语言学课后答案第2章

1.

phonetics: the study of how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived. It can be divided into three main areas of study—articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics and

perceptual/auditory phonetics.

articulatory phonetics: the study of the production of speech sounds, or the study of how speech sounds are produced/made.

phonology: the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. It aims to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur. speech organs: those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech, also known as ?vocal organs‘.

voicing: the vibration of the vocal folds. When the vocal folds are close together, the airstream causes them to vibrate against each other and the resultant sound is said to be ?voiced‘. When the vocal folds are apart and the air can pass through easily, the sound produced is said to be ?voiceless‘.

International Phonetic Alphabet: a set of standard phonetic symbols in the form of a chart (the IPA chart), designed by the International

Phonetic Association since 1888. It has been revised from time to time to include new discoveries and changes in phonetic theory and practice. The latest version has been revised in 1993 and updated in 1996. consonant: a major category of sound segments, produced by a closure in the vocal tract, or by a narrowing which is so marked that air cannot escape without producing audible friction.

vowel: a major category of sound segments, produced without obstruction of the vocal tract so that air escapes in a relatively unimpeded way through the mouth or the nose.

manner of articulation: ways in which articulation of consonants can be accomplished—(a) the articulators may close off the oral tract for an instant or a relatively long period; (b) they may narrow the space considerably; or (c) they may simply modify the shape of the tract by approaching each other.

place of articulation: the point where an obstruction to the flow of air is made in producing a consonant.

Cardinal Vowels: a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intended to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages.

semi-vowel: segments that are neither consonants nor vowels, e.g. [j] and [w].

vowel glide: vowels that involve a change of quality, including diphthongs, when a single movement of the tongue is made, and triphthongs, where a double movement is perceived. coarticulation: simultaneous or overlapping articulations, as when the nasal quality of a nasal sound affects the preceding or following sound so that the latter becomes nasalized. If the affected sound becomes more like the following sound, it is known as ?anticipatory coarticulation‘; if the sou nd shows the influence of the preceding sound, it is ?perseverative coarticution‘.

phoneme: a unit of explicit sound contrast. If two sounds in a language make a contrast between two different words, they are said to be different phonemes.

allophone: variants of the same phoneme. If two or more phonetically different sounds do not make a contrast in meaning, they are said to be allophones of the same phoneme. To be allophones, they must be in complementary distribution and bear phonetic similarity. assimilation: a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound, a term often used synonymously

with ?coarticulation‘. If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, it is called ?regressive assimilation‘; t he converse process, in which a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, is known as ?progressive assimilation‘.

Elsewhere Condition: The more specific rule applied first. It is applied when two or more rules are involved in deriving the surface form from the underlying form.

distinctive features: a means of working out a set of phonological contrasts or oppositions to capture particular aspects of language sounds, first suggested by Roman Jacobson in the 1940s and then developed by numerous other people.

syllable: an important unit in the study of suprasegmentals. A syllable must have a nucleus or peak, which is often the task of a vowel or possibly that of a syllabic consonant, and often involves an optional set of consonants before and/or after the nucleus.

Maximal Onset Principle: a principle for dividing the syllables when there is a cluster of consonants between two vowels, which states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda.

stress: the degree of force used in producing a syllable. When a syllable is produced with more force and is therefore more ?prominent‘, it is a ?stressed‘ syllable in contrast to a less prominent, ?unstressed‘ syllable. intonation: the occurrence of recurring fall-rise patterns, each of which is used with a set of relatively consistent meanings, either on single words or on groups of words of varying length.

tone: a set of fall-rise patterns affecting the meanings of individual words.

8.

In Old English, there are no voiced fricative phonemes. All voiced variants, which appear only between voiced sounds, are allophones of their voiceless counterparts.

The rule can be stated as follows:

fricatives → [+voice] / [+voice]_____[+voi ce]

[–voice] in other places

2.

1) voiced dental fricative

2) voiceless postalveolar fricative

3) velar nasal

4) voiced alveolar stop/plosive

5) voiceless bilabial stop/plosive

6) voiceless velar stop/plosive

7) (alveolar) lateral

8) high front unrounded lax vowel

9) high back rounded tense vowel

10) low back rounded lax vowel

3.

1) [f]2) [?]3) [j]4) [h]5) [t]

6) [e]7) [?]8) [?]9) [?]10) [u]

4.

1) On a clear day you can see for miles.

2) Some people think that first impressions count for a lot.

5. 1)

Quite a few human organs are involved in the production of speech: the lungs, the trachea (or windpipe), the throat, the nose, and the mouth. The pharynx, mouth, and nose form the three cavities of the vocal tract. Speech sounds are produced with an airstream as their sources of energy. In most circumstances, the airstream comes from the lungs. It is forced out of the lungs and then passes through the bronchioles and bronchi, a series of branching tubes, into the trachea. Then the air is modified at various points in various ways in the larynx, and in the oral and nasal cavities: the mouth and the nose are often referred to, respectively, as the oral cavity and the nasal cavity.

Inside the oral cavity, we need to distinguish the tongue and various parts of the palate, while inside the throat, we have to distinguish the upper part, called pharynx, from the lower part, known as larynx. The larynx opens into a muscular tube, the pharynx, part of which can be seen in a mirror. The upper part of the pharynx connects to the oral and nasal cavities.

The contents of the mouth are very important for speech production. Starting from the front, the upper part of the mouth includes the upper lip, the upper teeth, the alveolar ridge, the hard palate, the soft palate (or the velum), and the uvula. The soft palate can be lowered to allow air to pass through the nasal cavity. When the oral cavity is at the same time blocked, a nasal sound is produced.

The bottom part of the mouth contains the lower lip, the lower teeth, the tongue, and the mandible.

At the top of the trachea is the larynx, the front of which is protruding in males and known as the ―Adam‘s Apple‖. The larynx contains the vocal folds, als o known as ―vocal cords‖ or ―vocal bands‖. The vocal folds are a pair of structure that lies horizontally below the latter and their front ends are joined together at the back of the Adam‘s Apple. Their rear ends, however, remain separated and can move into various positions: inwards, outwards, forwards, backwards, upwards and downwards.

5. 2)

This is because gh is pronounced as [f] in enough, o as [?] in women, and ti as [?] in nation.

5. 3)

In the production of consonants at least two articulators are involved. For example, the initial sound in bad involves both lips and its final segment involves the blade (or the tip) of the tongue and the alveolar ridge. The categories of consonant, therefore, are established on the basis of several factors. The most important of these factors are: (a) the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract, and (b) where in the vocal tract there is approximation, narrowing, or the obstruction of

air. The former is known as the Manner of Articulation and the latter as the Place of Articulation.

The Manner of Articulation refers to ways in which articulation can be accomplished: (a) the articulators may close off the oral tract for an instant or a relatively long period; (b) they may narrow the space considerably; or (c) they may simply modify the shape of the tract by approaching each other.

The Place of Articulation refers to the point where a consonant is made. Practically consonants may be produced at any place between the lips and the vocal folds. Eleven places of articulation are distinguished on the IPA chart.

As the vowels cannot be described in the same way as the consonants, a system of cardinal vowels has been suggested to get out of this problem. The cardinal vowels, as exhibited by the vowel diagram in the IPA chart, are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intended to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages.

The cardinal vowels are abstract concepts. If we imagine that for the production of [@] the tongue is in a neutral position (neither high nor low, neither front nor back), the cardinal vowels are as remote as possible from this neutral position. They represent extreme points of a theoretical vowel space: extending the articulators beyond this space

would involve friction or contact. The cardinal vowel diagram (or quadrilateral) in the IPA is therefore a set of hypothetical positions for vowels used as reference points.

The front, center, and back of the tongue are distinguished, as are four levels of tongue height: the highest position the tongue can achieve without producing audible friction (high or close); the lowest position the tongue can achieve (low or open); and two intermediate levels, dividing the intervening space into auditorily equivalent areas (mid-high or open-mid, and mid-low or close-mid).

5. 4)

Both phonetics and phonology study human speech sounds but they differ in the levels of analysis. Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived. Imagine that the speech sound is articulated by a Speaker A. It is then transmitted to and perceived by a Listener B. Consequently, a speech sound goes through a three-step process: speech production, sound transmission, and speech perception.

Naturally, the study of sounds is divided into three main areas, each dealing with one part of the process: Articulatory Phonetics is the study of the production of speech sounds, Acoustic Phonetics is the study of the physical properties of speech sounds, and Perceptual or Auditory Phonetics is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.

Phonology is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. It aims to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur.

In phonology we normally begin by analyzing an individual language, say English, in order to determine its phonological structure, i.e. which sound units are used and how they are put together. Then we compare the properties of sound systems in different languages in order to make hypotheses about the rules that underlie the use of sounds in them, and ultimately we aim to discover the rules that underlie the sound patterns of all languages.

5. 5)

Speech is a continuous process, so the vocal organs do not move from one sound segment to the next in a series of separate steps. Rather, sounds continually show the influence of their neighbors. For example, if a nasal consonant (such as [m]) precedes an oral vowel (such as [?] in map), some of the nasality will carry forward so that the vowel [?] will begin with a somewhat nasal quality. This is because in producing a nasal the soft palate is lowered to allow airflow through the nasal tract. To produce the following vowel [?], the soft palate must move back to its normal position. Of course it takes time for the soft palate to move from its lowered position to the raised position. This process is still in progress when the articulation of [?] has begun. Similarly, when [?] is

followed by [m], as in lamb, the velum will begin to lower itself during the articulation of [?] so that it is ready for the following nasal.

When such simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved, we call the process ?coarticulation‘. If the sound becomes more like the following sound, as in the case of lamb, it is known as ?anticipatory coarticulation‘. If the sound shows the influence of the preceding sound, it is ?perseverative coarticulation‘, as is the case of map.

Assimilation is a phonological term, often used synonymously with coarticulation, which is more of a phonetic term. Similarly, there are two possibilities of assimilation: if a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it ?regressive assimilation‘; the converse process, in which a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, is known as ?progressive assimilation‘.

Anticipatory coarticulation is by far the most common cause of assimilation in English. For example,

ex. 1

a. cap [k?p] can [k?n]

b. tap [t?p] tan [t?n]

ex. 2

a. tent [t?nt] tenth [t?n?θ]

b. ninety [na?nti] ninth [na?n?θ]

ex. 2

a. since [s?ns] sink [s??k]

b. mince [s?ns] mink [m??k]

In both exx. 1a and 1b, the words differ in two sounds. The vowel in the second word of each pair is ―nasalized‖ because of the influence of the following nasal consonant. In ex. 2, the nasal /n/ is ―dentalized‖ before a dental fricative. In ex. 3, the alveolar nasal /n/ becomes the velar nasal [?] before the velar stop [k]. In this situation, nasalization, dentalization, and velarization are all instances of assimilation, a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.

Assimilation can occur across syllable or word boundaries, as shown by the following:

ex. 4

a. pan[?]cake

b. he can[?] go now

Studies of English fricatives and affricates have shown that their voicing is severely influenced by the voicing of the following sound: ex. 5

a. five past [fa?vpɑ?st] >[fa?fpɑ?st]

b. has to [h?zt?] >[h?st?]

c. as can be shown [?zk?nb????n]> [?sk?nb????n]

d. edge to edge [??t???] >[??t???]

The first column of symbols shows the way these phrases are pronounced in slow or careful speech while the second column shows how they are pronounced in normal, connected speech. It indicates that in English fricatives and affricates are devoiced when they are followed by voiceless sounds. This however does not occur with stops and vowels.

5. 6)

The word teller is formed by adding a suffix -er to the base word tell to form a new word. We are all familiar with the rule that governs the allophones of the phoneme /l/: when preceding a vowel, it is [l] and when following a vowel it is [?]. However, in teller it has a vowel both before and after it, so how do we decide that it should be pronounced as [l], not [?]?

We notice that tell is a monosyllabic word while teller is disyllabic. In a polysyllabic word, we follow the Maximal Onset Principle (MOP) for the division of syllable. By MOP, the /l/ must be placed in the onset position of the second syllable instead of the coda position of the first syllable. Thus, the phoneme /l/ is realized as it should be before the vowel in the second syllable. The same is true with telling, falling, and many others. We can see from this that the phonological structure of a complex word is often different from its morphological structure, i.e. how the word is

formed. In word-formation it is tell + -er while in syllable structure it is [te+l?].

6.

In some dialects of English the following words have different vowels, as shown by the phonetic transcription. Based on these data, answer the questions that follow.

1) All the sounds that end the words in column A are voiceless ([-voice]) consonants and all the sounds that end the words in column B are voiced ([+voice]) consonants.

2) All the words in column C are open syllables, i.e. they end in vowels.

3) The two sounds are in complementary distribution because [??] appears only before voiceless consonants and [a?] occurs before voiced consonants and in open syllables.

4) (a) [l??f] (b) lives [la?vz]

5) (a) [tra?l] (b) [b??k] (c) [l??s] (d) [fla?] (e) [ma?n]

6) /a?/ [??] / _____[–voice]

[a?] in other places

7.

As far as orthography is concerned, there are four variants: in-, im-, ir-, and il-, but closer scrutiny shows that in- may be pronounced as [??] before velar consonants, so there are five groups of words according to their variation on pronunciation:

(1) [?n]: inharmonic, ingenious, inoffensive, indifferent, inevitable, innumerable

[?n] or [??]: incomprehensible, incompetent, inconsistent

[?m]: impenetrable, impossible, immobile

[?l]: illiterate, illegal, illogical

[?r]: irresponsible, irresistible, irregular

It is clear that the first sound of the base word governs the distribution of the variants, because the final consonant of the prefix in- must assimilate to the first segment of the base word. As a result of this, we find [?m] before labial consonants like [m] or [p], [?l] before the lateral [l], [?r] before [r]. When the first consonant of the base word is the velar consonant [k], it is [??] in rapid speech and [?n] in careful speech. In all other cases [?n] is always the case. Assuming an underlying form /?n/, the rule for the prefix in- looks roughly like this (in the simplest notation):

(2) /?n/ → {[?n], [??]} / _____[velar]

[?m] / _____[labial]

[?l] / _____ [l]

[?r] / _____[r]

[?n] in other places

This rule system could be further simplified if we eliminate the first rule, as the realization [??] is actually optional. Unlike the other rules, this variation is due to a more general mechanism of assimilation in fast speech, which happens naturally. For example, in conference is also often pronounced as [??k?nf?r?ns] in fast speech, and the nasal in thank and think is also realized as a velar.

We can test these rules by looking at other base words which can take the prefix in-, such as correct, moveable, legible, rational, and adequate. When prefixed, they are respectively pronounced [?n]correct (or

[??]correct), [?m]moveable, [?l]legible, [?r]rational, and [?n]adequate, which further support the rules above.

(Based on Plag, 2003: 200-1)

语言学课后习题答案

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II.Give the description of the following sound segments in English. 1. [?] voiceless dental fricative 2. [?]: voiceless postalveolar fricative 3. [?]: velar nasal 4. [d]: voiced alveolar stop 5. [p]: voiceless bilabial stop 6. [k]: voiceless velar stop 7. [l]: alveolar lateral 8. [i]: high front lax unrounded vowel 9. [u:]: high back tense rounded vowel 10. [?]: low back lax rounded vowel III. Give the IPA symbols for the sounds that correspond to the descriptions below. 1.voiceless labiodental fricative: [f] 2.voiced postalveolar fricative: [?] 3.palatal approximant: [j] 4.voiceless glottal fricative: [h] 5.voiceless alveolar stop: [t] 6.high-mid front unrounded vowel: [i] 7.high central rounded vowel: [] 符号里没找到，就是在语音[U]上划一横 8.low front rounded vowel: [?] 9.low-mid back rounded vowel: [?] 10. high back rounded tense vowel: [u:] V. Discuss the following questions. 4) To what extent is phonology related to phonetics and how do they differ? Phonetics is the branch of linguistics studying the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription. Phonology is the study of sound systems that occur in a language and the patterns where they fall in. Minimal pairs, phonemes, allophones, free variation, complementary distribution, etc., are all to be investigated by a phonologist. Both are concerned with the same aspect of language----the speech sounds. But they differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; it focuses on chaos. Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. A phonologist studies what he believes are meaningful sounds related with their semantic features, morphological features, and the way they are conceived and printed in the depth of the mind. Phonological knowledge permits a speaker to produce sounds which form meaningful utterances, to recognize a foreign “accent”, to make up new words, to add the appropriate phonetic segments to form plurals and past tenses, to know what is and what is not a sound in one?s language. It focuses on order.

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1. Anthropological Study of Linguistics: aims to look at the relationships between language and culture in a speech community. For this reason, it can alternatively be called anthropological linguistics. More specifically, practitioners of the field want to know more about a given community by examining the correlation between the tradition of the community, beliefs, and social behavior of community members and their language use in different contexts of communication. Communication: is an information process taking place between at least two parties or persons. Communicative Competence:is a sociolinguistic rule put forward by Dell Hymes in contrast with the “competence” vs. “performance” dichotomy in theoretic linguistics. Context of Situation: is a framework put forward by Firth. This theory has the following elements (Firth, 1950: 43-44 [Palmer, 1981: 53-54]). A. The relevant features of the participants: persons, personalities: (i) The verbal action of the participants. (ii) The non-verbal action of the participants. B. The relevant objects. C. The effects of the verbal action.

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《语言学概论》学习辅导书参考答案（导言） 一、名词解释（20分，每小题4分） 1.语言学：就是以语言为研究对象的科学，研究语言的本质、语言的结构和发展规律。 2.小学：指我国传统的语文学，包括文字学、音韵学、训诂学三方面的内容。 3.专语语言学：也叫具体语言学、个别语言学，以一种（或几种有联系的）语言为研究对象，研究某一种语言的结构。 4.共时语言学：以同时的、静态分析的方法，研究语言相对静止的状态，描写分析语言在某一个时期、某一个阶段的状况，是从横向的方面研究语言。 5.历时语言学：从历时的、动态的角度研究语言发展的历史，观察一种语言的各个结构要素在不同发展阶段的历史演变，是从纵向的方面研究语言的历史。 二、填空题（20分，每空1分） 1.中国? 印度? 古希腊-罗马具有悠久的历史文化传统，是语言的三大发源地。 2.文字学? 音韵学? 训诂学? 是我国传统的语文学。 3.研究语言的结构，主要是研究语音? 词汇和语义? 语法三个部分。 4.运用语言传递信息的过程，可分为编码? 发送? 传递? 接收解码五个过程 5.专语语言学可以从纵向和横向研究语言，由于研究角度不同，所以又分为历时语言学和共时语言学 6.历史比较语言学的建立，标志着语言学开始走上独立发展的道路。 7.布隆菲尔德的代表着作《语言论》，是美国结构主义语言学的奠基性着作。 8.索绪尔被称为现代语言之父，其代表作有《普通语言学教程》 三、问答题（60分，每小题10分） 1.古代的语言研究和今天的语言研究有哪些不同？ ①研究对象不同：古代的语言学主要以书面语为主要研究材料，不重视口头语言的研究，而今天的语言学则十分重视口语研究，如制定语言规范，确立共同语的各方面标准等，都要依据口语的研究成果； ②研究目的不同：古代语言学研究语言，主要是给政治、哲学、宗教、历史、文学方面的经典着作作注解，比如我国古代的语文学主要就是围绕阅读先秦经典着作的需要来研究文言的，而现代语言学的研究目的主要是分析语言的结构，以此探讨语言发展的共同规律。 2．语言交际过程分哪几个阶段？请举例具体说明 可分为编码、发送、传递、接收、解码五个阶段。编码就是发话人利用词语组织语句；发送就是把思维成果变成话语，通过发音器官表达出来；传递就是通过空气振动形成声波，把话语传达给受话人；接收是受话人利用听觉器官感知对方所说的话；解码则经过大脑的思维把声波还原成语言，理解对方话语的含义，从而完成信息传递接收。如果受话人收到语言信息有所反馈，那么上述五个阶段则又重复一遍，只是发话人与受话人调换了。 3.“语言学既是一门古老的科学，又是一门年轻的科学；既与社会科学有密切的联系，有与自然科学有密切的联系。”怎样理解这段话的含义？ 语言是伴随着人类一起出现的，是人类社会生活必不可少的，所以人类很早就注意到了语言的重要性，很早就注意研究语言，所以语言学是古老的，但语言学直到18世纪下半叶，产生了历史比较语言学，后来又建立了语言学的各个部门，语言研究才发展成为一门独立的学科，同其它学科相比，语言学的确是十分年轻的。语言是社会现象，与社会的政治、经济、文化、历史等密切相关，而语言的发生又与物理、生理、心理等学科密切相关，而现代社会语言与语言的信息处理（如机器翻译、语码转换等）又涉及到数学、计算机科学，所以语言学既与社会科学有密切的联系，又与自然科学有密切的联系。正因为如此，随着语言学与别的学科的交融，又产生了许多新的语言学分支学科，如社会语言学、心理语言学、统计语言

《语言学概论》作业参考答案

《语言学概论》 一、名词解释 1.音位：最小的可以区别意义的语音单位，通常由一簇互相不区别意义的音素构成。如|A|音位里就有前A、后A、央A等几个音素。 2.塞擦音：辅音的发音方式之一。其特点是发音时，两个发音部位紧靠在一起形成阻碍，在保持这个阻碍的同时，留出一个窄缝，让气流从窄缝中磨擦成声，最后除去这个阻碍。如：b‘ｐ‘ｋ‘就是。 3.递归性：语言的递归性是指，组合结构中的某个单位，可以不断地被一个同功能的 短语替换，从而使基本结构里的某个扩展为非常复杂的结构，但其作用仍然等于原始项。也即语言的整体结构与基本框架不变。语法结构的这种性质，我们称之为语言结构的递归性。语言的递归性是语言结构一种非常重要的特性。如：人打倒了|敌人/凶恶的敌人/盘踞在中国大陆的敌人/ 曾经盘踞在中国大陆的不可 以一世的敌人/曾经盘踞在中国大陆不可一世但最终被人 民打倒的敌人 4.复综语：语言类型之一。这种语言的动词内有用不同 的形态表示各种复杂的语法 成分。多见于美洲印第安人的语言。举例。 5.自由变体：音位变体的一种类型。通常指对出现的组合条件没有硬性要求的音位变体。举例。 6.元音：音素的类型之一。即发音时气流在口腔中不受 阻碍而形成的音。举例。 7.语法形式：表示语法意义方式与材料。举例。 8.词干：一个词的主要部分，词汇意义的承担者。举例。 9.音色：语音四要素之一，又叫音质，指声音的特色。由物体振动的不同形式所决定。举例。 10.塞音：辅音的发音方式之一。其特征发音时两个发音部位紧靠在一起，保持一段时间，然后突然除阻，爆破成声。也叫爆破音。举例。 11.共同语：随着社会政治经济集中，会以一种方言为基础形成共同语，以满足整个社会交际往来。共同语又叫天下通语、雅言。举例。 12.数：语法范畴之一。指是用一个词的不同形态表示 出来的词语数的语法意义。在单数、复数、双数等。举例。 二、谈谈语言符号的特点 答：（1）.语言是一种工具， 即交际工具和思维工具；而思 维是一种能力和过程，即人脑 能动地反映客观现实的能力 和过程。 （2）.概念用词语表达，判断 用句子表达，但概念按照逻辑 规律构成的种种判断和词语 按语法规则构成的啊、种种句 子是有区别的。如：语言中的 每个词不一定都表示一个概 念，每个句子不一定都表示判 断。 （3）.思维过程是运用概念 按照逻辑规律构成种种判断， 语言运用过程则是运用词语， 按照句法构成各种句子。 （4）.语言是具有民族特点 的，各民族都有自己的语言特 点，世界上有许多种语言。但 思维是各民族共同的，全人类 具有共同的思维形式和思维 规律。 三、试分析汉字跨越方言交 际的特点与原因 答：汉字的特点:汉字本身 与汉语的语音不发生直接联 系，所以汉字是表意体系的文 字。 汉字有许多形声字，形声字 有表音的声旁，但这种声旁并 不是某种固定的表音的符号， 也不是直接标音的符号，所以 汉字虽有声旁，仍然是表意体 系的文字。 汉字跨方言交际的原因 汉语的居住地区幅员辽阔， 方言分歧有的不能通话，汉族 有悠久的文化传统，有大量用 汉字记载的文献典籍。超地 域、超时代的汉字既可以贯通 古今，也可以联系各地区的人 们的思想交流对于维护国家 的统一、民族的团结，便利各 地区人民的往来起着重要的 作用。 四、谈谈语言分化的原因与 结果 答：语言的分化有两大方 面：一方面是分化出地方变 体，即方言。方言的产生是与 社会的半分化状态相适应的。 随着社会的进一步分化，方言 进一步发展，就可能形成独立 的语言，即产生具有同源关系 的亲属语言。另一方面是分化 出社会变化。社会变化即社会 方言，如行业语，阶级或阶层 习惯语，隐语等。地域方言之 间的区别主要表现在语音方 面，同时也表现在词汇和语法 方面。而社会方言的区别主要 表现在词汇方面。 五、谈语言成分的借用与吸 收 答：要点：借用与吸收的条 件。民族之间的贸易往来，文 化交流，移民杂居，战争征服 等各种形态的接触，都会引起 语言的接触。语言的接触，也 会产生“洋泾浜”“混合 语”等特殊的语言现象。 主要形式有借词。借词也叫 外来词，它指的是音与义都借 自外语的词。 意译词是用本族语言的构 词材料和规则构成新词，把外 语里某个词的意义移植进来。 汉语在吸收外来成分的时 候，不喜欢借音，喜欢有自己 的语素来构词。在这一点上， 汉语和英语、日语等有很大不 同，而接近于德语。 意译词里面还有一种仿译 词。它的特点是，用本族语言 的材料逐一翻译原词的语素， 不但把它的意义，而且把神经 质内部构成形式，也转植过来 如“黑板blackboard,"球 "footba1l等。 有时候，在吸收外来外来成 分的时候，为了便于理解采用 音译加意译的方法。 如汉语中啤酒beer，卡车car 等等。 在词的借用过程中，还可能 有借出去的词再借回来的现 象。一出一进之间，音义等方 面都会有一些变化。汉语的 “百姓”借入蒙古语后成为 [paicing]意思是土房子后来 变成店铺的意思汉语后来又 把这个词从蒙古语中借回来 叫做板生简称板。 七、谈谈语言与思维的关系 思维离不开语言，语言和思 维是两种独立的现象，但形影 相随，不可分离，思维必须在 语言材料的基础上进行。语言 是思维的工具，也是认识成果 的储存。 学习语言的过程也就是认 识世界的过程，思维发展的过 程。 思维必能推语言，还有神经 生物学的根据。 抽象的思维总得以某种物 质的形式作为依托，最方便、 最灵活的依托是声音，也就是 有声语言。 八、试分析词义的派生及其 派生意义的相互关系 答：1．词义派生的条件2．词 义派生的类型3．派生义之间 的关系 词义的派生有现实的基础， 这就是派生义和派生它的那 个意义所指的事物的某一方 面特征有联系。这种联系怎么 被利用来作为派生新义的线 索，那与语言社会的生活环 境、劳动条件、风俗习惯以及 人的思维活动、语言成分之间 的相互作用等等有关。因而表 达同一类现实现象的词义在 不同的语言中各有自己的派 生历程。多义词的派生意义和 它所从出的意义之间存在着 内存的联系。而两者所表示的 事情之间的共同特征，则建立 这种联系的桥梁派生意义就 是顺着这样的桥梁从本义一 步一步扩散开去的。 派生意义产生的途径，就是 引申。引申大体上可分为隐喻 和换喻两种方式。隐喻建立在 两个意义所反映的现实现象 的某种相似的基础上。换喻的 基础是两类现实现象之间存 在着某种联系。这种联系在人 们的心中经常出现而固定化， 因而可以用指称甲类现象的 词去指称乙类现象。一个词的 意义通过隐喻和换喻这些引 申途径可以啬很多新的意义， 使语言能够用较少的词的形 式表达较多的意义。 九、试论图画文字与文字画 答：如果把图形简化，一个 图形记录语言中的一个语素 或词，那就产生了真正的文 字。文字起源于图画，所以有 人把记事的图画叫做“图画文 字”。这种用于交际的图画， 正是原始文字符号的前身，图 形象征化的最初的、最原始的 阶段是图画文字。当图形符号 不是用来代表概念而是用来 代表相应的词的声音时，文字 史上最有意义的一步就迈出 去了。用于交际的图画演变为 文字符号的标志在于它与语 言中的词或语素建立起固定 的关系，也就是说，它在图形 上比较确定，并且有了公认的 音和意。 文字画是用整幅画与语言结 合，成了能说的图画，在一定 程度上具备了文字的性质，但 是它只能图解主要的事物形 象和它们的关系，而不能象真 正的文字那样，作为一种符号 体系来记录语言，就是说它不 能把文字记录的语法关系排 列出来，它只能在比较狭小的 范围内发挥实际作用，离开了 当时的环境。别人无法理解他 的意义，因而文字画还不是真 正的文字，只能说明文字是起 源于文字画，是文字的前身。 十一、试谈洋泾浜的发展趋 势 答：“洋泾浜”这种语言现 象的产生与十七世纪以后帝 国主义的殖民扩张有联系，是 语言接触中的一种畸形的语 言现象。它的使用范围比较狭 窄，发展的前途不外两个：一 是随着社会制度的改变而消 亡，像我国的洋泾浜语在解放 后便停止通行；一个是发展为 混合语，成为某一地区人们通 用的交际工具。 十二、语言的符号特点与作 用 答：语言的符号的最大特点 是它的音和意的结合是任意 的，由社会约定俗成。语言符 号中的形式和意义的结合完 全由社会“约定俗成”，而不 是他们之间有什么必然的、本 质的联系。 语言符号的另一重要特点 是它的线条性。语言符号只能 一个跟着一个一次出现，在实 践的线条上延绵，不能在空间 的面上铺开。 这种由社会“约定俗成”的 符号在使用中还有一个重要 的特点，就是它要象机器的零 件那样能够拼装拆卸，重复使 用。 语言符号不是互不相干的 一盘散沙，而是有组织、有条 理的系统。 十三、谈谈词的形态与形态 变化 答：形态即词形变化，是指 词与词组合时，由于表示语法 意义的需要而发生的词形上 的变化。例如英语的代词有主 格和宾格的区别，第一人称单 数作主语时用I，作宾格时用 me，词形发生了变化，就是形 态变化。 汉语属于孤立语，词很少有 形态变化，少部分形容词可以 重叠表示程度加强的意义，例 如“高高兴兴、快快乐乐、结 结巴巴”等。 例如：英语动词be的八种 形态写八个句子，说明其语法 意义。 a.Hewillbeateacher：表示 将要发生的动作行为，动词用 原形。 b.Iamateacher:现在时，单 数第一人称。 c.Sheisapainter:现在时， 单数第三人称。 d.Theyareworker:现在时， 主语是复数。 e.Hewasateacher:过去时， 主语是单数。 f.wewereworker:过去时， 主语是复数。 g.Ihavebeenateacher:现 在完成时，表示从过去延续到 现在的行为状态。 h.Thenewspaperisbeingre ad:被动语态，进行时。

《语言学概论》作业参考答案

《语言学概论》作业参考答案 一、名词解释 1.音位：最小的可以区别意义的语音单位，通常由一簇互相不区别意义的音素构成。如|A|音位里就有前A、后A、央A等几个音素。 2.塞擦音：辅音的发音方式之一。其特点是发音时，两个发音部位紧靠在一起形成阻碍，在保持这个阻碍的同时，留出一个窄缝，让气流从窄缝中磨擦成声，最后除去这个阻碍。如：b‘ｐ‘ｋ‘就是。 3.递归性：语言的递归性是指，组合结构中的某个单位，可以不断地被一个同功能的短语替换，从而使基本结构里的某个扩展为非常复杂的结构，但其作用仍然等于原始项。也即语言的整体结构与基本框架不变。语法结构的这种性质，我们称之为语言结构的递归性。语言的递归性是语言结构一种非常重要的特性。如：人打倒了|敌人/凶恶的敌人/盘踞在中国大陆的敌人/曾经盘踞在中国大陆的不可以一世的敌人/曾经盘踞在中国大陆不可一世但最终被人民打倒的敌人 4.复综语：语言类型之一。这种语言的动词内有用不同的形态表示各种复杂的语法成分。多见于美洲印第安人的语言。举例。 5.自由变体：音位变体的一种类型。通常指对出现的组合条件没有硬性要求的音位变体。举例。 6.元音：音素的类型之一。即发音时气流在口腔中不受阻碍而形成的音。举例。 7.语法形式：表示语法意义方式与材料。举例。 8.词干：一个词的主要部分，词汇意义的承担者。举例。 9.音色：语音四要素之一，又叫音质，指声音的特色。由物体振动的不同形式所决定。举例。 10.塞音：辅音的发音方式之一。其特征发音时两个发音部位紧靠在一起，保持一段时间，然后突然除阻，爆破成声。也叫爆破音。举例。 11.共同语：随着社会政治经济集中，会以一种方言为基础形成共同语，以满足整个社会交际往来。共同语又叫天下通语、雅言。举例。 12.数：语法范畴之一。指是用一个词的不同形态表示出来的词语数的语法意义。在单数、复数、双数等。举例。 二、谈谈语言符号的特点 答案要点： 1.单位明晰性 2.任意性 3.结构二层性 4.开放性 5. 传授性 答：（1）.语言是一种工具，即交际工具和思维工具；而思维是一种能力和过程，即人脑能动地反映客观现实的能力和过程。 （2）.概念用词语表达，判断用句子表达，但概念按照逻辑规律构成的种种判断和词语按语法规则构成的啊、种种句子是有区别的。如：语言中的每个词不一定都表示一个概念，每个句子不一定都表示判断。 （3）.思维过程是运用概念按照逻辑规律构成种种判断，语言运用过程则是运用词语，按照句法构成各种句子。 （4）.语言是具有民族特点的，各民族都有自己的语言特点，世界上有许多种语言。但思维是各民族共同的，全人类具有共同的思维形式和思维规律。 三、试分析汉字跨越方言交际的特点与原因

岑运强《语言学基础理论(修订版)》习题答案

《语言学基础理论(修订版)》部分习题答案 第一章总论. □言语是 ×. 言论与语言×. 音义结合的符号系统 √. 说话和所说的话 □语言是一种 ×. 形式和内容相统一的视觉符号 √. 音义结合的听觉符号系统 ×. 用来交际的触觉符号系统 □抽象思维的一般特性是 ×. 概括性、民族性×. 概念、判断、推理 ×. 固定、再现、改造√. 概括性、社会性 □语言是思维的工具指的是 ×. 一切思维必须由语言完成 √. 主要指抽象思维和直观动作思维、形象思维的高级阶段离不开语言×. 指直观动作思维和表象思维离不开语言 □思维的三种类型是

√. 直观动作思维、表象思维、抽象思维 ×. 概念、判断、推理 ×. 固定、再现、改造 □语言符号的任意性是 ×. 语言符号的创造和使用总是任意的 ×. 我们可以任意理解语言的符号 √. 语言符号音义之间没有本质的联系 □语言符号的线条性 ×. 语言符号的排列没有阶级性,象一根线条排列在一起 ×. 语言符号一个跟一个依次出现,随时间推移不分层次逐渐延伸√. 语言符号在时间的线条上逐个出现,同时不排除层次性 □“他肯定不会来了!”这句话强调了说者的 ×. 说话行为√. 施事行为 ×. 取效行为×. 言语行为 □汉语声调从中古到现代的“平分阴阳,入派三声”的规律是√. 个别语言的发展规律×. 一般语言的发展规律 ×. 汉民族各种方言的发展规律 □一个民族内部共同使用的语言称为

√. 民族共同语×. 民族交际语 ×. 国际交际语 □克里奥尔语是语言的 √. 混合×. 融合 ×. 分化×. 整化 □语言融合的“底层”现象是 ×. 语言装置的最下面一层,即语音部分√. 被融合的语言的某些遗留下来的因素×. 被压迫的阶层 第二章语音 □声调决定于 √. 音高×. 音强 ×. 音长×. 音质 □[p、t?、b、k]在发音方法上的共同特点是×. 清音×. 不送气 √. 塞音×. 擦音 □舌尖后浊擦音是