《英语词汇学》知识点归纳

《英语词汇学》知识点归纳

《英语词汇学》知识点归纳

English Lexicology(英语词汇学) Lexicology（词汇学）: is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and meanings of words.

The Nature and Scope of English lexicology：

English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the morphological structures of English words and word equivalents, their semantic structures, relations, historical development, formation and usages.

The subjects that English Lexicology correlated with and extent to：

English Lexicology is correlated with such linguistic disciplines as morphology(形态学), semantics(语义学), etymology(词源学),stylistics（文体论）and lexicography(词典学) The reason for a student to study English lexicology：

According to the textbook, English Lexicology will definitely be beneficial for students of English.

A good knowledge of morphological structures of English words and rules of word-formation will help learners develop their personal vocabulary and consciously increase their word power. The information of the historical development and the principles of classification will give them a deeper understanding of word-meaning and enable them to organize, classify and store words more effectively. The understanding and their sense relations will gradually raise their awareness of meaning and usage, and enable them use

words more accurately and appropriately.

A working knowledge of dictionaries will improve their skills

of using reference books and raise their problem-solving ability and efficiency of individual study.

Chapter 1--Basic concepts of words and vocabulary

Word（词的定义）: A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function. (1)a minimal free form of a language (2)a sound unity (3)a unit of meaning (4)a form that can function alone in a sentence

Sound and meaning（声音与意义）: almost arbitrary, “no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself”

Sound and form（读音和形式）:不统一的四个原因（1）the English alphabet was

adopted from the Romans,which

does not have a separate letter to

represent each other （2）the

pronunciation has changed more

rapidly than spelling over the years

（3）some of the difference were

creates by the early scribes（4）the

borrowings is an important channel

of enriching the English vocabulary

Vocabulary（词汇）: all the words in a language make up its vocabulary

Classification of English Words：

By use frequency:basic word

stock&nonbasic vocabulary

By notion:content words&functional words

By origin:native words&borrowed words

The basic word stock（基本词汇）: is the foundation of the

vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language. Though it constitute a small percentage of the EV, it is the most important part of vocabulary.

The Fundamental Features of the Basic Word Stock(基本词汇的特征):

1)All-National character（全民通用性most important）

2)Stability（相对稳定性）3)Productivity（多产性）4)Polysemy （多义性）5)Collocability（可搭配性）

没有上述特征的words:(1)Terminology(术语) (2)Jargon（行话）(3)slang（俚语）(4)Argot（暗语）（5）Dialectal words(方言) (6) Archaisms（古语）(7) Neologisms （新词语）:Neologisms means newly-created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings.(email)

Content words/notional words实词(cloud, run walk, never, five, frequently) and functional words/empty words虚词(on, of, and, be, but)

Native Words and Borrowed Words Native words（本族语词）: known as Anglo-Saxon words (50,000-60,000), are words brought to Britain in the 5th century by the Germanic tribes. (mainstream of the basic

word-stocks).Two other

features:(1)neutral in style (2)frequent

in use

Borrowed words/Loan words（外来语词）: words taken over from foreign languages.(80% of modern EV)

4 Types of loan words:

1) denizens(同化词): (shirt from

skyrta(ON))

2) aliens（非同化词/外来词）:are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling (kowtow (CH)

磕头)

3) translation loans(译借词):按其他语言方式组成英语long time no see (from China) 4) semantic loans（借义词）：they are not borrowed with reference to the form,but their meanings are borrowed

Chapter 2 the development of the English Vocabulary

The Indo-European Language Family(印欧语系)

The Eight Groups in Indo-European Family of Languages（8大印欧语群）

The Eastern set:

（1）The Balto-slavic Group（波罗的-斯拉夫语族）：Russian,Bulgarian,Polish,Czech etc.

（2）The Indo-Iranian Group（印度-伊朗语族）：Hindi,Bengali,Persian etc.

(3)The Armenian Group（亚美尼亚语族）：Armenian.

(4)The Albanian Group（阿尔巴尼亚语族）：Albanian.

The Western set:

(5)The Hellenic Group（古希腊语族）：Greek.

(6)The Italian Group（意大利语族）：Latin ,Romance

languages(French,Italian,Spanish, portuguese,Romanian) etc.

(7)The Celtic Group（凯尔特语族）：Irish,Welsh,Breton etc.

(8)The Germanic Group（日耳曼语族）：

Flemish,German,Dutch,Scandinavian(Nor weigian, Swedish,Danish,Icelandic) etc.

The Three Stages of Development of the English Vocabulary:

1 Old English (450-1100) (vocabulary 50,000 to 60,000):was I high inflected language.

2 Middle English (1150-1500):retaines much fewer inflections

3 Modern English (1500-up to now): in fact more than 25% of modern E words come almost directly from classical languages.

In Modern E, words endings were mostly lost with just a few expections.English has evolved from a synthetic language(Old English) to the present analytic language.

Modes of Vocabulary Development(词汇的发展模式):

1)creation创造新词：the formation of new words by using the existing

materials,namely toots,affixes and other elements.(最重要方式)

2)semantic change旧词新义:does not increase the number of word forms but create many more new useages of the words.

3) borrowing借用外来词:constitute merely 6 to 7 percent of all new words Reviving words or obsolete words also contributes to the growth of English vocabulary though quite insignificant.

Chapter 3 Word Formation I

Morpheme(词素):the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words Allomorph(词素变体): is a different variant form of a morpheme，differ in

phonological and spelling form, but at the same in function and meaning

Type of Morpheme(词素的分类)

（1）Free Morphemes（自由词素）: have complete meaning in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. A free morpheme is one that can stand by itself. (independent).

（2）Bound Morpheme(粘着语素): A bound morpheme is one that cannot stand by itself.

Bound Morpheme includes two types: (1) bound root(粘附词根) (2)Affix(词缀) Affixes can be put into two groups:

1)Inflectional affixes (屈折词缀):affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional,thus

known as inflectional morphemes.

2)Derivational affixes(派生词缀): A) prefix:

A prefix comes before words. B)suffix:An adjective suffix（形容词后缀）that is added to the stem, whatever class is belongs to , the result will be an adjective.

Free Morpheme =free root（自由词根）

Morpheme(词素)

Bound root prefix

bound

derivational

affix

suffix

inflectional

Root and stem（词根和词干）

The differences between root and stem: A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.

A stem is the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional morpheme in a word with inflectional morphemes,can be further analyzed, it sometimes could be a root.

Chapter 4 Word-Formation II(构词法) 1.Affixation词缀法（Derivation派生法）：the formation of words by adding word-formaing or derivational affixes to stem.

（1）Prefixation(前缀法)：It's the formation of new words by adding a prefixes to stems.

1)Negative prefixes(否定前缀):

un-,non-,in-,dis,a- ,il-,ir-,im-,etc.disobey( not obey)

2)Reversative prefixes（逆反前缀）:

un-,de-，dis- etc. unwrap(open)

3) Pejorative prefixes: mis（贬义前缀）：mis-，mal-, pseudo-

etc.misconduct(bad behaviour)

4) Prefixes of degree or size(程度前缀)：arch-,extra-,hyper-,macro-,micro-,mini-,

out-,over-,sub-,super-,sur-,ultra-,under-, ect. overweight

5) Prefixes of orientation and attitude（倾向态度前缀）:contra-,counter-,anti-,pro- etc.anti-nuclear

6)Locative prefixes（方位前

缀）:extra-,fore-,inter-,intra-,tele-,trans-, etc. extraordinary(more than ordinary) 7) Prefixes of time and order （时间和顺序前缀）:fore-,pre-,post-,ex-,re- etc. monorail(one rail)

8) Number prefixes（数字前缀）:uni-，mono-, bi-，di-, tri-,multi-，poly- ，semi-，etc.bilingual(concerning two languages)

9) Miscellaneous prefixes（混杂前缀）：auto-, neo-, pan-,

vice-.vice-chairman(deputy chairman)

(2)Suffixation（后缀法）: It's the formation of a new word by adding suffixes to stems.

1)noun suffixes 2)adjective suffixes 3)Adverb suffixes 4)verb suffixes

https://www.wendangku.net/doc/af19211308.html,/doc/da4083797.html,pounding复合法（also called composition）

Compounding: is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems Compounds are written in three ways: solid连写(airmail)，hyphenated带连字符(air-conditioning)and open分开写(air force, air raid)

Formation of compounds（复合词的形式）（1）noun compounds ：e.g. : air + plane = airplane,flower + pot = flower pot

（2）adjective compounds ：e.g. acid + head = acid-head （3）verb compounds ：e.g. house + keep = housekeep

3.Conversion转类法

Conversion: is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class.（功能转换，又叫零派生.functional shift/zero-derivation）

4.Blending拼缀法

Blending : is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word. e.g: motor + hotel = motel, smoke + fog = smog, formula + translation = FORTRAN

5.Clipping截短法

Clipping:is to shorten a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using

what remains instead.e.g. plane from airplane, phone from telephone. 四种形式：

1).Front clippings删节前面(phone from telephone)

2).Back clippings删节后面(dorm from dormitory)

3).Front and back clippings 前后删节(flu from influenza)

4).Phrase clippings 短语删节(pop from popular music)

6.Acronymy首字母缩写法

Acronymy:is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms.

（1）Initialism（首字母缩写词法）: initialisms are words pronounced letter by letter. e.g.: BBC(for British Broadcasting corporation)

（2）Acronym（首字母拼音法）:Acronyms are words formed from initial letters but pronounced as a normal word.

E.g.:TEFL(teaching English as a foreign language)

7.Back-formation（逆生法，逆构词）

Back-formation is considered to be the opposite process of

suffixation. It’s the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes. (greed from greedy)

8.Words From Proper Name(专有名词转成法):

Names of people, places, book, and tradenames (e.g.: sir watt siemens(人名) -- watt（瓦特，电功率单位）

Chapter 5 Word Meaning

The meanings of “Meaning”(“意义”的意义)

Reference(所指):It is the relationship between language and the word. It is the arbitrary and conventional. It is a kind of abstraction, yet with the help of context, it can refer to something specific.

Concept（概念）:which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition(认识),reflecting the objective world in the human mind.

Sense（意义）:It denotes the relationship inside the language. ‘The sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the language.’Motivation(理据)：It accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning.

1) Onomatopoeic motivation（拟声理据）:words whose sounds suggest their meaning, for these words were creates by imitating the natural sounds or noises. Knowing the sounds of the words means understanding the meaning. E.g.: bang, ping-pong, ha ha.

2)Morphological motivation （形态理据）:multi-morphemic words and the meaning of many are the sum total of the morphemes combines. E.g.: airmail, miniskirt .例外：black market, ect.

3)Semantic motivation（词义理据）：refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word. It

explains the connection between the literal sense and figurative sense of the word. E.g:the foot of the mountain(foot) 4)Etymological motivation （词源理据）:the history of the word explains the meaning of the word. E.g:pen-feather

Types of meaning(词义的类别)

1.Grammatical Meaning（语法意

义）:indicates the grammatical concept or

relationships (becomes important only in actual context)

2.Lexical Meaning （词汇意义）

(Lexical meaning and grammatical meaning make up the word-meaning) Lexical meaning has 2 components内容: Conceptual meaning(概念意义) and associative meaning(关联意义) 1）Conceptual meaning(概念意义): also known as denotative meaning(外延意义) is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word-meaning. 2）Associative meaning(关联意义):is the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning.

[4types:

（1）Connotative（内涵意义）：the overtones or associations suggested by the conceptual meaning, traditionally known as

connotations.(例如“母亲”经常与“爱”“关心”“温柔”联系起来)

（2）Stylistic（文体意义）：many words have stylistic features, which make them appropriate for different contexts.

（3）Affective（感情意义）：indicates the speaker’s attitude towards the person or thing in question.这种情感价值观分两类：褒义和贬义appreciative & pejorative

（4）Collocative（搭配意义）：is the part of the word-meaning suggested by the words before or after the word in

discussion.]

Chapter 6 --Sense relation and semantic field （语义关系和语义场）

Polysemy（多义关系）

Two approached to polysemy（多义关系的两种研究方法）:

1.diachronic approach(历时方法) ：from the diachronic point of view, polysemy is assumed to be the result of growth and development of the semantic structure of one and same word. First meaning is the primary meaning , the later meanings are called derived meanings.

2. synchronic approach (共时方法) : synchronically, polysemy is viewed as the coexistence of various meanings of the same word in a certain historical period of time.基本意义是central meaning , 次要意义是derived meaning.

Two processes of development（词义的两种发展类型）:

1.radiation（辐射型）：is a semantic process in which the primary meaning stands at

the centre and the secondary meanings proceed out of it in every direction like rayes. (e.g: face, neck)

2.concatenation（连锁型）:is the semantic

process in which the meaning of a word move gradually away from its first sense by successive shifts until there is not a sign of connection between the sense that is finally developed and that which the term had at the beginning.(e.g:treacle)

3.In radiation, each of the derived meaning is directly connected to the primary meaning. In concatenation, each of the later meaning is related only to the preceding one like chains. Though the latest sense can be traced back to the original, there is no direct connection in between.

4.They are closely related, being different stages of the

development

英语词汇学第一章

Chapter 1 1.1 What Is a Word 词的概念：A word can be defined as a meaningful group of letters. （一个词可以被定义为一组有意义的字母） 词包含以下几点： ① a minimal free form of a language.一门语言中最小的形式 ② a sound unity.一个声音统一体 ③ a unit of meaning.一个意义单位 ④ a form that can function alone in a sentence.能在句子中起独立作用的一个形式 A word is a free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.词是一门语言中具有一定的声音，意义和句法功能的最小形式 Words can be simple and complex.词可以是简单的也可以是复杂的 1.2 Sound and Meaning 声音与意义之间的关系：This symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary,and there is no logical relationship between the sound and the actual thing and idea itself .The relationship between them is conventional. 这种象征性的联系几乎总是任意的，声音与实际的事物和观念本身没有逻辑关系。他们之间的关系是约定俗成的。 1.3 Sound and Form 读音与拼写不一致的原因：①The English alphabet was adopted from the Romans,which does not have a separate letter to represent each sound in the language. ②The pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years. ③Some of the differences were created by the early scribes. ①英语字母表是从罗马人那里采用的，罗马人没有一个单独的字母来代表语言中的每个 声音。 ②这些年来，发音的变化比拼写的变化更快。 ③有些差异是由早期的抄写员造成的。

英语词汇学总结复习资料

大家请注意：笔记中大多数是以名词解释的形式出现的，这些是绝对的基础，应该一字不漏的背下来。其实不少简答题也就是几个定义的汇总，再加上个例子就可以拿满分了。区分两个词的区别，主要还是指明其各自的定义。 第一章Basic Concepts of Words and Vocabulary 1. 词的定义Word —— A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function. 2.声音与意义的关系There is no logical relationship between sound and meaning as the symbolic connection between them is arbitrary and conventional. E.g. “woman” means ’Frau’ in German，’Femme’ in French and ’Funv ’in Chinese. On the other hand，the same sound /rait/ can mean right，rite and write，though denoting different things，yet have the same sound. 3.读音与拼写不一致的原因The difference between sound and form result from 4 major factors. （At least 80%of the English words fit consistent spelling patterns） a）. the internal reason is English alphabet does not have a separate letter to represent each sound in the language. b）. Pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling c）. Influence of the work of scribes/printing freezes the spelling of words in 1500 d）. Borrowing of foreign language 4. 词汇的含义Vocabulary —— Vocabulary is most commonly used to refer to the sum total of all the words of a language. It can also refer to all the words of a given dialect，a given book，a given displine and all the words possessed by an individual person as well as all the words current in a particular period of time in history. The general estimate of the present day English vocabulary is over 1 million words. 5.词汇的分类的原则Classification of Words—by use frequency，by notion，by origin the English vocabulary consist of words of all kinds. they can be classified by different criteria and for different purpose . words may fall into the word stock and nonbasic vocabulary by use frequency, into content words and functional words by notion , and into native words and borrowed words by origin. 基本词汇的特点 1）. Basic word stock – the foundation of the vocabulary. 1.all national character （most important）– natural phenomena most common things and phenomena of the human body and relations world around us names of plants and animals action，size，domain，state numerals，pronouns，prep. ，conj.

英语词汇学知识点整理

词汇期末复习（C1-C7） Chapter 1 一、Word 词的定义 (1) a minimal free form（最小的自由形式） (2) a sound unity (3) a semantic unity（meaning） (4) a form that can function alone in a sentence.（具有句法功能） 二、Vocabulary词汇的定义 All the words in a language make up what is generally known as vocabulary. 一般来说，词汇指的是一种语言里所有单词的总和。 词的总和构成语言的词汇。词与词汇之间的关系是个体与总体之间的关系。 三、Sound&Meaning发音和意义 The connection between the sound (form) and meaning is arbitrary (任意的) and conventional. 二者的关系是约定俗成、随意的 四、Sound & Form发音和形式 (1)The written form of a natural language is the orthographical（正字的）record of the oral form. 自然语言的书写形式是口语形式的书写记录。 (2)The reasons of differences occur between sound and form: 发音与形式不同的原因： ①English alphabet was adopted from the Romans 英语字母表来自罗马 ②the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years. 发音改变快速 ③Differences created by professional scribes. 专业抄写员的不同 ④More differences brought by the continuing change of sounds and the standardization of spelling.发音不断变化，书写标准化。 ⑤borrowing : words were borrowed from other languages such as Latin, Greek, French, etc.外来词 五、Classification of Words词的分类 ①Basic Words The basic vocabulary has the following characteristics: 基本词汇特点： ? 1. All national character 全民性(indispensable to all the people who speak the language). ? 2. Stability 稳定性（relatively stable or unchanged） ? 3. Productivity 多产性（form new words in combination with other roots and affixes ) ? 4. Polysemy 多义性 ? 5. Collocability 搭配性 ②Non-basic Words Non-basic vocabulary: terminology, jargon, slang, argot, dialectal words, archaisms, neologisms.非基本词包含：专业术语、行话、俚语、黑话、方言、古语、新词。 ①Content Words/Full words/National words： They denote clear notions. 能够表达清楚的含义

英语词汇学总结

Chapter 3 Word Formation I词语结构1 3.1 Morphemes词素 1. the morpheme is ‘ the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words’ 词素是“词语中最小的功能单位”。 2.Suffix：-ation：-tion, -sion, -ion. 后缀：ation 的多变体，当它们有同样的意义和语法功能时它们属于同一个后缀 3.Owing to different sound environment 因为存在不同的发生环境。 3.2 Allomorphs （语素变体）同质异晶，同质异象变体 1.Morphemes are abstract units.‘They are actual spoken, minimal carriers of meaning’ 语素是抽象的单位,它们实际上是能发音的最小的意义载体. The morpheme is to the morph what a phoneme is to a phone: 语素是一个音素发音的形素 ①single morphs单一语素词： bird, tree, green, sad, want, desire, Most morphemes are realized by single morphs,Words of this kind are called monomorphemic words.大多数语素通过单个的形素实现，语素与词相同叫做单一语素词. These morphemes coincide withe words as they can stand by themselves and function freely in a sentence.Words of this kind are called monomorphemic words. 这些语素与词相同，由于它们能代表含义而且能够在句子中自由起作用。这种词叫做单一语素词 ②The plural morpheme复数语素： {-s} /s / after the sounds/t, p, k/ packs, cheats, shapes /-z/ after /d, b, g, l/ beds, bottles, fads /iz/ after/s, z, ?, ?, t?, d?/classes, dishes, garages, damages Some morphemes, however, are realized by more than one morph according to their position in a word. Such alternative morphs are known as allomorphs. 一些语素被按照形素在其中排列而认识，那些替换的形素被称为”语素变体”。 Allomorphs as such do not occur at random, but are phonetically conditioned and thus predictable.语素变体不是随机发生的，是语音条件下可以预测的 ③zero morph零形素：deer -deer, fish-fish （There are cases where the allomorphs of the plural morpheme are unusual. It can be realized by the change of an internal vowel 某种情况是复数词素的变体不常见。他可以通过内部元音的变化来认知） ④the past tense过去式 {-ed}：1）/t/ after a verb ending with /p, k/ worked, helped 2）/d/ after vowels and sounds like /m, n, ?, l/ tried, warmed, lived , enabled 3）/id/ after /t, d/ wanted, landed affixational morphemes附加语素 This prefix : depending on the first sound of the stem to which the prefix is added.

英语词汇学复习提纲

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《英语词汇学》知识点归纳(总16 页) --本页仅作为文档封面，使用时请直接删除即可-- --内页可以根据需求调整合适字体及大小--

English Lexicology(英语词汇学) Lexicology（词汇学）: is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and meanings of words. The Nature and Scope of English lexicology： English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the morphological structures of English words and word equivalents, their semantic structures, relations, historical development, formation and usages. The subjects that English Lexicology correlated with and extent to： English Lexicology is correlated with such linguistic disciplines as morphology(形态学), semantics(语义学), etymology(词源学),stylistics（文体论）and lexicography(词典学) The reason for a student to study English lexicology： According to the textbook, English Lexicology will definitely be beneficial for students of English. A good knowledge of morphological structures of English words and rules of word-formation will help learners develop their personal vocabulary and consciously increase their word power. The information of the historical development and the principles of classification will give them a deeper understanding of word-meaning and enable them to organize, classify and store words more effectively. The understanding and their sense relations will gradually raise their awareness of meaning and usage, and enable them use words more accurately and appropriately. A working knowledge of dictionaries will improve their skills of using reference books and raise their problem-solving ability and efficiency of individual study. Chapter 1--Basic concepts of words and vocabulary Word（词的定义）: A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function. (1)a minimal free form of a language (2)a sound unity (3)a unit of meaning (4)a form that can function alone in a sentence Sound and meaning（声音与意义）: almost arbitrary, “no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself” Sound and form（读音和形式）:不统一的四个原因（1）the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans,which does not have a separate letter to represent each other （2）the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years（3）some of the difference were creates by the early scribes （4）the borrowings is an important channel of enriching the English vocabulary Vocabulary（词汇）: all the words in a language make up its vocabulary Classification of English Words： By use frequency:basic word stock&nonbasic vocabulary By notion:content words&functional words By origin:native words&borrowed words

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《英语词汇学》重要术语 One: 1. Native words 本族词Words of Anglo-Saxon origin or of Old English are native words. 2. Loan words 借词Words borrowed from other languages are loan words or borrowed words. 3. Slang words 俚语Slang words are those words of a vigorous, colourful, facetious, or taboo nature, invented for specific occasions, or uses, or derived from the unconventional use of the standard vocabulary. 4. Function words 功能词Function words are often short words such as determiners, conjunctions, prepositions, auxiliaries that serve grammatically more than anything else. 5. Content words 实义词Content words are

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The written form of a natural language is the XXX een sound and form occur due to the n of the English alphabet from the Romans。XXX。the differences created by nal scribes。and the continuing XXX. XXX languages。such as Latin。Greek。French。etc。are known as borrowing or loanwords。These words have been incorporated into the language over time and have e a part of the vocabulary. In terms of n。words can be divided into basic words and non-basic words。Basic words are XXX to all speakers of the language。stability。productivity。polysemy。XXX-basic words。on the other hand。include terminology。jargon。slang。argot。dialectal words。archaisms。and neologisms. Content words。also known as full words or nal words。are able to express clear meanings。while nal words。also known as empty words or form words。show the XXX.

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