机械毕业设计英文外文翻译切换电路的连接设置

译文

切换电路的连接设置的结果是保留了从发送端到接收端的包所通过的线路带宽。其它的特性这一就是所有的包都沿同一个线路意味着如果包传输超过了时序那它将不能到达接收端.由于没有路径用来进行包交换，所以要想不同的包沿不同的路径传送就是能依靠网络的条件了。这样包即便是超过了时序它们也有可能到达的。

包交换技术比线路交换技术更能容错。事实上，这也是它被发明的理由！当一个交换开头被拉下，则所有使用它的线路将被切断并且其余的包将不能再被传送。此时如果在进行包交换，包将在已选择的路径上停止交换。

预先建立一条路径也开创预先保留带宽的可能性。如果带宽被保留，那么当一个包到达时，通过保留的带宽它可以被立即发送出去。假如没有带宽被保留用于包交换，那么所有的包将不得不等待着被转发。

预先保留带宽意味着当一个包出现时不会发生拥塞(除非出现的包比预期的还多)。在另一方面,当尝试建立一条电路时，由于拥塞，尝试将会失败。因此，在线路交换(在设置时)和包交换(在包发送时)的不同时间拥塞都可能发生。

如果为特定的用户建立一条线路那么当这个用户没有数据传送时，则这些保留下来的带宽将被浪费而不能用于其它用户的传输。而包交换则不会浪费带宽，因此它在

系统宽带方面的应用更有前景。理解电路交换和包交换的这种商业差别是极其重要的。这种商业差别是在质保服务和浪费资源相对不质保服务和不浪费资源的。

包交换是利用存储器并向前发送的。包是先存储在路由器的内存里然后再发送到下一个路由器的。和电路交换一样信息位也是连续不断地通过导线传输的。存储转发技术增加了延迟时间。

另一个不同是电路交换是完全透明的。发送者和接收者可以使用他们想要的任一比特速率，格式和帧同步.这通信公司不知道也不关心这的。而在包交换中载体决定了基本的参数的。用一个简单比喻它们就像一个是公路一个是铁路。在以前，用户决定介质的大小，速度和特性。而后来这些都由通信公司做了的。这些都是透明的它允许声音，数据和传真共同存在于电话系统里。

电路交换和包交换的最后一个不同点是计费方式。电路交换的计费是按照传统的距离和时间的。比如移动电话除打国际电话外距离是不列入计算的，而时间也只是列入一个简单的计算(例:拔打2000分钟电话比1000分钟电话花费的多并且晚上或周末也比平时来得便宜)。时间对于包交换来说是没有问题的，但是传输流量却是个问题。ISPs为家庭用户的计费方式基于按一个月的流量的一半的，这是因为它们用得相对较少并且他们的顾客也很好理解这种计费方式。但是主干网络中心的收费是基于它们的流量的。这些不同列在图2-40里。

电路交换和包交换是两者都是非常重要的，我们将立即在详细的资料里提及并描述它们之间各种不同的技术。

2.6 移动电话系统

传统的电话的系统将不能满足用户的大量增长（即有一天实现了终端到终端的光纤连接）。人类在进步，人们期望能在飞机上，汽车里，船上，足球场甚至在公园里跑步的时候也能打电话。在近几年人们更是期望能在更多的地方发电子邮件和上网冲浪。因此有很多的人关心无线电话技术。在下面的章节我们将用详细的资料来学习这些主题。

无线电话可以分为基本的两种：无绳电话和移动电话（有时也叫蜂窝电话）。无绳电话设备是由痤机和听筒组成它们被安装在用户的家里。它们从不被应用于网络，所以我们没有办法做进一步的检测。取而代之，我们将把焦点放在在声音和数据通信上有广泛应用的移动系统上。

移动电话经历了三个不同的发展阶段，每个阶段都有不同的技术：

1．模拟声音

2．数字声音

3．数字声音和数据（互联网，电子邮件，etc.）

虽然我们主要讨论这系统技术，但是我们也有必要注意政府和市场对它的巨大影响。第一个移动电话系统是在美国由受美国国家联邦通讯委员会(FCC)委托的美国电话电报公司(AT&T)设计的。结果在整个美国就有了一个简单的(模拟)系统并且移动电话开始在加利福尼亚上市同时也在纽约得到应用。相反的，当移动电话来到欧洲时，由于每个国家都设计了自己的系统，所以结局很惨败。

当数字技术到来时，欧洲从前面的失败中吸收教训，政府和邮政制定了简单系统(GSM)的统一标准，因此移动电话在欧洲的任何一个地方都是通用的。此时，美国政府决定不把标准商业化因而它失去了数字市场。这个决定导致不同的设备生产商生产出不同的移动电话。结果现在美国有两不可兼容的数字移动电话在使用(加强了一家就会削弱另一家)。

即使美国拥有移动电话的所有权，但是在应用上欧洲要远远超过美国的。原因之一就是整个欧洲拥有相同的简单系统。然而更多的是由于美国和欧洲的基本电话数量不同。在美国移动电话和固定电话是共用的，因此对于用户没有办法区分(212)234-5678到底是固定电话(拨打是便宜的或者是免费的)还是移动电话(拨打是昂贵的)。为了使人们从使用电话中获益，电话公司决定为引入呼叫而花自己的钱制造移动电话。结果导致，很多人怕由于呼叫而收到一大笔帐单而不愿意买移动电话。在欧洲移动电话有特殊的区号(如800,900之类的数字)，所以它很快就得到了认可。因而在一般的“叫方付费”的原则在欧洲也被应用于移动电话了(除国际电话分开收费外)。

在欧洲采用颁布广泛的已经付费的移动电话的影响巨大(超过同地区的75%)。移动电话可以在很多的商店里购买而不像购买收音机那样需要很多手续。谁付费谁使用，他们预先存入，比如20或50 euro并且在快用完的时候可以用PIN码进行再充值。结果在欧洲几乎所有的青年和小孩都有一个(预付费的)移动电话，这样他们的父母就可以准确的定位他们而不用去担心孩子们会用掉一大笔帐的。如果仅在偶而使用移动电话，那么它的使用是基本免费的因为这里有月租或者预先支付呼叫。

2.6.1 第一代移动电话：模拟声音

移动电话充分体现了政治和市场的特征。让我们来看

一下它的技术吧。它是从简单的系统开始的。在20世纪的初，移动无线电话被偶而应用于海上或军事通信中。在1946年，第一个基站被安置在St.Louis。这个系统被安置在高层建筑上，它使用一个简单的大的发送机并且有了用于发送和接收的简单的通道。像这样的系统称做被动式系统，从1950开始它就被安装在很多的城市了。可较验的收音机，出租车，警车还有电视也广泛采用这种技术。

在1960年，IMTS（改良的移动电话系统）被发明。它仍然使用高达200瓦的发送器，发送器被安置在山上，不过此时已经有了两各不同的频率了，一种用来发送，另一种用来接收，所以这个呼叫按钮就可不要了。相比信号出站移动电话的信号入站是通过不同的通道的，因此移动用户不会互相听到(不像应用在出租车上被叫系统)。

IMTS支持从150 MHz到 450 MHz的23条通道。由于通道太少，用户经常要等很长时间才能听到拔号音。也由于小山上的发送器的功率太大，为了不互相干扰邻近的系统不得不与它相距几百千米。总而言之，这有限的容量使用这系统有点不合实际应用。

原文

The result of the connection setup with circuit switching is the reservation of bandwidth all the way from the sender to the receiver. All packets follow this path. Among other properties, having all packets follow the same path means that they cannot arrive out of order. With packet switching there is no path , so different packets can follow different paths, depending on network conditions at the time they are sent. They may arrive out of order.

Packet switching is more fault tolerant than circuit switching. In fact, that is why it was invented. If a switch goes down, all of the circuits using it are terminated and no more traffic can be sent on any of them. With Packet switching, packets can be routed around dead switches.

Setting up a path in advance also opens up the possibility of reserving bandwidth in advance. If bandwidth is reserved, then when a packet arrives, it can be sent out immediately over the reserved bandwidth. With packet switching, no bandwidth is reserved, so packets may have to wait their turn to be forwarded.

Having bandwidth reserved in advance means that no congestion can occur when a packet shows up (unless more packets show up than expected).On the other hand, when an attempt is made to establish a circuit, the attempt can fail due to congestion. Thus, congestion can occur at different times with circuit switching(at setup time) and packet switching(when packets are sent).

If a circuit has been reserved for a particular user and there is no traffic to send, the bandwidth of that circuit is wasted. It cannot be used for other traffic. Packet switching does not waste bandwidth and thus is more efficient form a system-wide perspective. Understanding this trade-off is crucial for comprehending the difference between circuit switching and packet switching. The trade-off is between guaranteed service and wasting resources versus not guaranteeing service and not wasting resources.

Packet switching uses store-and-forward transmission. A packet is accumulated. in a router’s memory, then sent on to the next router. With circuit switching, the bits just flow through the wire continuously. The store-and-forward technique adds

delay.

Another difference is that circuit switching is completely transparent. The sender and receiver can use any bit rate, format, or framing method they want to. The carrier does not know or care. With packet switching, the carrier determines the basic parameters. A rough analogy is a road versus a railroad. In the former, the user determines the size, speed, and nature of the vehicle; in the latter, the carrier does. It is this transparency that allows voice, data, and fax to coexist within the phone system.

A final difference between circuit and packet switching is the charging algorithm. With circuit switching, charging has historically been based on distance and time. For mobile phones, distance usually does not play a role, except for international calls, and time plays only a minor role(e.g., a calling plan with 2000 free minutes costs more than one with 1000 free minutes and sometimes night or weekend calls are cheaper than normal).With packet switching, connect time is not an issue, but the volume of traffic sometimes is. For home users, ISPs usually charge a flat monthly rate

because it is less work for them and their customers can understand this model easily, but backbone carriers charge regional networks based on the volume of their traffic. The differences are summarized in Fig.2-40.

Both circuit switching and packet switching are important enough that we will come back to them shortly and describe the various technologies used in detail.

2.6 THE MOBILE TELEPHONE SYSTEM

The traditional telephone system(even if it some day gets multi-gigabit end-to-end fiber) will still not be able to satisfy a growing group of users :people on the go .People now expect to make phone calls from airplanes ,cars ,swimming pools ,and while jogging in the park .Within a few years they will also expect to send e-mail and surf the Web from all these locations and more consequently ,there is a tremendous amount of interest in wireless telephony .In the following sections we will study this topic in some detail.

Wireless telephones come in two basic varieties :cordless phones and mobile phones(sometimes called cell phones),Cordless phones are devices consisting of a base station and a handset sold as a set for use within the home. These are never used for networking ,so we will not examine them further .Instead we will concentrate on the mobile system ,which is used for wide area voice and data communication.

Mobile phones have gone through three distinct generations ,with different technologies:

1.Analog voice

2.Digital voice

3.Digital voice and data(Internet ,e-mail ,etc.).

Although most of our discussion will be about the technology of these systems ,it is interesting to note how political and tiny marketing decisions can have a huge impact .The first mobile system was devised in the U.S. by AT&T and mandated for the whole country by the FCC .As a result ,the entire U.S. had a single(analog) system and a mobile phone purchased in California also worked in New York .In contrast ,when mobile came to Europe ,every country devised its own system ,which resulted in a fiasco.

毕业设计外文翻译资料

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机械毕业设计英文外文翻译460数字控制 (2)

附录 科技译文： Numerical Control Numerical Control(NC) is a method of controlling the movements of machineComponents by directly inserting coded instructions in the form of numerical data(numbers and data ) into the system.The system automatically interprets these data and converts to output signals. These signals ,in turn control various machine components ,such as turning spindles on and off ,changing tools,moving the work piece or the tools along specific paths,and turning cutting fluits on and off. In order to appreciate the importer of numerical control of machines ,let’s briefly review how a process such as machining has been carried out traditionally .After studying the working drawing of a part, the operator sets up the appropriate process parameters(such as cutting speed ,feed,depth of cut,cutting fluid ,and so on),determines the sequence of operations to be performed,clamps the work piece in a workholding device such as chuck or collet ,and proceeds to make the part .Depending on part shape and the dimensional accuracy specified ,this approach usually requires skilled

机械专业毕业论文外文翻译

附录一英文科技文献翻译 英文原文： Experimental investigation of laser surface textured parallel thrust bearings Performance enhancements by laser surface texturing (LST) of parallel-thrust bearings is experimentally investigated. Test results are compared with a theoretical model and good correlation is found over the relevant operating conditions. A compari- son of the performance of unidirectional and bi-directional partial-LST bearings with that of a baseline, untextured bearing is presented showing the bene?ts of LST in terms of increased clearance and reduced friction. KEY WORDS: ?uid ?lm bearings, slider bearings, surface texturing 1. Introduction The classical theory of hydrodynamic lubrication yields linear (Couette) velocity distribution with zero pressure gradients between smooth parallel surfaces under steady-state sliding. This results in an unstable hydrodynamic ?lm that would collapse under any external force acting normal to the surfaces. However, experience shows that stable lubricating ?lms can develop between parallel sliding surfaces, generally because of some mechanism that relaxes one or more of the assumptions of the classical theory. A stable ?uid ?lm with su?cient load-carrying capacity in parallel sliding surfaces can be obtained, for example, with macro or micro surface structure of di?erent types. These include waviness [1] and protruding microasperities [2–4]. A good literature review on the subject can be found in Ref. [5]. More recently, laser surface texturing (LST) [6–8], as well as inlet roughening by longitudinal or transverse grooves [9] were suggested to provide load capacity in parallel sliding. The inlet roughness concept of Tonder [9] is based on ??e?ective clearance‘‘ reduction in the sliding direction and in this respect it is identical to the par- tial-LST concept described in ref. [10] for generating hydrostatic e?ect in high-pressure mechanical seals. Very recently Wang et al. [11] demonstrated experimentally a doubling of the load-carrying capacity for the surface- texture design by reactive ion etching of SiC

毕业设计外文翻译附原文

外文翻译 专业机械设计制造及其自动化学生姓名刘链柱 班级机制111 学号1110101102 指导教师葛友华

外文资料名称： Design and performance evaluation of vacuum cleaners using cyclone technology 外文资料出处：Korean J. Chem. Eng., 23(6), (用外文写) 925-930 (2006) 附件： 1.外文资料翻译译文 2.外文原文

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软件开发概念和设计方法大学毕业论文外文文献翻译及原文

毕业设计（论文）外文文献翻译 文献、资料中文题目：软件开发概念和设计方法文献、资料英文题目： 文献、资料来源： 文献、资料发表（出版）日期： 院（部）： 专业： 班级： 姓名： 学号： 指导教师： 翻译日期： 2017.02.14

外文资料原文 Software Development Concepts and Design Methodologies During the 1960s, ma inframes and higher level programming languages were applied to man y problems including human resource s yste ms,reservation s yste ms, and manufacturing s yste ms. Computers and software were seen as the cure all for man y bu siness issues were some times applied blindly. S yste ms sometimes failed to solve the problem for which the y were designed for man y reasons including: ?Inability to sufficiently understand complex problems ?Not sufficiently taking into account end-u ser needs, the organizational environ ment, and performance tradeoffs ?Inability to accurately estimate development time and operational costs ?Lack of framework for consistent and regular customer communications At this time, the concept of structured programming, top-down design, stepwise refinement，and modularity e merged. Structured programming is still the most dominant approach to software engineering and is still evo lving. These failures led to the concept of "software engineering" based upon the idea that an engineering-like discipl ine could be applied to software design and develop ment. Software design is a process where the software designer applies techniques and principles to produce a conceptual model that de scribes and defines a solution to a problem. In the beginning, this des ign process has not been well structured and the model does not alwa ys accurately represent the problem of software development. However,design methodologies have been evolving to accommo date changes in technolog y coupled with our increased understanding of development processes. Whereas early desig n methods addressed specific aspects of the

机械毕业设计英文外文翻译204机电一体化

附录 INTEGRATION OF MACHINERY （From ELECTRICAL AND MACHINERY INDUSTRY）ABSTRACT Machinery was the modern science and technology development inevitable result, this article has summarized the integration of machinery technology basic outline and the development background .Summarized the domestic and foreign integration of machinery technology present situation, has analyzed the integration of machinery technology trend of development. Key word：integration of machinery ，technology，present situation ，product t，echnique of manufacture ，trend of development 0. Introduction modern science and technology unceasing development, impelled different discipline intersecting enormously with the seepage, has caused the project domain technological revolution and the transformation .In mechanical engineering domain, because the microelectronic technology and the computer technology rapid development and forms to the mechanical industry seepage the integration of machinery, caused the mechanical industry the technical structure, the product organization, the function and the constitution, the production method and the management system has had the huge change, caused the industrial production to enter into “the integration of machinery” by “the machinery electrification” for the characteristic development phase. 1. Integration of machinery outline integration of machinery is refers in the organization new owner function, the power function, in the information processing function and the control function introduces the electronic technology, unifies the system the mechanism and the computerization design and the software which constitutes always to call. The integration of machinery development also has become one to have until now own system new discipline, not only develops along with the science and technology, but also entrusts with the new content .But its basic characteristic may summarize is: The integration of machinery is embarks from the system viewpoint, synthesis community technologies and so on utilization mechanical technology, microelectronic technology, automatic control technology,

机械类毕业设计外文翻译

本科毕业论文(设计) 外文翻译 学院：机电工程学院 专业：机械工程及自动化 姓名：高峰 指导教师：李延胜 2011年05 月10日 教育部办公厅 Failure Analysis，Dimensional Determination And

Analysis，Applications Of Cams INTRODUCTION It is absolutely essential that a design engineer know how and why parts fail so that reliable machines that require minimum maintenance can be designed．Sometimes a failure can be serious，such as when a tire blows out on an automobile traveling at high speed．On the other hand，a failure may be no more than a nuisance．An example is the loosening of the radiator hose in an automobile cooling system．The consequence of this latter failure is usually the loss of some radiator coolant，a condition that is readily detected and corrected．The type of load a part absorbs is just as significant as the magnitude．Generally speaking，dynamic loads with direction reversals cause greater difficulty than static loads，and therefore，fatigue strength must be considered．Another concern is whether the material is ductile or brittle．For example，brittle materials are considered to be unacceptable where fatigue is involved． Many people mistakingly interpret the word failure to mean the actual breakage of a part．However，a design engineer must consider a broader understanding of what appreciable deformation occurs．A ductile material，however will deform a large amount prior to rupture．Excessive deformation，without fracture，may cause a machine to fail because the deformed part interferes with a moving second part．Therefore，a part fails(even if it has not physically broken)whenever it no longer fulfills its required function．Sometimes failure may be due to abnormal friction or vibration between two mating parts．Failure also may be due to a phenomenon called creep，which is the plastic flow of a material under load at elevated temperatures．In addition，the actual shape of a part may be responsible for failure．For example，stress concentrations due to sudden changes in contour must be taken into account．Evaluation of stress considerations is especially important when there are dynamic loads with direction reversals and the material is not very ductile． In general，the design engineer must consider all possible modes of failure，which include the following． ——Stress ——Deformation ——Wear ——Corrosion ——Vibration ——Environmental damage ——Loosening of fastening devices

毕业设计英文翻译

使用高级分析法的钢框架创新设计 1．导言 在美国，钢结构设计方法包括允许应力设计法(ASD)，塑性设计法(PD)和荷载阻力系数设计法(LRFD)。在允许应力设计中，应力计算基于一阶弹性分析，而几何非线性影响则隐含在细部设计方程中。在塑性设计中，结构分析中使用的是一阶塑性铰分析。塑性设计使整个结构体系的弹性力重新分配。尽管几何非线性和逐步高产效应并不在塑性设计之中，但它们近似细部设计方程。在荷载和阻力系数设计中，含放大系数的一阶弹性分析或单纯的二阶弹性分析被用于几何非线性分析，而梁柱的极限强度隐藏在互动设计方程。所有三个设计方法需要独立进行检查，包括系数K计算。在下面，对荷载抗力系数设计法的特点进行了简要介绍。 结构系统内的内力及稳定性和它的构件是相关的，但目前美国钢结构协会（AISC）的荷载抗力系数规范把这种分开来处理的。在目前的实际应用中，结构体系和它构件的相互影响反映在有效长度这一因素上。这一点在社会科学研究技术备忘录第五录摘录中有描述。 尽管结构最大内力和构件最大内力是相互依存的（但不一定共存），应当承认，严格考虑这种相互依存关系，很多结构是不实际的。与此同时，众所周知当遇到复杂框架设计中试图在柱设计时自动弥补整个结构的不稳定（例如通过调整柱的有效长度）是很困难的。因此，社会科学研究委员会建议在实际设计中，这两方面应单独考虑单独构件的稳定性和结构的基础及结构整体稳定性。图28.1就是这种方法的间接分析和设计方法。

在目前的美国钢结构协会荷载抗力系数规范中，分析结构体系的方法是一阶弹性分析或二阶弹性分析。在使用一阶弹性分析时，考虑到二阶效果，一阶力矩都是由B1,B2系数放大。在规范中，所有细部都是从结构体系中独立出来，他们通过细部内力曲线和规范给出的那些隐含二阶效应，非弹性，残余应力和挠度的相互作用设计的。理论解答和实验性数据的拟合曲线得到了柱曲线和梁曲线，同时Kanchanalai发现的所谓“精确”塑性区解决方案的拟合曲线确定了梁柱相互作用方程。 为了证明单个细部内力对整个结构体系的影响，使用了有效长度系数，如图28.2所示。有效长度方法为框架结构提供了一个良好的设计。然而，有效长度方法的

本科毕业设计方案外文翻译范本

I / 11 本科毕业设计外文翻译 <2018届） 论文题目基于WEB 的J2EE 的信息系统的方法研究 作者姓名[单击此处输入姓名] 指导教师[单击此处输入姓名] 学科(专业 > 所在学院计算机科学与技术学院 提交日期[时间 ]

基于WEB的J2EE的信息系统的方法研究 摘要：本文介绍基于工程的Java开发框架背后的概念，并介绍它如何用于IT 工程开发。因为有许多相同设计和开发工作在不同的方式下重复，而且并不总是符合最佳实践，所以许多开发框架建立了。我们已经定义了共同关注的问题和应用模式，代表有效解决办法的工具。开发框架提供：<1）从用户界面到数据集成的应用程序开发堆栈；<2）一个架构，基本环境及他们的相关技术，这些技术用来使用其他一些框架。架构定义了一个开发方法，其目的是协助客户开发工程。 关键词：J2EE 框架WEB开发 一、引言 软件工具包用来进行复杂的空间动态系统的非线性分析越来越多地使用基于Web的网络平台，以实现他们的用户界面，科学分析，分布仿真结果和科学家之间的信息交流。对于许多应用系统基于Web访问的非线性分析模拟软件成为一个重要组成部分。网络硬件和软件方面的密集技术变革[1]提供了比过去更多的自由选择机会[2]。因此，WEB平台的合理选择和发展对整个地区的非线性分析及其众多的应用程序具有越来越重要的意义。现阶段的WEB发展的特点是出现了大量的开源框架。框架将Web开发提到一个更高的水平，使基本功能的重复使用成为可能和从而提高了开发的生产力。 在某些情况下，开源框架没有提供常见问题的一个解决方案。出于这个原因，开发在开源框架的基础上建立自己的工程发展框架。本文旨在描述是一个基于Java的框架，该框架利用了开源框架并有助于开发基于Web的应用。通过分析现有的开源框架，本文提出了新的架构，基本环境及他们用来提高和利用其他一些框架的相关技术。架构定义了自己开发方法，其目的是协助客户开发和事例工程。 应用程序设计应该关注在工程中的重复利用。即使有独特的功能要求，也

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沈阳工业大学工程学院 毕业设计（论文）外文翻译 毕业设计（论文）题目：工具盒盖注塑模具设计 外文题目：Friction , Lubrication of Bearing 译文题目：轴承的摩擦与润滑 系（部）：机械系 专业班级：机械设计制造及其自动化0801 学生姓名：王宝帅 指导教师：魏晓波 2010年10 月15 日

外文文献原文： Friction , Lubrication of Bearing In many of the problem thus far , the student has been asked to disregard or neglect friction . Actually , friction is present to some degree whenever two parts are in contact and move on each other. The term friction refers to the resistance of two or more parts to movement. Friction is harmful or valuable depending upon where it occurs. friction is necessary for fastening devices such as screws and rivets which depend upon friction to hold the fastener and the parts together. Belt drivers, brakes, and tires are additional applications where friction is necessary. The friction of moving parts in a machine is harmful because it reduces the mechanical advantage of the device. The heat produced by friction is lost energy because no work takes place. Also , greater power is required to overcome the increased friction. Heat is destructive in that it causes expansion. Expansion may cause a bearing or sliding surface to fit tighter. If a great enough pressure builds up because made from low temperature materials may melt. There are three types of friction which must be overcome in moving parts: (1)starting, (2)sliding, and(3)rolling. Starting friction is the friction between two solids that tend to resist movement. When two parts are at a state of rest, the surface irregularities of both parts tend to interlock and form a wedging action. To produce motion in these parts, the wedge-shaped peaks and valleys of the stationary surfaces must be made to slide out and over each other. The rougher the two surfaces, the greater is starting friction resulting from their movement . Since there is usually no fixed pattern between the peaks and valleys of two mating parts, the irregularities do not interlock once the parts are in motion but slide over each other. The friction of the two surfaces is known as sliding friction. As shown in figure ,starting friction is always greater than sliding friction . Rolling friction occurs when roller devces are subjected to tremendous stress which cause the parts to change shape or deform. Under these conditions, the material in front of a roller tends to pile up and forces the object to roll slightly uphill. This changing of shape , known as deformation, causes a movement of molecules. As a result ,heat is produced from the added energy required to keep the parts turning and overcome friction. The friction caused by the wedging action of surface irregularities can be overcome

毕业设计外文翻译

毕业设计（论文） 外文翻译 题目西安市水源工程中的 水电站设计 专业水利水电工程 班级 学生 指导教师 2016年

研究钢弧形闸门的动态稳定性 牛志国 河海大学水利水电工程学院，中国南京，邮编210098 nzg_197901@https://www.wendangku.net/doc/b43480405.html,，niuzhiguo@https://www.wendangku.net/doc/b43480405.html, 李同春 河海大学水利水电工程学院，中国南京，邮编210098 ltchhu@https://www.wendangku.net/doc/b43480405.html, 摘要 由于钢弧形闸门的结构特征和弹力，调查对参数共振的弧形闸门的臂一直是研究领域的热点话题弧形弧形闸门的动力稳定性。在这个论文中，简化空间框架作为分析模型，根据弹性体薄壁结构的扰动方程和梁单元模型和薄壁结构的梁单元模型，动态不稳定区域的弧形闸门可以通过有限元的方法，应用有限元的方法计算动态不稳定性的主要区域的弧形弧形闸门工作。此外，结合物理和数值模型，对识别新方法的参数共振钢弧形闸门提出了调查，本文不仅是重要的改进弧形闸门的参数振动的计算方法，但也为进一步研究弧形弧形闸门结构的动态稳定性打下了坚实的基础。 简介 低举升力，没有门槽，好流型，和操作方便等优点，使钢弧形闸门已经广泛应用于水工建筑物。弧形闸门的结构特点是液压完全作用于弧形闸门，通过门叶和主大梁，所以弧形闸门臂是主要的组件确保弧形闸门安全操作。如果周期性轴向载荷作用于手臂，手臂的不稳定是在一定条件下可能发生。调查指出:在弧形闸门的20次事故中，除了极特殊的破坏情况下，弧形闸门的破坏的原因是弧形闸门臂的不稳定;此外，明显的动态作用下发生破坏。例如:张山闸，位于中国的江苏省，包括36个弧形闸门。当一个弧形闸门打开放水时，门被破坏了，而其他弧形闸门则关闭，受到静态静水压力仍然是一样的，很明显，一个动态的加载是造成的弧形闸门破坏一个主要因素。因此弧形闸门臂的动态不稳定是造成弧形闸门(特别是低水头的弧形闸门)破坏的主要原是毫无疑问。

本科毕业设计外文翻译

Section 3 Design philosophy, design method and earth pressures 3.1 Design philosophy 3.1.1 General The design of earth retaining structures requires consideration of the interaction between the ground and the structure. It requires the performance of two sets of calculations: 1）a set of equilibrium calculations to determine the overall proportions and the geometry of the structure necessary to achieve equilibrium under the relevant earth pressures and forces; 2）structural design calculations to determine the size and properties of thestructural sections necessary to resist the bending moments and shear forces determined from the equilibrium calculations. Both sets of calculations are carried out for specific design situations (see 3.2.2) in accordance with the principles of limit state design. The selected design situations should be sufficiently Severe and varied so as to encompass all reasonable conditions which can be foreseen during the period of construction and the life of the retaining wall. 3.1.2 Limit state design This code of practice adopts the philosophy of limit state design. This philosophy does not impose upon the designer any special requirements as to the manner in which the safety and stability of the retaining wall may be achieved, whether by overall factors of safety, or partial factors of safety, or by other measures. Limit states (see 1.3.13) are classified into: a) ultimate limit states (see 3.1.3); b) serviceability limit states (see 3.1.4). Typical ultimate limit states are depicted in figure 3. Rupture states which are reached before collapse occurs are, for simplicity, also classified and