Point response characteristics for the CERESEOS-PM,

Point response characteristics for the

CERES/EOS-PM,

FM3 & FM4 instruments.

Jack Paden*, G. Louis Smith**, Robert B. Lee III***, Dhirendra K. Pandey*,

Kory J. Priestley***, Susan Thomas*, and Robert S. Wilson*

* Science Applications International Corporation

One Enterprise Parkway, Suite 300

Hampton, V A 23666-5845

** Thermal Radiation Group

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Virginia Polytechnic Institute & State University

Blacksburg, V A 24061

***Atmospheric Sciences Division

NASA Langley Research Center, M.S. 420

Hampton, V A 23681-0001

ABSTRACT

This paper describes the point source functions(PSF’s)of the Clouds and the Earth’s Radiant Energy System(CERES,)Earth Observing System (EOS,) afternoon platform (PM,)Flight Model 3 (FM3,) and Flight Model 4 (FM4) scanning instru-ments. The PSF (also known as the Point Response Function, or PRF) is vital to the accurate geo-location of the remotely sensed radiance measurements acquired by the instrument.This paper compares the characteristics of the FM3and FM4instruments with the earlier Proto Flight Model(PFM)on the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) platform, and the FM1 and FM2 Models on the EOS morning orbiting (AM) platform, which has recently been renamed “Terra.” All of the PSF’s were found to be quite comparable, and the previously noted “spreading” characteristic of the window (water vapor) channel PSF is analyzed

Keywords:PSF, PRF, CERES, TRMM, EOS, Earth Radiation Budget

1. INTRODUCTION

The CERES/EOS-PM scanning radiometric measuring instruments are based on those which have been ?own previously on the Earth’s Radiation Budget Experiment (ERBE.) The CERES instruments measure three radiation wavelength bands: the total earth radiation (emitted and re?ected) from 0.3 to >100 microns, the emitted “water vapor” window band from 8 to 12 microns, and the earth re?ected shortwave radiation band from 0.3 to <5.0 microns. These bands were discussed by Barkstrom1 in 1990. The Proto-Flight Model (PFM) of the CERES instrument is currently orbiting on the joint US/Japanese Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) which was launched in November 1997. The Flight Model One (FM1) and Flight Model Two (FM2) instruments are both scheduled to orbit on the Earth Observation System (EOS) AM platform in

August 1999. Two additional CERES instruments (FM3 and FM4) are scheduled to be launched on the EOS-PM platform in 2001.A?fth instrument(FM5)awaits launch on a?ight-of-opportunity(FOO.)The data acquired by these instruments is ana-lyzed by computing radiation as measured by the CERES radiometer.These data will be compared to measurements acquired by higher resolution instruments such as the MODIS (Wielicki, et al.2). The Point Response Function (PRF) of the CERES measurements describe the response of the instrument to any point within the?eld-of-view.This response is determined by the instantaneous ?eld-of-view, the time response of the detector and the signal conditioning ?lter (Smith3). The radiometric cali-bration facility (RCF) which was built for the CERES radiometer calibrations includes a PRF radiance source (PRFS). The beam of radiation from the PRFS source subtends a 0.17° cone, which is small compared to the instantaneous ?eld-of-view (IFOV) of the radiometers; however, the ?nite solid angle of the beam must be considered in the data analysis. The Proto-Flight Model (PFM), Flight Model 1 (FM1), Flight Model 2 (FM2) instruments have previously been tested with the PRF source. Results for the TRMM instrument were discussed at SPIE’s Aerosense97 Symposium in Orlando in 1997 (Paden4). Results for the EOS-AM, FM1 & FM2 instruments were discussed by Smith at SPIE’s Symposium in San Diego in 1998 (Paden5) In this paper we discuss the analysis of the measurements for the FM3 and FM4 instruments, and their comparison with the previous instruments,and with the theoretical model developed by Smith3.The results presented in this paper are com-pared to those acquired by the previous CERES instruments.

2. DESCRIPTION OF THE INSTRUMENT

Barkstrom1 described the instruments used in the pioneering efforts to measure the Earth’s outgoing radiation using remote sensing satellites. The CERES instrument, sensors, and RCF were described by Lee6, et al. More recent descriptions of the pre-launch calibrations of the ?rst three instruments were provided by Lee7, et al. in the July 1998 IEEE Transactions, and by Paden4,5, etal. at the SPIE Symposia in Orlando (1997) and San Diego (1998). Each CERES instrument(Fig. 1) has three scanning channels.The total channel is sensitive to radiation in the wavelength range of0.3to>100microns;he window chan-nel is sensitive to the (water-vapor) wavelengths from 8 to 12 microns; and the shortwave channel is sensitive to radiation in the0.3to5.0micron band.Each of the three bolometers is located at the focal plane of a Cassegrainian telescope(Fig.2).The incident radiation is restricted by insertion of a FOV limiter in the shape of an elongated hexagon(Fig. 3) in the optical path. The instrument is capable of slewing in both azimuth and elevation, and can be operated while scanning with either a ?xed or rotating azimuth plane.

3.THE THEORETICAL PSF MODEL

The modi?ed Smith3theoretical model used for the analysis of data from the point response function source (PRFS) has been thoroughly discussed in previous papers by Paden4,5, and will not be repeated here. The ground calibration data for all previ-ous CERES instruments were analyzed using laborious, and somewhat error-prone, manual methods. The potential for error was primarily due to the large numbers of ?les involved (40 to 50); the fact that 4 scans, in opposite directions, were made across the PRFS source in each record; the fact that 3 different azimuthal offsets were associated with each scan-normal test; and human fallibility.The PRFS data for the FM3and FM4instruments were analyzed using an automated program written in the Research Systems,inc.(RSI)Interactive Data Language(IDL?,)The program is designed to eliminate the human fallibil-ity factor by insuring that the repetitive operations necessary to temporally and spatially shift the PRFS off-azimuth data are completed in the same manner on each data ?le analyzed.

Figure 1. CERES Scanner Instrument Figure 2. CERES Telescope Design

.

In this study, the modi?ed Smith model was used to generate a ?nite source response contour for the CERES/EOS-PM instru-ments (designated as FM3, and FM4 respectively), using their measured detector time constants. The Smith 3 model was sup-plemented by adding code which assumes a circular, ?nite source emitting exactly 1 unit of radiance uniformly over its entire surface, moving across the FOV of the detector (Fig. 4)

4. DESCRIPTION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA

The measurements used in this comparison were acquired by TRW personnel at their Radiometric Calibration Facility (Fig.5)in Redondo Beach, California. The instruments tested were the FM3 and FM4 models of the CERES scanning radiometer which are scheduled to be launched aboard the EOS-PM platform in November 1999.In the RCF,the instruments are mounted with their scan axes in the vertical direction (the scan plane is therefore horizontal.) During testing, the FM3 and FM4 instru-ments executed the scan pro?les described in Table 1, and graphically depicted in Figure 6. The two different pro?les were occasioned by the fact that the scan-rate for FM4 was increased (from the 62.96 degrees/second rate used for the PFM, FM1,FM2,and FM3)to 66.99degrees per second,in order to prevent source saturation of the total and shortwave channel detectors.Analysis of the data determined the location of the PRFS within the RCF scan plane.[90.26degrees instrument scan elevation angle for the FM3(Fig.7)and 94.7.degrees for the FM4(Fig.8)EOS-PM instruments.]The source beam was rotated normal to the scan direction from -1.5 degrees to +1.5 degrees in 0.25 degree increments. At each of the scan-normal angles; 3 ?les each,containing between 10and 20records;and each record containing 660samples of data,were acquired.All of the data in each ?le was corrected for drift and offset, and all resulting ?les were averaged to produce a single record representing the aggregation of all data in the set. Each averaged 660 sample record contained two alternating, backward and forward scans across the source at the CERES PRFS scan rate. Because of the backward and forward scan pattern the leading edge of the ?nite source will allow radiance to impinge on the detector exactly 1.3degrees (the width of the FOVL)in angle earlier on the backward scan than on the forward scan. One ?le (of the set of 3) was recorded with the source pointed directly at the instru-ment(i.e., 0 degree cant in the scan angle); another was recorded with the source canted -0.2 degrees in the scan angle plane;and the third ?le was recorded with the source canted +0.2 degrees in the scan angle plane. This canting was necessary since,at the PRFS scan rate, and a sampling rate of 0.01 second, data points are spaced approximately 0.6 degrees, and canting the source by 0.2degrees in each direction provides data points approximately every 0.2degrees.Merging the data from the

three ?les has the effect of providing “apparent” sampling within FOV limits, at a rate of 3-times the true rate, thus allowing us to Figure 4. PSF Blur-Circle Integration

more accurately characterize the shape of the response signal within the FOVL. For the 0 degree scan angle cant ?le, no time correction was needed.However,due to the four scans over the source in each ?le,the ±0.2degree cant ?les required four time corrections in each record to account for the alternating lead/lag due to the cant angle.The three resultant averaged ?les (+0.2degree,0degree,and -0.2degree cant)for each scan-normal angle were then appended onto one ?le and time sorted,thus pro-ducing a 1980 sample ?le representing the “enhanced” scan record. One should note that the “enhanced” scan record is NOT evenly sampled due to the 0.01 second basic sampling rate coupled with the 0.2 degr ee de?ection of the PRFS beam.

Graphical displays of data acquired for the FM3 and FM4 total channels are shown in Figs. 7 & 8, respectively The scan rate for the FM4 tests was increased from 62.96 to 66.99 degrees per second. The apparent sampling intervals for the FM3 instru-ment were 3.176,3.176,and 6.824milliseconds;and for the FM4instrument they were 2.986,2.986,and 5.972milliseconds.The scan rate was increased (by TRW) to insure that the detectors were not saturated by the source, the radiant energy output of which had increased signi?cantly over that for FM3. These particular sets of data apply only to the 0 degree scan-normal angle where the ?nite source passes through the geometric center of the FOV , but they are illustrative of all of the other PSF data sets used in this analysis. For each of the data sets, and for each scan-normal position, the four scans across the PRFS source were “initialized” at the leading edge of the FOV (i.e., time = 0 when the ?rst pixel passes ±0.65 degrees on the scan axis,)and the resultant data set was again averaged.The aggregation of all of these data sets provided the input for the contour plots of the PSF.

Figure 5. Radiometric Calibration Facility Transfer Active Cavity Radiometer (TACR)22°

66°82°46°R 25.640°Cold Space Reference (CRS)

Integrating Sphere

Short Wave Reference Source (SWRS)Albedo Plate (1 Each End)Constant Radiance Reference (CRR)

Point Response Function Source (PRFS)Liquid Nitrogen Shroud

Cold Space Reference (CSR)Narrow Field Blackbody (NFBB)

Wide Field Blackbody (WFBB)

Earth View Angle 705 Km Orbit (128 Degrees)Solar Simulator

Carousel Assembly

Ceres Instrument

Table 1: EOS-PM Scan Pro?le

Scan Angle

(degrees)Time (seconds)FM3Time (seconds)FM4107

0.000.00107

0.840.8473

1.38 1.3573

1.94 1.94107

2.48 2.45107

4.14 4.1473

4.68 4.6573

5.24 5.24107

5.78 5.75107

6.59 6.59Figure 6. PRFS Data Collection Patterns

Figure 7. FM3 Total Channel PRFS Scans (Mid-FOVL)

Because of the time-span of the measurements for the various scan-normal positions,the PRFS source intensity varied quite a bit over the time intervals involved. Source intensity was not monitored directly, but rather by recording data at the central FOVL position several times throughout the data acquisition process. During our analysis, the application of linearly interpo-lated power correction adjustments was not found to be helpful, so we did not use it in this analysis

The ?nite source model was executed using an effective source radius of 0.17 degree. The pixel size used was 0.001 of a degree, which provides 340 pixels (Fig. 4) across the blur circle and limits the possible error in radiance calculations to no more that 0.00774%. For this radius and pixel size, there were 90785 (counted) pixels in the full blur circle. The comparative results of the modeling and measurement efforts for the FM3 instrument are displayed in six ?gures; ?gures 9-11showing results for the ?nite source (radius = 0.17) model; and ?gures 12-14 showing plots of the “normalized” measured data. The comparable results of the modeling and measurement efforts for the FM4instrument are displayed in six ?gures;?gures 15-17display results for the ?nite source (radius = 0.17) model; and ?gures 18-20 display plots of the “normalized” measured data.An image of the FOV limiter has been superimposed on all plots for reference.By normalized we mean that the measured data was scaled so that its maximum is equal to the maximum value in the modeled data and thus direct visual comparison of equiv-alent contour intervals can be easily made.

5. ANALYSIS OF THE RESULTS

Figures 7&8indicate that there was a slight attenuation of the detected radiance in the “back-scan”direction,and this charac-teristic was noted in all previous CERES instruments. In the process of “normalizing” the scans, these differences were aver-aged out. The source of these differences is not known. The comparisons of the modeled and measured total contours are excellent;and the shortwave channel comparisons are very good There is a signi?cant spread of contours in the scan direction for the measured window channel data when background radiance compensation is not considered.Priestley (1997)suggested that the spread was probably due to the relatively small signal-to-noise ratio for the window channel,and that by removing

the “background” radiance we would thereby minimize the spread.

Figure 8. FM4 Total Channel PRFS Scans (Mid-FOVL)

Figures 9 through 14. CERES FM 3 Instrument Contours

Figure 9. FM3 Total Modeled PSF Figure 10. FM3 Window Modeled PSF Figure 11. FM3 Shortwave Modeled PSF Figure 12. FM3 Total Measured PSF

Figure 13. FM3 Window Measured PSF

Figure 14. FM3 Shortwave Measured PSF

Figures 15 through 20. CERES FM4 Instrument Contours

Figure 15. FM4 Total Modeled PSF

Figure 16 FM4 Window Modeled PSF

Figure 17. FM4 Shortwave Modeled PSF

Figure 18. FM4 Total Measured PSF

Figure 19. FM4 Window Measured PSF

Figure 20. FM4 Shortwave Measured PSF

6. CONCLUDING REMARKS

We have demonstrated here (and in previous discussions 4,5) that the modi?ed PSF model accurately predicts the experimen-tally measured contours of the CERES scanning radiometers. Based on the tests performed using the ?nite source model, the differences between the modeled and measured values are very small for the total and shortwave channels., and the spreading of the measured window channel contours (with respect to the modeled data) can be compensated by removing the ambient background radiance as suggested by Priestley.The relatively low level of the window channel signal compared to the thermal gradients proximal to the PRFS source (Fig. 21) do indeed appear to have been the primary reason for the window channel contour spread (Fig. 22.) Figures 23 & 24 show the corresponding contour response to the removal of background signal.

Figures 21 through 24. Window Channel Comparisons (with & without background radiance)

Figure 21.Window Channel w/background Figure 22.Window Channel wo/background

Figure 23.Window Channel w/Background Figure 24.Window Channel wo/Background

A comparison of the results of testing for the FM3 and the FM4 CERES instruments with the results obtained from the PFM,FM1, and FM2 testing, shows very good agreement in all three channels. The spread in the window channel persists for all 5instruments, but is compensated when the effects of background radiation is taken into account (FM3 and FM4 instruments).The intercomparison of the three instruments shows that they are all very consistent in their contour patterns,and they all have essentially the same delay characteristics.

The good news is that all ?ve CERES instruments exhibit essentially the same PSF characteristics. A tabulation of the offsets of the peak radiance measurements from the optical axis is shown in Table 2,along with the calculated centroid of the theoret-ical PSF. All tabulated values are in degrees. Note that the increased scan rate for FM4 moves the calculated centroid farther away from the optical axis because the centroid location is directly proportional to the scan rate.

*: The FM4 PRFS scan rate was 66.99 deg/sec vs. 62.96 deg/sec for PFM through FM3

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The measurements used in this paper were acquired by TRW personnel at their Radiometric Calibration Facility in Redondo Beach,California.We wish to thank them for their efforts;in particular,Steve Carman,Project Manager;Peter Jarecke,Assis-tant Project Manager for Calibration,who designed the Radiometric Calibration Facility;Mark Frink,who designed the Point Response Function Source;Herb Bitting,who provided most of the data ?les and associated calibration test reports necessary to produce the contour plots in this paper; and Tom Evert, who provided information on the scan rate change for FM4. This work was partially funded under NASA Contract NAS 1-19570 with the NASA Langley Research Center, Hampton, Virginia.

Table 2:CERES radiance peaks & centroidal offsets from the optical axis (in degrees)CERES

Instrument

Total Channel

Window Channel Shortwave Channel Radiance Peak Calculated Centroid Radiance Peak Calculated Centroid Radiance Peak Calculated Centroid PFM

1.686 1.493 1.636 1.475 1.626 1.465FM1

1.622 1.487 1.694 1.453 1.595 1.471FM2

1.496 1.456 1.464 1.468 1.444 1.468FM3

1.535 1.511 1.684 1.498 1.559 1.479FM4 1.871* 1.634* 1.460* 1.587* 1.590* 1.607*

REFERENCES

1.B. R. Barkstrom, “Earth radiation budget measurements: pre-ERBE, ERBE, and CERES,” in Long-term Monitoring of the Earth’s Radiation Budget, B. R. Barkstrom, ed.Proc. Soc. Photo-Opt. Instrum. Eng.,1299, 52-60 (1990).

2.B.A.Wielicki.,B.R.Barkstrom,E.F.Harrison,R.B.Lee III,G.L.Smith,and J.E.Cooper:"Clouds and the Earth's Radi-ant Energy System (CERES): An Earth Observing System Experiment," Bull. Amer. Met. Soc.,77, 853-868 (1996).

3.G.Louis Smith,“Effects of time response on the point spread function of a scanning radiometer,”Applied Optics,33,pages 7031-7037 (1994).

4.J. Paden, G. Louis Smith, Robert B. Lee III, D. K. Pandey, Kory J. Priestley, Herbert Bitting, and Susan Thomas, “Reality Check:a point response function(PRF)comparison of theory to measurements for the Clouds and the Earth’s Radiant Energy System (CERES) Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) instrument”,Proc. Soc. Photo-Instrum. Eng.,V ol. 3074, pages109-117, (1997).

5.J. Paden, G. Louis Smith, Robert B. Lee III, D. K. Pandey, Kory J. Priestley, Herbert Bitting, Susan Thomas, and Robert S. Wilson, “Comparisons between Point Response Function measurements and theory for the Clouds and the Earth’s Radiant Energy System (CERES) TRMM and the EOS-AM spacecraft thermistor bolometer sensors”,Proc. Soc. Photo-Instrum. Eng.,V ol. 3439, pages 344-354, (1998).”

6.R.B.Lee III,B.R.Barkstrom,G.Louis Smith,J.H.Cooper,L.P.Kopia,and https://www.wendangku.net/doc/b82131645.html,wrence,“The Clouds and the Earth’s Radiant Energy System (CERES) Sensors and Pre?ight Calibration Plans”,Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technol-ogy,13, pages 300-313 (1996).

7.R. B. Lee III, Bruce R. Barkstrom, Herbert C. Bitting, Dominique A. H. Crommelynck, Jack Paden, Dhirendra K, Pandey, Kory J. Priestley, G. Louis Smith, Susan Thomas, K. Lee Thornhill, and Robert S. Wilson, “Prelaunch Calibrations of the Clouds and the Earth’s Radiant Energy System (CERES) Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission and Earth Observing System Morning(EOS-AM1)Spacecraft Thermistor Bolometer Sensors”,IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing, V ol. 36, No. 4, July 1998.

8.P. Jarecke and S. Carman, “CERES PFM/TRMM Instrument Calibration FInal Test Report”,TRW DRL 37.5,

55067.600.010, 11 December 1995.

9.H.Bitting and S.Carman,“CERES EOS AM-1Flight Model1Calibration Test Report”,TRW DRL38.5,55067.600.013, 16 May 1997.

10.H.Bitting and S.Carman,“CERES EOS AM-1Flight Model2Calibration Test Report”,TRW DRL38.5,55067.600.014, 25 June 1997.

Further Author Information -

Jack Paden: E-mail; j.paden@https://www.wendangku.net/doc/b82131645.html,; Telephone: 757-827-4880; Fax: 757-825-9129.

G. Louis Smith: E-mail: lou@https://www.wendangku.net/doc/b82131645.html,; Telephone: 757-864-5678; Fax: 757-864-7996.

Robert B. Lee: E-mail: r.b.lee@https://www.wendangku.net/doc/b82131645.html,; Telephone: 757-864-5679; Fax: 757-864-7996

D. K. Pandey: E-mail: d.k.pandey@https://www.wendangku.net/doc/b82131645.html,; Telephone: 757-827-4890; Fax 757-825-9129.

Susan Thomas: E-mail: s.thomas@https://www.wendangku.net/doc/b82131645.html,; Telephone: 757-827-4879; Fax: 757-825-9129.

Kory J. Priestley: E-mail: k.j.priestley@https://www.wendangku.net/doc/b82131645.html,; Telephone; 757-864-8147; Fax 757-864-7996.

Robert S. Wilson: E-mail: r.s.wilson@https://www.wendangku.net/doc/b82131645.html,; Telephone: 757-827-4881; Fax 757-825-9129.

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Dear Editors and Reviewers, Thank you for your letter and comments on our manuscript titled “Temporal variability in soil moisture after thinning in semi-arid Picea crassifolia plantations in northwestern China” (FORECO_2017_459). These comments helped us improve our manuscript, and provided important guidance for future research. We have addressed the editor’s and the reviewers’comments to the best of our abilities, and revised text to meet the Forest Ecology and Management style requirements. We hope this meets your requirements for a publication. We marked the revised portions in red and highlighted them yellow in the manuscript. The main comments and our specific responses are detailed below: Editor: Please explain how the results in this paper are significantly different from those in Zhu, X., He, Z.B., Du, J., Yang, J.J., Chen, L.F., 2015. Effects of thinning on the soil moisture of the Picea crassifolia plantation in Qilian Mountains. Forest Research. 28, 55–60.)

英语languagepoint(完整版)

get around/round to: do (something that you have intended to do for a long time.) e.g: I was meaning to see that film but I just never got around to it. 我一直想看那部电影，但始终还是没能去看。 just as well/as well: suggesting that something will be a good thing to do/or that it was luckily that something was done or happened. 正好，幸好，不妨 e.g: “Shall I phone to remind him? ” “That would be just as well.” It was just as well you’re not here. You wouldn’t like the noise. get by (Line 3): be good enough but not very good; manage to live or do things e.g: It is a bit hard for the old couple to get by on a small amount of pension. 如果我们坚持到底，我们就能熬过难关。 We’ll get by if we hold on to the end. get across: be understood Did your speech get across to the students? get away with: run away without being punished The teller had been stealing money from the bankand got away with it. 这个出纳一直在偷银行的钱却能侥幸逃脱。 get through (Line 45): come successfully to the end e.g: We’ve stored enough food and fuel to get through the cold winter. 为了度过寒冬，我们已经储备了足够的食物和燃料。 make it (Line 9) : be successful, fulfill the purpose e.g: Having failed for thousands of times, he eventually made it. 她最后成功地成为了一家大公司的总裁。 She finally made it as a CEO of a big corporation. haul (Line 16) v. transport, as with a truck, cart, etc. e.g: These farmers haul fruits and vegetables to the market on a cart in the early morning every day. v. pull or drag sth. with effort or force e.g: A crane has to be used to haul the car out of the stream. long-overdue (Line 20) adj. Being something that should have occurred much earlier. e.g: Changes to the tax system are long overdue .She feels she’s overdue for promotion. supplement (Line 21) v. add to sth. in order to improve it (followed by with) e.g: 1) Forrest does occasional freelance to supplement his income. 2) The doctor suggested supplementing my diet with vitamins E and A. supplementary adj. additional, auxiliary spray (Line 22): v. force out liquid in small drops upon (followed by with) eg: I’ll have to spray the roses w ith insecticide to get rid of the greenfly. freelance (Line 23) adj. doing particular pieces of work for different organizations rather than working all the time for a single 自由职业者的 e.g: Most of the journalists I know are/work freelance.

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消息导语的写法

消息导语的写法 导语是消息的重要组成部分，是消息的开头，通常是指消息的第一个自然段。消息导语的写作，是新闻记者的基本功。美国大学新闻学院的大学生或研究生要花一年的时间专门学习导语的写作。许多人构思和写作导语的时间要占据通篇稿件的三分之一到一半。由此可见导语写作的难度和重要性。 导语最基本的要求是言简意赅，即用最简洁凝炼的语言将消息中最新鲜、最主要、最精彩、最生动、最吸引人的新闻事实表现出来。导语的写法千变万化、灵活多样。概括起来，大致可以分为下列8种。 一、概要式：即用叙述的方式来归纳概括新闻的要点。 如：新华社1949年4月22日电人民解放军百万大军，从一千余华里的战线上，冲破敌阵，横渡长江。 再如：本报讯中国科学院昆明动物研究所培育计划中的第一只白猴于5月1日降生。（1988年全国好新闻消息二等奖，原载《云南日报》1988 年6月29日一版） 再如：本报讯（记者李捷）613万考生迎来了他们一生一博的时刻-2003年非典时期的正常高考今天静静拉开帷幕。（第十四届中国新闻奖二等奖消息作品） 一、描写式：即用现场目击、白描勾勒的方式来切入。 如：新华社北京1982年7月16日电（记者郭玲春）鲜花、翠柏丛中，安放着中国共产党员金山同志的遗像。千余名群众今天默默走进首都剧场，悼念这位人民的艺术家o（第四届中国新闻奖消息一等奖作品） 再如：本报讯（记者健吾）古埃及的金字塔、法国的巴黎圣母院、缅甸的仰光大金塔、加拿大的尼亚加拉瀑布，还有列宁的墓、白求恩的故居以及日本的劈啪舞……人们不用出国，在五泉山公园文昌宫举行的《劳崇聘外国风光写生展览》上，便可欣赏到外国的名胜古迹，领略到外国的风土人情。（原载《兰州晚报》1985年10月8日四版）再如：本报讯（记者健吾）大西北一个偏僻山村的崎岖小道上，一支娶亲的人马抬着花轿，拥着新郎入场，由此引出一个凄凉的、为人们所熟悉 却又弄不清发生在何年何月的故事。这是省歌剧团为建国40周年正在排练的献礼之作——《阴山下》的序幕o（《兰州晚报》1989年3月5日四版） 三、提问式：即先提出问题，引出悬念，进而解答。