. The descriptive approach:Throughout the 20th century, linguists collect samples of the language they are interested in and attempt to describe the regular structures of the language as it is used, not according to some view of how it should be used. This is called the descriptive approach and it is the basis of most modern attempts to characterize the structure of different languages.

III. Structural analysis

Its main objective is to study the distribution of linguistic forms in a language. The method involves the use of “test-frames” which can be sentences with empty slots in them. By developing a set of test-frames of this type and discovering what forms fit the slots in the test-frames, we can produce a description of some aspects of the sentence structures of a language.

1. The constituent structure grammar

A grammar which analyzes sentences using only the idea of constituency, which reveals a hierarchy of structural levels, is referred to as a constituent structure grammar.

2. Immediate constituent analysis (IC analysis)

(1) Definition: The immediate constituent analysis may be defined as the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents ——word groups (or phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached. However, for the sake of convenience, in practice we usually stop at the level of word. The immediate constituent analysis of a sentence may be carried out with brackets or with a tree diagram.

(2) Advantages: Through IC analysis, the internal structure of a sentence may be demonstrated clearly, and ambiguities, if any, will be revealed.

(3) Problems:①At the beginning, some advocators insisted on binary divisions. Any construction, at any level, will be cut into two parts. But this is not always possible.②Constructions with discontinuous constituents will pose technical problems for tree diagrams in IC analysis. The most serious problem is that there are structural ambiguities which cannot be revealed by IC analysis.

IV. The transformational grammar

1. Chomsky’s classical theory

In the earliest version of transformational grammar sometimes now called the “classical theory”—Chomsky put forward a model which consisted of three parts: a set of phrase structure rules, transformation rules and morphophonemic rules.

(1) The phrase structure rules were based on constituent structure analysis but formalized as a set of rules. Chomsky emphasized the generative aspect of such rules although any constituent structure grammar is generative by definition, that is, it can produce many sentences.

(2) Chomsky then introduced the idea of a set of transformation rules which could transform these simple “kernel” sentences S NP + VP into a number of related sentences.

(3) The morphophonemic rules would apply to the output of the transformational rules. Their function was to provide the correct morphological shape to the various parts of the structure and finally to give the appropriate phonological description.

2. The standard theory

(1) Deep structure and surface structure

The deep structure is the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a construction, i.e. the underlying level of structural relations between its different constituents.

The surface structure is the final stage in the syntactic derivation of a construction, which closely corresponds to the structural organization of a construction people actually produce and receive.

(2) The standard theory

Deep structure to Semantics

Transformational component

Surface structure to Phonology

V. Systemic-Functional grammar

1. General account

The characteristics of the theory are systemic and functional. It characterized Halliday’s theory as more attention is paid to paradigmatic relations than to syntagmatic relations. And this is the main concern of Chomsky. What is new in Halliday is that he has tried to relate the functions of language to its structures. He argues that there are three general functions of language: ideational, interpersonal and textual. And they are related to three grammatical systems: transitivity, mood and theme.

2. Three general functions of language

(1) The function that in which we conceptualize the world for our own benefit and that of others is called ideational function.

(2) Language serves to set up and maintain social and personal relations, including communication roles such as questioner and respondent, and to express the language user’s own attitudes and comments on the content of an utterance. This function of language is called interpersonal function.

(3) Language also makes links with itself and with features of the situation in which it is used. This is what enables the speaker or writer to construct a text, and enables the listener or reader to distinguish a text from a random set of sentences. This function of language is called textual function.

Chapter 5 Semantics

I. Semantics: Semantics is a branch of linguistics which is concerned with the study of meaning in all its formal aspects.

II. Some approaches to the study of meaning

1. Meaning as naming

(1) Referential theory or naming theory

The meaning of an expression is what it refers to, or names, is often called referential theory or naming theory.

(2) Problems

One of them is that it is not always immediately obvious what is being named.

2. Meaning as concept

Any particular sound image is psychologically associated with a particular concept. Semantic triangle

concept

………………………..

symbol referent

“Symbol” is the linguistic element, i.e. word, sentence, etc. and the “referent” is the object in the world of experience, while “concept” is human thought.

3. Meaning as behavior

Bloomfield argued that meaning exists in the relation between speech and the practical events that precede and follow it. The meaning of a linguistic form is thus defined as observable behaviors. Such an approach to meaning is called behaviorism, or behaviorist theory, which clearly draws on psychology.

4. Meaning as context

The view that meaning is found in the context within which a particular expression is uttered suggests that we can derive meaning from, or reduce it to, the observable context. Such an approach to meaning clearly draws on sociology.

5. Meaning as truth conditions

Knowing the meaning of a sentence is the same as knowing the conditions under which the sentence is true or false. And knowing the meaning of a word or expression is knowing the part that it plays in the truth or falsehood of the sentence containing it. Such an approach to meaning is called truth-conditional theory / semantics, which clearly draws on formal logic.

III. Word meaning

1. Sense and reference

(1) Sense is to be defined in terms of relationships which hold between the linguistic elements themselves (mostly words), it is concerned with intralinguistic relations.

(2) Reference or extension deals with the relationship between linguistic elements (words, sentences, etc.) and the non-linguistic world of experience, e.g. things, actions, events and qualities.

2. Seven types of meaning

According to the British linguist G. Leech, meaning in its broadest sense can be classified into seven types: conceptual, connotative, social, affective, reflective, collocative and thematic meanings. Among them, connotative, social, affective, reflective and collocative meanings are called associative meaning.

(1) Conceptual meaning also called denotative or cognitive meaning, is the essential and inextricable part of what language is, and is widely regarded as the central factor in verbal communication. Conceptual meaning can be studied in terms of contrastive features or a binary feature formal.

(2) Connotative meaning is the communicative value that a word or a combination of words ahs by virtue of what it refers to, over and above its purely conceptual content.

(3) Social meaning is the meaning which an expression conveys about the contexts or social circumstances of its use.

(4) Affective meaning conveys the language user’s feelings, including his attitude or evaluation in shaping his use of language.

(5) Reflective meaning is the meaning which arises in cases of multiple conceptual meanings, when one sense of a word forms part of our response to anther sense.

(6) Collocative meaning: The associations a word gets because of the meanings of words which tend to occur in its linguistic context are called collocative meanings.

(7) Thematic meaning: It refers to the meaning arises out of the way in which the writer or speaker organizes his message.

3. Semantic fields

(1) Definition: It is the organization of related words and expression into a system which shows their relationship to one another.

(2) Lexical gap: The absence of a word in a particular place in a semantic field of a language is called lexical gap.

4. Componential analysis

All lexical items can be analyzed into a set of semantic features or semantic components which may be universal. This semantic theory is called Componential Analysis (CA).

5. Major sense relations

(1) Homonymy: In any language there are words which have the same linguistic form but are different in meaning.

(2) Polysemy: When a word has two or more meanings that are related conceptually or historically, it is said to be polysemous or polysemic. Words of this kind are called polysemic or polysemous words.

(3) Homophony:Words which sound alike but are written differently and often have different meanings are called homophones. Homophones are a type of homonymy, so they are sometimes called homonyms.

(4) Synonymy: There are not only words that sound the same but have different meanings; there are also words that sound different but have the same meaning. Such words are called synonyms, and the sense relation of “sameness of meaning” is called synonymy.

(5) Antonymy:Words that are opposite in meaning are often called antonyms. The oppositeness of meaning is called antonymy.

(6) Hyponymy: It is the sense relation between terms in a hierarchy, where a more particular term (the hyponym) is included in the more general one (the superordinate): X is a Y.

(7) Metonymy: It is the sense relation between terms which is the part of the other word and also called part / whole relationship. Metonymy can be expressed by the pattern “X is a part of Y.”IV. Sentence meaning

1. Sentence and proposition

The semantic content shared by different expressions is a proposition. Generally speaking, one can find out whether the proposition is true or false.

As for the relationship between sentences and proposition, different sentences convey the same message——they express the same proposition.

2. Semantic roles

(1) Definition: It is the way in which the referent of a noun phrase is involved in the situation described or represented by the clause.

(2) Classification:

Agent & patient

Experiencer

Instrument

Cause

Recipient

Benefactive

Locative

Temporal

3. Semantic relationships between sentences

(1) Entailment: Entailment is a type of meaning-dependence between one sentence and another. In terms of truth value, the following relationships exist between the two sentences if a entails b: When a is true, b is necessarily true; when b is false, a is false; when b is true, a may be true or false.

(2) presupposition

In terms of truth value, the following relationships exist between two sentences: When a is true, b is necessarily true; when a is false, b is till true; when b is true, a can either be true or false; when b is false, no truth value can be said about a.

(3) Synonymy

Two sentences may have the same meaning, that is, in terms of truth value, a has the same truth vale as b: If a is true, b is true; also if a is false, b is false; and vice versa.

(4) Inconsistency or contradiction

A is inconsistent with b: if a is true, b is false; also, if b is true, a is false.

(5) Implicature

Implicature is also a type of semantic relation between two sentences. If we can draw conclusion b from sentence a, here b is the implicature of a.

Chapter 6 Pragmatics

I. Pragmatics

1. Definition: Pragmatics is the study of speakers’intended meaning, or even the “invisible”meaning, that is, how hearers recognize what is meant even when it isn’t actually said or written.

2. Difference between pragmatics analysis and grammatical analysis

First, grammatical studies look for rules while pragmatic studies look for principles.

Second, in grammar studies, we end up with products while in pragmatics we always deal with progress.

3. Definition of micropragmatics and macropragmatics

(1)To study the meaning of the pieces of language in smaller contexts is called micropragmatics. Phenomena such as reference, deixis, anaphora and presupposition, are the topics in this field.

(2) To study on the larger chunks of language, and look deep into the mechanisms. This approach of study is called macropragmatics.

II. Micropragmatics

1. Reference

An inference is any additional information used by the hearer to connect what is said to what must be meant.

In pragmatics, the act by which a speaker or writer uses language to enable a hearer or reader to identify something is called reference.

2. Deixis

(1) Definition: In all languages there are many words and expressions whose reference depends entirely on the situational context of the utterance and can only be understood in light of these circumstances. This aspect of pragmatics is called deixis, which means “pointing” via language. (2) Types

Person deixis

Time deixis

Space / spatial / place deixis

Discourse deixis

Social deixis

3. Anaphora

The process where a word or phrase refers back to another word or phrase which was used earlier in a text or conversation is called anaphora.

4. Presupposition

(1) Definition: Implicit assumptions about the world required to make an utterance meaningful or appropriate.

(2) Presupposition triggers: In any language, there are some expressions or constructions which can act as the sources of presuppositions. This kind of expressions or constructions is called presupposition triggers.

III. Macropragmatics

1. Speech act theory

① Locutionary act: the act of saying, the literal meaning of the utterance

②Illocutionary act: the extra meaning of the utterance produced on the basis of its literal meaning

③Perlocutionary act:the effect of the utterance on the hearer, depending on specific circumstances.

(2) Classification of illocutionary act

①Representatives:those kinds of speech acts state that the speaker is committed in various ways to the truth of a statement.

②Directives: those kinds of speech acts that the speaker uses to get the hearer to do something.

③Commissives:those kinds of speech acts that the speaker uses to commit himself to some future action.

④Expressives: those utterances stating that the speaker expresses an attitude about the situation.

⑤Declarations: those utterances that the speaker uses to change a situation.

(3) Indirect speech acts

It is an utterance whose literal meaning (locution) and intended meaning (illocution) are different.

2. The cooperative principle (CP)

(1) Cooperative principle and its maxims

Make your conversational contribution as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the exchange in which you are engaged.

①The maxim of quality

Try to make your contribution one that is true, i.e.

a.Do not say what you believe to be false;

b.Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.

②The maxim of quantity

a.Make your contribution as informative as is require (for the current purpose of the exchange);

b.Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.

③The maxim of relation

Be relevant

④The maxim of manner

Be perspicuous, i.e.

a.Avoid obscurity of expression;

b.Avoid ambiguity;

c.Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity);

d.Be orderly.

(2) Violation of the maxims and conversational implicature

According to Grice, conversational implicature can arise from either strictly and directly observing or deliberately and openly flouting the maxims, that is, speakers can produce implicatures in two ways: observance and non-observance of the maxims.

3. Politeness principle (PP)

Following Grice’s presentation of the CP, Leech puts forward six maxims of the Politeness Principle which runs as follows:

Minimize (other things being equal) the expression of impolite beliefs and maximize (other things being equal) the expression of polite beliefs.

(1) Tact maxim: Minimize cost to hearer; maximize benefit to hearer.

(2) Generosity maxim: Minimize benefit to speaker; maximize cost to speaker.

(3) Approbation maxim: Minimize dispraise of hearer; maximize praise of hearer.

(4) Modesty maxim: Minimize disagreement between speaker and hearer; maximize agreement between speaker and hearer.

(5) Agreement maxim: Minimize disagreement between speaker and hearer; maximize agreement between speaker and hearer.

(6) Sympathy maxim: Minimize antipathy between speaker and hearer; maximize sympathy between speaker and hearer.

刘润清《新编语言学教程》章节题库-第四章至第七章【圣才出品】

第4章句法 I.Fill in the blanks. 1.IC is the short form of immediate_____used in the study of syntax.（北二外2003研） 【答案】constituent 【解析】直接成分分析法是一种句法分析方法。它指先把句子分析为直接成分——词组（或短语），再把这些直接成分依次切分，得到各自的直接成分，层层切分，直到最终 成分为止。 2.______refers to ties and connections which exist within texts.They are also called formal links between sentences and between clauses.（人大2007研） 【答案】Cohesion 【解析】衔接不是一个句法概念，它指文本中存在的一种意义上的联系或关系，也包括句子或分句之间存在的一种形式上的联系。 3.A______sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word，such as“and”,“but”,“or”. 【答案】coordinate 【解析】并列从句是指一个句子由两个分句组成，这两个分句通常是由如but,and,or这些并列连词来连接的。

4.A clause that takes a subject and a finite verb,and at the same time stands structurally alone is known as a______clause. 【答案】finite 【解析】限定性从句通常有一个主语和一个限定性动词，且在结构上是独立的。 5.Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditionally called_____rules,whose operation may change the syntactic representation of a sentence. 【答案】transformational 【解析】句法移位是一种转换规则，指一个句子的任意成分从原来的位置移到另一个新位置。 它可能会引起句子句法的变化。 6.The level of syntactic representation that exists before movement takes place is commonly termed______structure. 【答案】deep 【解析】深层结构是指一个结构体的句法属性的抽象表述，即不同成分之间的结构关系，深层结构一般指移位前的结构。 7.A______is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement,question or command. 【答案】sentence 【解析】句子在结构上是一个独立的单位，通常包括许多词用以构成一个完整的陈述，提问或者命令。

刘润清《新编语言学教程》笔记和课后习题(认知语言学)【圣才出品】

第10章认知语言学 10.1 复习笔记 本章要点: 1. Cognitive linguistics 认知语言学 2. Categorization and categories 范畴化与范畴 3. Conceptual metaphor and metonymy 概念隐喻与转喻 4. Iconicity and grammaticalization 象似性与语法化 常考考点： 认知语言学定义；范畴化与范畴定义分类等；概念隐喻与转喻的定义，层次分类；象似性的分类以及语法化等。 本章内容索引： I. Definition of cognitive linguistics II. Categorization and categories

1. Definition of categorization 2. The classical theory 3. The prototype theory 4. Levels of categorization III. Conceptual metaphor and metonymy 1. Conceptual metaphor 2. Conceptual metonymy IV. Iconicity 1. Iconicity of order 2. Iconicity of distance 3. Iconicity of complexity V. Grammaticalization I. Definition of cognitive linguistics (认知语言学定义) 【考点：名词解释】 Cognitive linguistics is an approach to the analysis of natural language that focuses on language as an instrument for organizing, processing, and conveying information. 认知语言学是一种研究自然语言的方法，集中研究语言组织，处理与传达信息的作用。 II. Categorization and categories (范畴化与范畴) 1. Definition of categorization and categories (定义)

新编语言学教程刘润清版1,2章复习大纲

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Definition : linguistics can be defined as the scientific or systematic study of language. It is always guided by the three cannons of science:exhaustiveness, consistency and economy. Linguistics Linguistics versus traditional grammar: Scope Microlinguistics Phonetics Phonology Morphology Syntax Semantics Pragmatics Macrolinguistics Sociolinguistics Psycholinguistics Neurolinguistics Stylistics Discourse analysis Computational linguistics Cognitive linguistics Definition: Ding-Dong Theory: human speech developed from primitive man giving vocal expression to the objects he encountered. Sing-Song Theory: language developed from primitive ritual songs of praise. Pooh-Pooh Theory: language came from interjections, which express he speaker ’s emotions. Origins Yo-He-Ho Theory: language came from the cries uttered, during strain of work. Ta-Ta Theory : language came from the combination of certain gestures and tongues movements. Bow-Wow Theory: language came from imitation of animal cries and other sounds heard in nature. Design features Linguistics describes languages and does not lay down rules of correctness while traditional grammar emphasizes correctness. Linguists regard the spoken language as primary, not the written while traditional grammar emphasizes the priority of written language. Traditional grammar is based on Latin and it tries to impose the Latin categories and structures on other languages. Linguistics describes each language on its language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Language is a system---elements in it are not arranged and combined randomly, but according to some rules and principles. Language is arbitrary --- there is no intrinsic connection between the word . pen) and the thing. what we write with).Language is vocal---the primary medium for all languages is sound. Language is used for human communication ---it is human-specific, very different form Arbitrarines s: this refers to the fact that there is no logical or intrinsic connection between a particular sound and the meaning it is associated with. For example, English should use the sounds/d?g/ to refer to the animal dog, but Chinese should use “gou ” to refer to te same animal. A dog may be called a pig if the first man happens to name it as a “pig ”. So, the relationship between the sounds and their meaning is quite accidental. Of course, onomatopoetic words such as “quack-quack ” and “bang ” are exceptions, but words these are relatively few compared withe the total number of words in language. Duality: language operates on two levels of structure. At one level are elements which have no meaning in themselves but which combine to form units at another level which do have meaning. Productivity : productivity or creativity refers to man ’s linguistic ability which enables him to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences in our native language, including the sentences which were never heard before. Interchangeability : interchangeability or reciprocity refers to the fact that man can both produce and receive messages, and his roles as a speaker and a hearer can be exchanged at ease. Displacement: displacement is a property of language enabling people to talk about things remote either in space or in time. Specialization : specialization refers to the fact that man does not have a total physical involvement in the act of communication. Cultural transmission : language is culturally transmitted. It cannot be transmitted through heredity. A human being brought up in isolations simply doesn ’t acquire language, as is demonstrated by the studies of children brought up by animals without human contact. Animals transmit their cries simply from parent to child, while human baby doesn ’t speak any language at birth. What language a baby is going to speak

刘润清《新编语言学教程》配套题库-考研真题精选【圣才出品】

第一部分考研真题精选 一、填空题 1.When air is forced out of the lungs,it causes the__________to vibrate.（中山大学2018研） 【答案】vocal folds 【解析】语音产生是以气流为能量来源的。在大多数情况下，气流源自肺部，气流从肺中压出，引起声带的振动。 2._____is the ability of language to refer to contexts removed from the speaker’s immediate situation.（北二外2016研） 【答案】Displacement 【解析】本题考查语言本质特征的移位性。移位性指的是就内容或者思想的表达来讲，人类语言的使用是不受时空限制的，可以用于涉及真实的或者想象的，过去的、现在的 或将来的事情。这不同于动物“语言”，因为大多数动物的“语言”需要“即时刺 激控制”。 3.One of the important distinctions in linguistics is_______and performance.（人大2006研） 【答案】competence 【解析】语言能力指理想的语言使用者关于语言规则的语言知识，语言应用指语言交际中关于语言规则知识的实际使用。

4.Phonetics is the study of______sounds that the human voice is capable of creating whereas phonology is the study of a subset of those sounds that constitute language and meaning.（北京邮电大学2015研） 【答案】speech 【解析】本题考查语音学和音系学的含义。语音学研究语音的发生、传递和感知。音系学研究的是语言的语音系统。换句话说，音系学研究的是说话人为表达意义而系统地选 择语音的方法。 5.A principal distinction between morphology and syntax is that the former is concerned with the internal composition of a word,whereas the latter is concerned with_____of words.（中山大学2017研） 【答案】combinations 【解析】Morphology is concerned with the internal organization of words.It studies the minimal units of meaning-morphemes and word-formation processes. Syntax is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language,or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structure. 6.Human language is arbitrary.This refers to the fact that there is no logical or intrinsic connection between a particular sound and the______it is associated with.（人大2007研）

《新编语言学教程》课后答案

Chapter 1 Introduction 1. De?ne the following terms brie?y. (1) linguistics: the scienti?c or systematic study of language. (2) language: a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. (3) arbitrariness: the absence of similarity between the form of a linguistic sign and what it relates to in reality, e.g. the word dog does not look like a dog. (4) duality: the way meaningless elements of language at one level (sounds and letters) combine to form meaningful units (words) at another level. (5) competence: knowledge of the grammar of a language as a formal abstraction and distinct from the behavior of actual language use, i.e. performance. (6) performance: Chomsky‘s te rm for actual language behavior as distinct from the knowledge that underlies it, or competence. (7) stylistics: the study of how literary effects can be related to linguistic features. (8) phatic communion: Language is used to establish an atmosphere or maintain social contact between the speaker and the hearer. (9) functionalism: the study of the forms of language in reference to their social function in communication. (10) formalism: the study of the abstract forms of language and their internal relations. (11) synchronic linguistics: the study of language and speech as they are used at a given moment and not in terms of how they have evolved over time. (12) diachronic linguistics: the study of linguistic change over time in contrast to looking at language as it is used at a given moment. 2. No, language is human-speci?c. Human language has seven design features, including arbitrariness, duality, productivity, interchangeability, displacement, specialization and cultural tra nsmission. These features are found utterly lacking in dogs‘ or pigs‘ noises and thus set human language apart from animal cry systems. 3. Arbitrariness refers to the fact that there is no logical or intrinsic connection bet ween a particular sound and the meaning it is associated with. For example, for the same animal dog, in English we call it /d0g/, in Chinese as ―gou‖, but ―yilu‖ in Japanese; it barks wow wow in English but wang wang in Chinese. Of course, onomatopoetic words such as ―quack-quack‖ and ―bang‖ are exceptions, but words like these are relatively few compared with the total number of words in a language.

语音学与语言学练习集【刘润清版】

语言学复习习题集 P a r t O n e Ex e r ci s es fo r P h o n et i c s I. Fill in the blanks 1．________ phonetics studies the movement of the vocal organs of producing the sounds of speech. 2: Speech takes place when the organs of speech move to produce patterns of sound. These movements have an effect on the _________ coming from the lungs. 3 . Consonant sounds can be either_________ or_________, while all vowel sounds are_________. 4. Consonant sounds can also be made when two organs of speech in the mouth are brought close together so that the air is pushed out between them, causing _________.. 5. The qualities of vowels depend upon the position of the _________ and the tips. 6. One element in the description of vowels is the part of the tongue which is at the highest point in the mouth. A second element is the_________ to which that part of the tongue is raised. 7. Consonants differ from vowels in that the latter are produced without_________. 8. In phonological analysis the words fail-veil are distinguishable simply because of the two phonemes/f/-/v/_________. 9. In English there are a number of _________, which are produced by moving from one vowel position to another through intervening positions. 10 _________refers to the phenomenon of sounds continually show the influence of their neighbours. 11. _________ is the smallest linguistic unit. 12. According to_________, when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda. II . Choose the best answer. 13. Pitch variation is known as _________ when its patterns are imposed on sentences. A. intonation B. tone C. pronunciation D. voice 14. Conventionally a_________ is put in slashes. A. allophone B. phone C. phoneme D. morpheme 15. An aspirated p, an unaspirated p and an unreleased p are _________ of the p phoneme. A. analogues B. tagmemes C. morphemes D. allophones

刘润清《新编语言学教程》笔记和课后习题(语篇分析)【圣才出品】

第7章语篇分析 7.1 复习笔记 本章要点： 1. Discourse and discourse analysis 语篇及语篇分析 2. Given and new information 已知信息与新信息 3. Cohesion and coherence 衔接与连贯 4. Conversational analysis 对话分析 常考考点： 语篇及语篇分析的定义；已知信息与新信息的异同；衔接手段包括指称、替代、省略、连接与词汇衔接；语篇标记的定义与特征；对话分析中的配组会话、偏好结构及前序列；批判性语篇分析。 本章内容索引： I. Definition of discourse and discourse analysis II. Information structure

1. Given and new information 2. T opic and comment 3. Contrast III. Cohesion and coherence 1. Cohesion. (1) Reference (2) Substitution (3) Ellipsis (4) Conjunction (5) Lexical cohesion 2. Coherence IV. Discourse markers 1. Definition 2. Functional-pragmatic nature 3. Features of discourse markers V. Conversational analysis 1. Adjacency pairs 2. Preference structure 3. Presequences VI. Critical discourse analysis I. Definition of discourse and discourse analysis (语篇及语篇分析的定义)

(完整word版)新编语言学教程刘润清版1,2章复习大纲

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Definition : linguistics can be defined as the scientific or systematic study of language. It is always guided by the three cannons of science:exhaustiveness, consistency and economy. Linguistics Linguistics versus traditional grammar: Scope Microlinguistics Phonetics Phonology Morphology Syntax Semantics Pragmatics Macrolinguistics Sociolinguistics Psycholinguistics Neurolinguistics Stylistics Discourse analysis Computational linguistics Cognitive linguistics Definition: Ding-Dong Theory: human speech developed from primitive man giving vocal expression to the objects he encountered. Sing-Song Theory: language developed from primitive ritual songs of praise. Pooh-Pooh Theory: language came from interjections, which express he speaker ’s emotions. Origins Yo-He-Ho Theory: language came from the cries uttered, during strain of work. Ta-Ta Theory : language came from the combination of certain gestures and tongues movements. Bow-Wow Theory: language came from imitation of animal cries and other sounds heard in nature. Design features Functions Linguistics describes languages and does not lay down rules of correctness while traditional grammar emphasizes correctness. Linguists regard the spoken language as primary, not the written while traditional grammar emphasizes the priority of written language. Traditional grammar is based on Latin and it tries to impose the Latin categories and structures on other languages. Linguistics describes each language on its own merits. language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Language is a system---elements in it are not arranged and combined randomly, but according to some rules and principles. Language is arbitrary --- there is no intrinsic connection between the word (e.g. pen) and the thing(e.g. what we write with).Language is vocal---the primary medium for all languages is sound. Language is used for human communication ---it is human-specific, very different form systems of animal communication. Arbitrarines s: this refers to the fact that there is no logical or intrinsic connection between a particular sound and the meaning it is associated with. For example, English should use the sounds/d ?g/ to refer to the animal dog, but Chinese should use “gou ” to refer to te same animal. A dog may be called a pig if the first man happens to name it as a “pig ”. So, the relationship between the sounds and their meaning is quite accidental. Of course, onomatopoetic words such as “quack-quack ” and “bang ” are exceptions, but words these are relatively few compared withe the total number of words in language. Duality: language operates on two levels of structure. At one level are elements which have no meaning in themselves but which combine to form units at another level which do have meaning. Productivity : productivity or creativity refers to man ’s linguistic ability which enables him to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences in our native language, including the sentences which were never heard before. Interchangeability : interchangeability or reciprocity refers to the fact that man can both produce and receive messages, and his roles as a speaker and a hearer can be exchanged at ease. Displacement: displacement is a property of language enabling people to talk about things remote either in space or in time. Specialization : specialization refers to the fact that man does not have a total physical involvement in the act of communication. Cultural transmission : language is culturally transmitted. It cannot be transmitted through heredity. A human being brought up in isolations simply doesn ’t acquire language, as is demonstrated by the studies of children brought up by animals without human contact. Animals transmit their cries simply from parent to child, while human baby doesn ’t speak any language at birth. What language a baby is going to speak is determined by the culture he is born into. A Chinese baby born and brought up in London by an English family will speak English, while an English kid brought up in a Chinese community will speak Chinese. Phatic function/communion Directive function Informative function Interrogative function Expressive function Evocative function Performative function

[全]刘润清《新编语言学教程》-考研真题详解[下载全]

刘润清《新编语言学教程》-考研真题详解 1. When air is forced out of the lungs, it causes the _____ _____ to vibrate.（中山大学2018研） 【答案】vocal folds查看答案 【解析】语音产生是以气流为能量来源的。在大多数情况下，气流源自肺部，气流从肺中压出，引起声带的振动。 2. _____ is the ability of language to refer to contexts removed from the speaker’s immediate situation.（北二外2016研） 【答案】Displacement查看答案 【解析】本题考查语言本质特征的移位性。移位性指的是就内容或者思想的表达来讲，人类语言的使用是不受时空限制的，可以用于涉及真实的或者想象的，过去的、现在的或将来的事情。这不同于动物“语言”，因为大多数动物的“语言”需要“即时刺激控制”。 3. One of the important distinctions in linguistics is _______ and performance.（人大2006研）

【答案】competence查看答案 【解析】语言能力指理想的语言使用者关于语言规则的语言知识，语言应用指语言交际中关于语言规则知识的实际使用。 4. Phonetics is the study of ______ sounds that the human voice is capable of creating whereas phonology is the study of a subset of those sounds that constitute language and meaning.（北京邮电大学2015研） 【答案】speech查看答案 【解析】本题考查语音学和音系学的含义。语音学研究语音的发生、传递和感知。音系学研究的是语言的语音系统。换句话说，音系学研究的是说话人为表达意义而系统地选择语音的方法。 5. A principal distinction between morphology and syntax is that the former is concerned with the internal composition of a word, whereas the latter is concerned with _____ of words.（中山大学2017研） 【答案】combinations查看答案 【解析】Morphology is concerned with the internal organization of words. It studies the minimal units of meaning-morphemes and word-formation processes. Syntax is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structure.