大学英语跨文化交际总结

Chapter 1 culture

The nature of culture:

1.culture is like an iceberg

2.culture is our software

3.culture is like the water a fish swims in

4.culture is the grammar of our behavior

Characteristics of culture:

1.culture is learned (through proverbs, folklore, art, mass media)

2.culture is dynamic 动态的

3.culture is pervasive 普遍的

4.culture is integrated 综合的

5.culture is adaptive

Cultural identity 文化认同

1.cultural identity defined

2.formation of cultural identity (unexamined, search, achievement)

3.characteristics of cultural identity

Cultures within culture

1.subculture 亚文化群

2.Co-culture 共文化

3.Sub-group 亚群体

Summary

Many of us take our culture for granted. The only time when we may ever think about it is when we leave our own country to travel abroad or when we encounter someone with a culture so different from ours that we have to examine our own beliefs. Much of what we think is the "right" or "correct" way to act or do something is actually part of the knowledge that we have learned from our culture. Culture is a large and inclusive concept. The first definition of culture, by the English anthropologist Edward B. Tylor, involves knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, customs and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. Although this definition has tried to cover more aspects that may direct human behavior, more inclusive definitions continue to come into being. However, in this book, culture is defined from the intercultural communication perspective: culture is the deposit of knowledge, experience, beliefs, values, actions, attitudes, hierarchies, religions, notions of time, roles, spatial relations, concepts of the universe, and artifacts acquired by a group of people in the course of generations through individual and group striving.

Compared with the different ideas on what culture is, scholars agree on the characteristics of culture. Generally speaking, culture is learned, dynamic, pervasive, integrated and adaptive.

Cultural identity refers to one's sense of belonging to a particular culture or ethnic group. People identify with being a member of a group. Being a member of a group helps to define who we are. We are all members of groups of different

sizes. One of the largest groups that a person can belong to is a culture. Everyone belongs to a culture.

Other groups that people may be a member of are subcultures (also called co-culture) and subgroups. Subcultures exist within dominant culture, and are often based on economic or social class, ethnicity, race, or geographic region.

Co-culture refers to groups or social communities exh如ting communication characteristics, perceptions, values, beliefs, and practices that are significantly different enough to distinguish them from the other groups, communities, and the dominant culture.

Subgroups usually do not involve the same large number of people and are not necessarily thought of as accumulating values and patterns of behavior over generations in the same way as cultures do. Subgroups can be as small as a few people or as large as a major religion. Subgroups provide their members with norms that tell people how to behave and think. Subgroups can be considered "deviant" forms of behavior. Subgroups can also be defined as "non-exclusive" and "temporary" forms of behavior.

Chapter 2 intercultural communication Communication

https://www.wendangku.net/doc/af1335434.html,munication defined

https://www.wendangku.net/doc/af1335434.html,ponents (组成) of communication

（sender/message/encoding/channel/receiver/decoding编码

/feedback/noise/context）

Characteristics of communication

https://www.wendangku.net/doc/af1335434.html,munication is dynamic

https://www.wendangku.net/doc/af1335434.html,munication is systematic

https://www.wendangku.net/doc/af1335434.html,munication is symbolic 象征的

https://www.wendangku.net/doc/af1335434.html,munication is irreversible 不可逆的

https://www.wendangku.net/doc/af1335434.html,munication is transactional 相互作用的

https://www.wendangku.net/doc/af1335434.html,munication is self-reflective 自我反思的

https://www.wendangku.net/doc/af1335434.html,munication is contextual 前后关系的

Culture and communication

Culture and communication, although two different concepts, are directly linked. They are so inextricably bound that some anthropologists believe the terms are virtually synonymous. Whenever people interact, they communicate. Culture is learned, acted out, transmitted, and preserved through communication. Although the concepts of communication and culture work together, we separate them here for purposes of our discussion, we begin by examining "communication" because to understand intercultural interaction, you must first recognize the role of communication in that process.

Cultures inherently contain communication systems. Communication and culture are inseparable. One implication of this insight is that cultures generate symbols, rituals, customs, and formats. To use a simple example, every culture has rules for achievement and attainment. In Western culture, the symbols include

degrees, promotions, certificates, material objects, technology, and other symbols of material wealth. However, nationals in rural Botswana take pride in the primary group and not just individual attainment. Cultural misunderstanding occurs when we fail to match the appropriate symbols and general communication system to the culture. Just witness the awkwardness of an expatriate who attends a gathering in a host culture, but fails to wear the appropriate clothes. One cannot escape this inseparability of culture and communication.

Each culture encourages a particular communication style expected within it. This implies not only using correct symbols, but also applying the appropriate communication style for the occasion. Communication styles include mannerisms, phrases, rituals, and communication customs appropriate for various situations in a culture. For instance, in Saudi Arabia the correct interpersonal communication style upon meeting one's host is often language loaded with compliments and thanks. Public criticism of fellow workers in this culture is rare, for such a message would appear disrespectful. Some West Africans exhibit a friendly and warm interpersonal communication style. Some Asians are described as conscious of propriety, ceremony, and rules of respect and honor. Some U.S. culture members appear informal and uninhibited Some Britons display a reserved manner, preferring understatement and control in interpersonal interaction. These examples remind us of the importance of understanding intercultural communication style.

Areas like loudness, pitch, rate, and certain stances and gestures characterize communication behaviors. A specific culture expects an "ideal" communication style. The contrasts are striking, such as when an American speaks in a "normal" conversational voice, a "quiet" Thai national may think the voice is too loud and interpret the American to be angry.

Intercultural communication

1.intercultural communication defined

2.forms of intercultural communication (international

communication/interracial communication跨人种/interethnic

communication跨种族/intracultural communication同一文化内)

Summary

Communication is an element of culture. It is believed that every cultural pattern and every single act of social behavior involves communication. When a baby is just born, he usually cries. His crying communicates something. When you graduate, your friends usually say "Congratulations!" to you. When a driver sees the red light, he/she will stop. All these are cases of communication. Communication is derived from the Latin word communicate, meaning to share with or to make common, as in giving to another part or share of your thoughts, hopes, and knowledge.

However, like culture, the term "communication" has been defined from different perspectives. In fact, the way that people view communication - what it

is, how to do it, and reasons for doing it - is part of their culture. Western culture emphasizes the instrumental function of communication and the prior consideration is to achieve the sender's personal goal, while in Eastern culture, in addition to sending and receiving messages simultaneously, communicators take their relationship into account.

The process of communication has nine components: sender/source, message, encoding, channel, receiver, decoding, feedback, noise and context. The sender encodes a message (information that the sender wants to share with other people) by putting it into symbols (usually words or nonverbal gestures) and then sending it through a channel. A channel can be printed media such as magazines and newspapers; electronic media such as television, radio, and the Internet; or sounds traveling through the air when two people speak face to face. Sometimes, it is difficult for the message to reach the receiver. The difficulty is due to "noise". When receivers get the message, they must "decode" or try to understand it. For example, if the sender encodes a message using English, the receiver must use their knowledge of English language to understand it. Often, the sender pays attention to the feedback of the receiver. The communication takes place within a setting or situation called context.

Any communication process demonstrates several characteristics, that is, dynamic, systematic, symbolic, irreversible, transactional, self-reflective and contextual.

When communicating with people from different cultures, it is important to

remember that culture and communication are strongly connected. Culture is a code we learn and share, and learning and sharing require communication. Intercultural communication refers to communication between people whose cultural perception and symbol system are distinct enough to alter the communication event. Intercultural communication as a term was first used in 1959 by Edward T. Hall—an American anthropologist. Intercultural communication includes international communication, interracial communication, interethnic commurucat10n and intracultural communication.

Chapter 4 barriers

Emotional problems as barriers

1.anxiety and uncertainty (definition/strategies to overcome)

2.assuming similarity instead of difference 假想相同点多于不同点Attitudinal problems as barriers

1.ethnocentrism 种族或民族中心主义（defined/various forms）

2.stereotyping（definition/categories）

3.prejudice

4.racism

5.reasons for the persistence of ethnocentrism, stereotyping, prejudice and

racism（socialization社交化/social benefits/economic benefits/psychological benefits）

Translation problems as language barriers

https://www.wendangku.net/doc/af1335434.html,ck of vocabulary equivalence

https://www.wendangku.net/doc/af1335434.html,ck of idiomatic equivalence

https://www.wendangku.net/doc/af1335434.html,ck of grammatical-syntactical equivalence

https://www.wendangku.net/doc/af1335434.html,ck of experiential equivalence 经验

https://www.wendangku.net/doc/af1335434.html,ck of conceptual equivalence 概念

Summary

There are several barriers to intercultural communication—anxiety and uncertainty, assuming similarity instead of difference, ethnocentrism, stereotyping, prejudice, racism and translation problems.

Anxiety and uncertainty, as well as assuming similarity instead of difference belong to the emotional problems.

Anxiety occurs because of not knowing what one is expected to do, and focusing on that feeling and not being totally present in the communication transaction. Anxiety may also affect your ability to communicate your ideas to others, for you pay too much attention to your uncomfortable feelings. Uncertainty refers to our cognitive inability to explain our own or other's feelings and behaviors in interactions because of an ambiguous situation that evokes anxiety.

Assuming similarity instead of difference is a natural thing to do if you do not have any information about a culture. It refers to the idea that people coming

from another culture are more similar to you than they actually are or that another person's situation is more similar to yours than it in fact is. Assuming that a culture is similar to your own can cause you to ignore important differences This assumption always leads to disrupted communication and even conflict. Ethnocentrism, stereotyping, prejudice and racism belong to the attitudinal problems Ethnocentrism is negatively judging another culture by your own culture's standards. To make ethnocentric judgments is to believe that the ways of your own culture are better than those of others.

Stereotyping is used to refer to negative or positive judgments made about individuals based on any observable or believed group membership. It assumes that a person has certain qualities (good or bad) just because the person is a member of a specific group.

Prejudice refers to the irrational dislike, suspicion or hatred of a particular group, race, religion, or sexual orientation. Prejudiced attitudes can take many forms.

A specific kind of prejudice, racism refers to any policy, practice, belief, or attitude that attributes characteristics or status to individuals based on their race. Racism involves not only prejudice, but also the exercise of power over individuals based on their race.

Ethnocentrism, stereotyping, prejudice, racism continue to exist because of socialization and the apparent social, economic, and psychological benefits that come from it.

Due to language differences and cultural differences, translation can become a

barrier to intercultural communication.

Five elements that typically cause problems in translation are the lack of equivalences in vocabulary, idioms, grammar and syntax, experiences, and concepts.

Chapter 5 verbal communication Significance of verbal communication

"Verbal" means "consisting of words". Language, spoken or written, is a means of verbal communication. Therefore, verbal intercultural communication happens when people from different cultural backgrounds communicate with each other by using language.

Language and culture

https://www.wendangku.net/doc/af1335434.html,nguage as a reflection of the environment

https://www.wendangku.net/doc/af1335434.html,nguage as a reflection of values

3.the meaning of words

Verbal communication styles

1.direct and indirect styles

2.self-enhancement and self-effacement styles 宣扬和谦逊

3.elaborate, exacting and succinct styles 详尽的，确切的，简洁的

4.personal and contextual styles 不同的称呼方式根据场合和地位

5.instrumental and affective styles 理性与感性

Language diversity

1.dialects and sociolects 方言和社会方言

2.pidgin and lingua franca 洋泾浜语（汉语中夹杂外语），混合语（母语不互通）

3.taboo and euphemism 禁用语委婉语

4.jargon 行话

Cultural influence on written communication

1.direct plan

2.indirect plan

Summary

Verbal intercultural communication happens when people from different cultural backgrounds communicate with each other by using language.

It is agreed that language helps in communicating with people from different backgrounds. However, people may be less aware that cultural literacy is necessary in order to understand the language being used. Words in themselves do not carry the meaning. The meaning comes out of the context. Although people use the dictionary to explain one language with another language, words of different languages don't mean the same thing because of the cultural influence on word meaning.

There are mainly five verbal communication styles introduced in this chapter: direct / indirect; self-enhancement / self-effacement; elaborate / exacting / succinct; personal / contextual; and instrumental / affective.

Language is a cultural phenomenon which is used to express different uses and to communicate different meanings. Language varies according to the communicative uses but also according to the users. In fact, users of the same language in a sense all speak differently and the kind of language each of them chooses to use is in part determined by their cultural background.

In short, some language variations result from the language user, that is, his or her geographical origin (dialect), or his or her social condition (sociolect). However, some language variations result from the circumstances of communication, such as pidgin, Lingua Franca, jargon, taboo and euphemism. Dialect refers to geographical variation, while sociolect refers to variation in terms of social class or style. Pidgin refers to a mixed language that is used for trading purposes, while Lingua Franca refers to a specific language that is used as an international means of communication. Taboo refers to expressions that are considered impolite, while euphemism refers to polite expressions used to soften the offensive and disturbing language. Jargon refers to a special or technical vocabulary that is developed for professional purposes within professional groups like medicine or law.

Furthermore, verbal communication involves both oral and written forms. Written communication is especially important in intercultural business communication. As the modem technological renovation (e-mail and e-commerce) calls for the written communication in business, businessmen should be more conscious about the written communication because mistakes made in

written form are more serious and permanent.

Cultural patterns influence not only oral communication but also written communication. Cultural impact on discourse patterns is to be classified into two categories: direct plan and indirect plan. In direct plans, clarity and conciseness are essential to a successful business writing style. The indirect plan has other priorities than the quick delivery of ideas, such as nurturing a relationship or developing some other context for the message. Direct plan is favored by results-oriented cultures Indirect plan is favored by relationship-oriented culture.

Chapter 6 nonverbal

Significance of nonverbal communication

1.nonverbal behavior accounts for much of the meaning we get from

conversations.

2.nonverbal behavior is significant because it spontaneou sly

subconsciousness.

3.Nonverbal communication is significant is that we cannot avoid

communicating.

Definition and functions of nonverbal communication

1.definition of nonverbal communication

2.functions of nonverbal communication（repeating重复/complementing补充

/substituting代替/regulating/contradicting反对）

Paralanguage and silence

1.paralanguage 副语言（语音语调）

2.silence

Time and space

1.chronemics 时间行为学的

2.proxemics 人际距离学（fixed features of space/semifixed features of

space/personal space包括四种情况下的不同距离）

Other categories of nonverbal communication

1.oculesics 目光语

2.olfactics 嗅觉

3.haptics 触觉

4.kinesics 人体动作学（gestures/posture/facial expressions/chromatics色彩

/attire打扮）

Summary

When we learn to communicate, we learn not only language but also various ways of communicating. Communicators use both verbal and nonverbal codes to communicate, listeners expect to receive both kinds of messages during a conversation. If a speaker uses nonverbal codes poorly or inappropriately, a listener may consider the person a poor speaker. However, misunderstandings may occur when the speakers and listeners are from different cultures and do not share the same nonverbal codes.

In brief, the messages sent without using words are called nonverbal communication. Nonverbal communication involves those nonverbal stimuli in a communication setting that are generated by the sender and his or her use of the environment—these have potential message value for both the sender and receiver.

Nonverbal communication codes or symbols or stimuli in a communicating setting can be divided into different categories: paralanguage, silence, proxemics, chronemics, oculesics, olfactics, haptics, kinesics, chromatics and attire. Paralanguage is the set of audible sounds that accompany oral language to augment its meaning When the German poet Klopstock wrote "The tones of human voices are mightier than strings or brass to move the soul", he meant that sounds we generate often communicate more than the words that they produce. We have the experience of watching foreign movies: if we don't know the language they speak and there are no subtitles, we can still infer when performers are expressing anger, sorrow, joy, or any other emotions.

Silence cues affect interpersonal communication by providing an interval in an ongoing interaction during which the participants have time to think, check or suppress an emotion, encode a lengthy response, or inaugurate another line of thought.

Chronemics is the study of how people perceive and use time. People have different attitudes toward punctuality because they have different time orientations. People from monochronic cultures emphasize schedules, while

people from polychronic cultures stress involvement of people and the completion of tasks as opposed to a strict adherence to schedules.

Proxemics refers to the study of spatial relations. Cultures vary in such things as how living space is arranged and the distance between people in interaction. Oculesics refers to the study of communications sent by the eyes. Eyes play a central role in impression management. When people say that eyes talk, they mean that eyes convey messages. Although eye contact is a very important way of communication, direct eye-to-eye contact is not a custom throughout the world.

Olfactics refers to the study of communication via smell. Americans feel uncomfortable with natural smells, so they spend millions of dollars to make themselves smell "good". However, many cultures regard natural smells as normal. Most心abs perceive a person's smell as an extension of the person.

Haptics or touch refers to communication through the use of bodily contact. There are different behavioral patterns regarding touch. We learn the rules, as we move from infancy into childhood. The wrong behavior of touching in strange cultures can create uncertainty and even ill feeling.

Kinesics refers to gestures, facial expressions, eye contact, body position, body movement, and forms of greeting and their relations to communication. Although any part of the body can be used for communicating nonverbally, face, hands, and arms are the primary灼nesic channels through which nonverbal messages are sent.

Chromatics refers to the study of color in reference to people's perceptions, behaviors, and impressions of others. The same color may be interpreted differently in different cultures. The wrong color of your clothes may make people dislike you, or even hate you. It is quite important to watch what color is appropriate in certain settings, when you are in a foreign country

Attire refers to clothing and physical appearance. It also serves as nonverbal symbols. We often identify a person's culture by his or her physical appearance and dress. Communication with others is often perceived by visual observations of his or her physical appearance.

Chapter 7 cultural patterns

Defining cultural patterns

1.ways of thinking

2.ways of acting

Components of cultural patterns 组成

1.beliefs 信仰

2.values 价值观

3.norms 行为准则

4.social practices 社会行为

Culture theory

1.high-context culture 高语境文化（很多信息在环境中是可见的，没有必要用

语言过多描述）

2.low-context culture（语言作为主要传递信息的方式）

3.problems posed （高语境的会嫌弃低语境的人说的太多，给予了太多不需要

的信息）

Value orientation

1.human nature orientation

2.person-nature orientation（mastery-over-nature view/harmony-with-nature

view/subjugation-to-nature view）

3.time orientation（value-past/value-present/value-future）

4.activity orientation（value-doing/value-being/value-being-in-becoming）

5.relational orientation

Cultural variability

1.individualism and collectivism 独立的集中的

2.uncertainty avoidance

3.power distance

4.masculinity and femininity 男权主义女权主义

Summary

Although individuals, even in the same culture, tend to have different value patterns, there are overall values shaped by one's culture which are shared by the members of the group. Understanding a culture's value pattern is of great significance in terms of understanding their behaviors

Shared beliefs, values, norms, and social practices that are stable over time and

that lead to roughly similar behaviors across similar situations are known as cultural patterns.

A belief is an idea that people assume to be true about the world.

Values involve what a culture regards as good or bad, right or wrong, fair or unfair, just or unjust, beautiful or ugly, clean or dirty, valuable or worthless, appropriate or inappropriate, and kind or cruel.

Norms are the socially shared expectations of appropriate behaviors.

Social practices are the predictable behavior patterns that members of a culture typically follow.

Context is defined as the information that surrounds an event; it is inextricably bound up with the meaning of the event. Edward T. Hall introduced the high context communication and low context communication. A high context (HC) communication or message is one in which most of the information is already in the person, while very little is in the coded, explicitly transmitted part of the message. A low context (LC) communication is just the opposite; i.e., the mass of the information is vested in the explicit code. It is verbalized.

Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck's Value Orientations are based on: human nature, person-nature interface, time, activity and human relationships. These five aspects define group cultures according to different categories:

A s for human-nature orientation, cultures could be divided into six groups:

(1) Humans are evil but changeable; (2) Humans are evil and unchangeable; (3) Humans are neutral with respect to good and evil; (4) Humans are a mixture of

浅谈跨文化交际在小学英语教学中重要性

浅谈跨文化交际在小学英语教学中的重要性 东方市第三小学符将娇 “跨文化交际”教学在英语教学中占有非常重要的地位，在小学阶段更是如此。在小学英语教学中，英语教师可根据小学生的认知水平、思维特点，以课堂教学作为“跨文化交际”教学的主要途径，在课堂教学过程中灵活运用各种教学方法；把课外活动作为实现文化教学的重要途径，充分利用生活中的各种资源来开展“跨文化交际”教学。 一、小学英语“跨文化交际”教学的重要性 传统的小学英语教学一般侧重于语音、词汇、语法的传授和机械的句型练习，往往忽视英美国家文化背景知识的渗透。重语言轻文化的教学方式导致学生不能灵活地运用英语语言。小学生只能记忆单词，了解课文内容，完成课后练习，但不理解其文化背景知识。语言是文化的载体，学习一个国家的语言，必须学习这个国家的文化背景知识。《英语课程标准》明确指出：语言有丰富的文化内涵。接触和了解英语国家文化有益于对英语的理解和使用，有益于加深对本国文化的理解与认识，有益于培养世界意识。因此，在教学中，教师应根据学生的年龄特点和认知能力，逐步扩展文化知识的内容和范围。 小学英语“跨文化交际”教学势在必行。因为我们必须要在小学这个打基础的重要阶段就把“跨文化交际”教学放在突出的地位，让学生从一开始就在有文化背景的环境下学到地道的英语。在小学英语教学中进行“跨文化交际”教学，也是新英语课程对小学英语教师提出的一个新要求。

二、小学英语“跨文化交际”教学的实现方式与途径 教学实践及理论告诉我们，小学英语“跨文化交际”教学的主要实现方式与途径应以课堂教学为主，而课外活动则可作为其重要的实现途径。 1.课堂教学是进行文化教学的主要方式 就目前而言，课堂教学依然是教学活动的主要方式，而且学生和教师在课堂上的时间也最长。课堂教学是进行文化教学的主要阵地，教师应把英语语言教学置于跨文化的环境中，把跨文化交际列为英语教学的一个不可或缺的重要组成部分。 (1)对比差异，激活教材。教材是学生学习英语的重要资源，然而小学英语教材的编撰对文化项目没有作分门别类系统的介绍，在教材中只是以零星、不完整的形式出现，这就需要教师结合具体教学内容，将教材中那些有关英语国家文化背景知识和社会风俗习惯的典型实例挖掘出来，让学生领会英汉文化的差异，以提高学生的语言交际能力。如课文中经常出现的打招呼用语，中西方的差别相当大。中国人通常用“去哪啊？”“忙吗？”“吃了吗?” 等等表示友好的问候，并不关心答语的实质内容。而在英国人看来，这些问题是非常奇怪的，也容易产生歧义甚至文化冲突。英国人见面问好通常用Hello / Hi / Good morning /How are you？等等。在教学过程中，教师应努力激活教材内容，进行文化比较，及时点拨学生领会文化异同现象。通过这样的教学方法，才能真正让学生了解语言背景知识，培养其跨文化交际，学以致用，有效地提高其在真实场景下的语言运用和交际能力。 (2)巧设悬念，激起探究。学源于思，思起于疑。教师要巧妙设疑，创设悬念，使学生产生求知欲和探索欲。在小学英语教学中，教师通过巧设悬念，能让学生更加深刻地理解中外文化的差异。

翻译研究的语篇分析模式及其意义(二)

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