低碳经济外文翻译

外文翻译

原文：

Low carbon economy

This paper examines different carbon pathways for achieving deep CO2 reduction targets for the UK using a macro-econometric hybrid model E3MG, which stands for Energy–Economy–Environment Model at the Global level. The E3MG, with combines a top-down approach for modeling the global economy and for estimating the aggregate and disaggregate energy demand and a bottom-up approach (Energy Technology sub Model, ETM) for simulating the power sector, which then provides feedback to the energy demand equations and the whole economy. The ETM sub model uses a probabilistic approach and historical data for estimating the penetration levels of the different technologies, considering their economic, technical and environmental characteristics. Three pathway scenarios (CFH, CLC and CAM) simulate the CO2 reduction by 40%, 60% and 80% by 2050 compared to 1990 levels respectively and are compared with a reference scenario, with no reduction target. The targets are modeled as the UK contribution to an international mitigation effort, such as achieving the G8 reduction targets, which is a more realistic political frame work for the UK to move towards deep reductions rather than moving alone. This paper aims to provide modeling evidence that deep reduction targets can be met through different carbon pathways while also assessing the macroeconomic effects of the pathways on GDP and investment.

Climate change, as a result of rising greenhouse gas emissions, threatens the stability of the world’s climate, economy and population. The causes and consequences of climate change are global, and while national governments can and should take action, the ultimate solution must be a collective global effort. The latest scientific consensus (IPCC, 2007) has further strengthened the evidence base that it is very likely that anthropogenic GHG emissions at or above current rates would cause

further warming and induce many changes in the global climate system during the 21st century. A major recent report on the economics of global climate change (Stern, 2006) supports the position that the benefits of stringent climate mitigation action outweighed the costs and risks of delayed action. Although there is a global consideration of the climate change effects, individual countries have undertaken different steps in climate change mitigation, which is obvious given the extended negotiations towards the ratification of the Kyoto Protocol. The EU and individual Member States have undertaken several commitments and directed several policies towards the reduction of their emissions. UK has been selected for this analysis as there is political will within the country, as described below from the commitments to tackle climate change. But this commitment can be examined in the context of negotiations at international level, such as the recent commitment of G8 to reduce their emissions by 80% by 2050.

Climate change mitigation and energy security are the UK’s core energy policy goals (BERR, 2007). In addition, the decline in domestic reserves and production of UK oil and natural gas, combined with increasing geopolitical instabilities in key gas and oil production and transmission countries have highlighted the need for a secure and resilient UK energy system. Other UK energy policy goals are reductions in vulnerable consumers’ exposure to high energy prices and a continued emphasis on open and competitive energy markets.

The UK set itself a groundbreaking climate change mitigation policy with the publication of a long-term national CO2 reduction target of 60% by 2050(DTI, 2003). This target was established in response to the climate challenge set out by the Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution (RCEP, 2000). Climate change mitigation targets were reaffirmed in light of competing energy security issues via the 2007 Energy White paper (BERR, 2007). The 60% UK CO2 reductions target is being established in the UK legislative process through the Climate Change Bill as the minimum CO2 reduction target required by 2050 (DEFRA, 2008). This longer term target has been further analyzed by the new regulatory Committee on Climate Change (CCC, 2008), in light of new evidence concerning global stabilization targets (IPCC,

2007). This has led to the proposal for an 80% reduction target for greenhouse gases by 2050 compared to 1990 levels. This target has been adopted by the Brown Administration and the Energy and Climate Change Secretary of State Ed Miliband, becoming a law through the Climate Change Act (DECC, 2008). Additionally, the UK has been a leading proponent of global long-term CO2 target setting within the G8, as the causes and consequences of climate change are global, and while national governments can and should take action, the ultimate solution must be a collective global effort. The G8 dialogue resulted in agreement at the 2009 G8 Italian summit for a robust response to climate change including the adoption of the goal to achieve at least 80% reduction of their emissions by 2050, and aiming to reach an agreement of a 50% reduction in global emissions with other countries.

The implementation of three deep CO2 reduction targets (40%, 60% and 80%) for the G8 is examined using the macro-econometric E3MG model. Results are reported for the UK, which is selected as there is a political will to implement such reductions. These targets, examined within the UK Energy Research Center’s 2050 project (UKERC, 2050), are met through the implementation of a portfolio of policies in contrast to the neoclassical approach, where the targets are imposed and the marginal abatement cost for meeting those targets is estimated. The paper contributes by adopting a novel hybrid approach integrating simulation models of the economic system and energy technologies and therefore providing an alternative approach to the traditional economic equilibrium modeling. Moreover the paper aims to provide evidence that there exist pathways for meeting deep reduction targets and also helping the economy to grow. The need for such evidence has been noted by the IPCC in its assessment of the literature on stringent mitigation targets. Such evidence can inform the international negotiations for a post-Kyoto global agreement.

Long-term forecast of the economy and of the energy system expansion is subject to uncertainties on fossil fuel resources, prices, economic and technical characteristics of new technologies, behavioral change, political framework and regulatory environment. But the modeling approach implemented to simulate the energy system and the interaction with the global economy is crucial for the results.

There are many modeling approaches used for examining energy and climate policies at global or at national level either through macro or energy system models. In the extensive literature on energy-economic modeling of energy and climate policies, there are two wide spread modeling approaches: bottom-up vs. top- down models. The two model classes differ mainly with respect to the emphasis placed on technological details of the energy system and the comprehensiveness of endogenous market adjustments (Bohringer and Rutherford, 2007). However, recent evaluations of the literature (IPCC, 2007) have shown the increasing convergence of these model categories as each group of modelers adopts the strengths of the alternate approach. There is a long track record of energy models underpinning major energy policy initiatives, producing a large and vibrant research community and a broad range of energy modeling approaches (Jebara and Iniyan, 2006). Particularly in recent years, energy models have been directly applied by policy makers for long-term decarburization scenarios (IEA, 2008; Das et al., 2007; European Commission, 2006), with further academic modeling collaborations directly feeding into the global policy debate on climate change mitigation (Weyant, 2004; Strachan Neil et al., 2009).

Before deriving any particular conclusion from the scenarios presented in this paper, it is important to consider the modeling approach and the way the scenarios have been implemented with E3MG. E3MG being a macro-econometric model of the global economy has the advantage of examining policies at global and at national level, which is more important in cases of international efforts. The 40%, 60% and 80% reduction targets are not realistic options if implemented only by UK because they would not lead to a significant reduction in climate change and because no single country would easily take a decision moving towards such policies on its own. For these reasons we assume that the emissions reduction targets for the UK are implemented as part of international reduction targets. Based on the facts that the Obama USA Administration is committed to finding solution to climate change issue and the major developing countries are reluctant to adopt such policies in the medium term, a G8 reduction target of 40%, 60% and 80% by 2050 compared to 1990 levels seems to be a more realistic framework.

The E3MG model adopts a hybrid approach. The aggregate and disaggregate energy demand is estimated using econometric techniques, allowing for fuel switching for the 12 different fuel types and for the 19 fuel users, while the power sector is simulated using a probabilistic approach which considers the economic, technical, environmental characteristics of the power units but considers also the history. The electric system expansion is modeled by using parameters for the different technologies based on historical data on learning rates, which allows new technologies to gain a share in the market even when their cost is higher than conventional technologies. Moreover the dispatch of the different technologies to meet the electric demand, although using the cost optimization approach comparing the penetration of the different technologies, takes historical data as its starting point. Both the energy demand system and the energy technology options are implemented so as to model market imperfections which exist in all markets and are not usually considered in the classical cost optimization techniques. These market imperfections, resulting either from socio-political factors or from the presence of oligopolies that speculate on the electricity price, cause differentiation in the electricity mix across countries, and lead in many cases to significantly different profiles from those projected from models assuming perfect market conditions.

The scenarios are implemented in this framework, allowing the cumulative investment at global level for alternative technologies so their faster penetration provides solutions with a more diverse electric mix. It is also important to mention that the emission reduction scenarios are modeled not by imposing a reduction target and estimating the marginal abatement cost for meeting this target, but by applying different policies at different strengths and different timing, which is consistent with the theoretical background of the space–time economics adopted in the E3MG model. The strength and timing of a policy can trigger (or not) the penetration of a new technology. For example, large investments in electric cars in the medium term can lead to their fast penetration, while large investments in hydrogen cars take longer to have effect and so cannot have similar results. The different scenarios have been implemented by applying in different strengths and timing the policies of carbon

pricing, direct investment and revenue recycling in the form of investments in the power sector, investments in the transport and other consumption sectors. The aim was all of them to have a positive effect, by reducing emissions whilst maintaining economic growth. This proves to be the most important conclusion of this paper, that there exist several portfolios of policies that can have large emissions reductions and also help the economy to grow. This finding is in contrast with those from many models predicting that energy investments will have an important negative effect on the economic growth, deriving from the assumptions in the neoclassical approach of full employment (so that there are no extra resources available to produce extra output) and of optimization of the baseline economy by a central planner (so that any shift away from the optimal solution will reduce GDP). But it is consistent with recent political decisions at EU, USA and Japan to invest on green technologies and infrastructure so as to boost their economies out of the global recession.

The set of Carbon Ambition scenarios (40%, 60%and80% CO2 reductions from 1990 levels by 2050) offer insights on decarburization pathways and energy–economy–environment trade offs. Decarbonising the global energy system is a timing and well as a political problem with the different portfolios of policies becoming preferable depending on the final and intermediate targets. Achieving the stringent 80% target for the UK by 2050 appears feasible, while maintaining economic growth, but implies adoption of a portfolio of policies including strong regulation and high carbon prices.

Source: A.S.Dagoumas,T.S.Barker,2010. “Pathways to a low-carbon economy for the UK with the macro-econometric E3MG model”. Energy Policy,April,pp.3067-3077.

译文：

低碳经济

本文通过审查不同的碳途径来实现二氧化碳深度减排的目标，为实现这一目标，英国使用了在全球水平上代表能源——经济——环境的宏观经济混合模型E3MG。在全球经济视角下，E3MG模型将估计集聚与分散的能源需求这一自上而下的方法，同模拟电力部门这一自下而上的方法（能源技术模型，ETM）相结合，然后为能源需求平衡和整个经济提供反馈。能源技术模型使用了概率统计和历史数据来估计不同技术的水平差距,同时考虑了经济、技术和环境特点。三个途径方案（CFH，CLC，CAM）假设到2050年二氧化碳排放量在1990年的水平上分别下降40%，60%和80%，同时将其与没有减排目标的参考情形相比较。这一减排目标用来模拟英国对于国际缓和成果的贡献，如实现八国集团的减排目标，这是一个使英国走向深入减排而不是孤军奋战的更为现实的政治构架。本文旨在用建模来证明深入减排目标是可以通过不同的碳途径得以实现的，同时通过国内生产总值和投资的途径来评估宏观经济效应。

温室气体排放量的上升导致了气候的改变，威胁到了全球气候，经济和人口的稳定。这种气候改变导致了全球性问题，如果国际政府组织要采取措施，那么最终的解决方案必须是全球共同努力的结果。最新的科学研究结果（IPCC，2007）进一步强调了基础证据，人类活动产生的温室气体以现在的或很快的速度排放，有可能会导致更加严峻的全球变暖问题，而且在21世纪会诱发许多全球气候系统的变化。全球气候变化经济会议上的一份主要报告（斯特恩，2006）支持这样一个观点：严格气候缓解行动的利益要大于延迟行动的代价和风险。尽管气候变化带来的影响是要全球性考虑的,但个别国家在减缓气候变化上承担了不同的角色，这也明显延长了对《京都议定书》批准的谈判时间。欧盟和个别成员国已经采取了一些措施和直接的政策来减少温室气体的排放。根据国家内部的政治意愿，英国也被选入了这一分析，比如以下所述的解决气候变化问题的承诺。但这一承诺只有在国际水平谈判的情况下才能被审查到，比如八国集团最近承诺，到2050年温室气体排放量将减少80%。

气候变化的缓解和能源安全是英国的核心能源政策目标（BERR，2007）。此外，英国国内的石油及天然气储备和产量逐渐减少，随着地缘政治不稳定性的增

加，在关键气体、石油生产和传输国家，英国强调，需要有一个安全的、有弹性的能源系统。其它英国能源政策的目标是减少敏感消费者对高能源价格的承受风险，继续将重点放在开放的和有竞争力的能源市场上。

英国发布公告（DTI，2003），作为长期国家减排目标，到2050年二氧化碳排放量将降到60%，为自己建立了一套开创性的环境变化缓解政策。这一目标成立于皇家环境污染委员会对气候挑战的回应（RCEP，2000）。在2007年能源白皮书关于竞争能源安全问题中，重申了气候变化的缓解目标（BERR，2007）。到2050年最低限额二氧化碳排放的目标正在通过气候变化议案，在英国立法程序中建立英国60%的二氧化碳排放这一目标（DEFRA，2008）。新型气候变化委员会进一步分析了这个长期目标（CCC，2008），并提供了新的关于全球稳定目标的证据（IPCC，2007）。并提出了一个建议，到2050年温室气体排放量相比于1990年水平下降80%。布朗政府和能源及气候变化问题部的部长艾德米利班德已采纳这一目标，通过气候变化法案，使其成为了法律（DECC，2008）。此外，英国一直是八国集团中全球二氧化碳长期目标设定的主要倡导者，由于气候变化的原因和后果是全球性的，因此各国政府可以而且应该采取行动，最终解决方案必须是一个全球集体努力的结果。八国集团通过讨论，一致同意2009年意大利八国峰会稳健应对气候变化目标的协定，其包括至2050年达到温室气体排放量减少80%的目标，并与其他国家达成全球碳排放量减少50%的协议。

八国集团三个二氧化碳深度减排目标（40%，60%，80%）已通过宏观经济模型E3MG的审查。由于英国有政治意愿来实行这一减排，因此研究结果于英国发表。这些目标在英国能源研究中心2050年的项目中被审查（UKERC，2050），通过一系列的政策组合与新古典主义方法相比较，通过目标的执行和边际减排成本的估计来确保这些目标的实施。本文通过采取结合经济体系模型的新型复合方法与能源技术，来提供一个传统经济平衡模型的可选择方法。此外，本文旨在提供证据表明存在为满足深度减排目标且能帮助经济增长的途径。气候变化专门委员会在其对严格减排目标的文献评价中已提到了这些证据的必要性。这些证据可以告知为后京都全球协议而进行的国际谈判。

经济和能源系统扩展的长期预测受到化石燃料资源，价格，经济和新技术特点，行为改变，政治构架和监管环境这些不确定性因素的影响。但建模方法模拟

实现能源系统，以及与全球经济的相互作用对结果是至关重要的。许多的建模方法通过在全球或国家水平上的宏观或能源系统模型，来审查能源问题和气候政策。在研究能源和气候政策能源经济模型的大量文献中，有两个被广泛传播的模型：自下而上的模型与自上而下的模型。这两个模型的主要区别在于对能源系统技术详细度和内生市场调节的综合化程度两方面的强调情况（贝林和卢瑟福，2007）。然而，最近的文献评估（IPCC，2007）指出：这些模型类型的日益趋同，是由于每组建模利用了交替方法的优点。有一个能源模型的长期记录，其以主要能源积极政策为基础，形成了一个庞大且充满活力的研究团体和广泛的能源建模方法（杰巴拉和尹亚恩，2006）。特别是近几年来，能源模型被政策制定者直接运用于长期脱碳方案中（国际能源署，2008；丹斯等人，2007年；欧洲委员会，2006），并进一步融入到学术合作模型的关于气候变化缓解的全球政策讨论中（韦恩特，2004；斯特拉坎尼尔等人，2009年）。

在从本文的阐述中获得任何详细的结论之前,考虑一下建模的方法和E3MG 实施的情景模式是很重要的。E3MG作为全球经济的宏观经济模型，具有在全球和国际水平下进行审查的优势，这种情况下的国际努力是非常重要的。如果仅仅只有英国实行的话，要实现40%，60%，80%的减排目标是不现实的，因为在气候变化上这不会导致减排的有效降低，因为没有一个国家能够仅仅通过自己的力量轻松地决定政策的运行。由于这些原因,我们假设将英国减排目标的实现作为国际减排目标实现的一部分。实际上，奥巴马政府已经承诺寻找解决气候变暖问题的方法，在中期发展阶段，主要发展中国家也被迫采取了一些政策措施，八国集团到2050年二氧化碳排放量在1990年的水平上分别下降40%，60%和80%的目标，似乎是一个更加现实的构架。

E3MG模型采用了混合的方式。运用统计技术估计集聚的和分散的能源需求,允许12个不同的燃料类型和19个燃料用户的燃料切换, 同时电力部门运用概率统计的方法进行了模拟，其考虑到了电力单位经济、技术、环境的特点，也考虑到了历史的特点。电力系统功能扩展是以学习速率上的历史数据为基础，采用不同工艺基础参数进行建模的，尽管其成本均高于常规技术的成本，但新技术仍给市场带来了一份收获。此外，通过不同技术的调度来满足电厂的电力需求，例如使用成本优化法，比较不同的技术渗透，但仍要以历史数据为起点。能源需求系

统和能源技术选择的实施，都是以存在于所有市场的市场不完善性为假设条件的，这通常不被考虑在古典成本优化技术之中。这些市场的不完善性，是由社会政治因素和寡头垄断市场的存在所导致的，由此来推测电的价格，导致各国交流电的差异, 这种假设完善的市场条件导致了计划在很多情况下的显著不同。

这一构架下的方案已经实施了，其允许通过在全球水平上的累计投资额进行技术选择，从而他们的快速渗透能提供更加多元化的混合解决方案。同样重要的是，要说明模拟减排方案既不是通过降低减排目标，也不是通过估计边际减排成本来达到的，而是通过多方不同的力量，在不同的时点用不同的政策来实现的，这和E3MG模型采用的时空经济学理论背景是一致的。这一政策的力度和时间会导致一种新技术的渗透。例如，电动汽车在中期的巨大投资会导致快速渗透，但氢能汽车的巨大投资得花更长的时间才能生效，因此不能产生相同的结果。许多不同方案已通过不同力度和时间的碳定价政策实施了，包括在电力部门，运输和其他消费部门的直接投资和收益回收的投资形式。目的是通过减少排放，同时保持经济增长，使它们都能起到积极的作用。目前存在的几种组合政策会有较大的减排作用，还能帮助经济增长，这被证实为本文最重要的结论。该发现与许多模型的预测相反，例如能源投资对于经济增长会产生一个重要的负面影响，解决新古典主义方法对于充分就业的假设（所以没有额外的资源可以产生额外的输出）以及由中央计划的经济最优化的基线（导致任何最优解决方法的转向都会减少国民生产总值）。但它与最近的欧盟、美国和日本在环保技术和基础设施投资的政治决定是一致的，以致推动当地经济发展，减缓全球经济衰退。

以碳为目标的一整套方案（在1990年水平上的二氧化碳排放量到2050年分别减少40%，60%和80%）深刻地提出了脱碳途径和能源——经济——环境的权衡。全球能源脱碳系统是一个时间问题，同时也是一个政治问题，它通过依靠最终的和中期的目标使不同投资组合的政策变得更好。由此看来，到2050年英国实现严格的80%的减排目标同时保持经济的增长是可行的，但其也暗含着应采取一个严格法规和高碳价格的投资组合政策。

出处: A.S.戴格曼斯,T.S.巴克.《英国基于宏观经济E3MG模型的通向低碳经济之路》.能源政策,2010（4）：3067-3077.

经济学文献综述写作

经济学文献综述写作 一、文献综述的含义 文献综述（以下简称综述），不同于学术论文或科研论文。学术论文或科研论文是作者亲自对某一具体课题进行研究后所做的文章。综述是一种综合性或专题性的情报资料，属于三次文献。具体地说，是指对某一专题的近期文献，经过阅读、摘选、融会贯通、分析、对比、归纳、加工、整理而成的综合评述。文献综述有两大特点，一是“综”，即收集“百家”之言，综合分析整理；二是“述”，即结合作者的观点和实践经验对文献的观点、结论进行叙述和评论。 文献综述虽不是科学论著，但在科学研究中的作用却不容低估。通过阅读近期原始文献而写成的综述，可以反映某一领域或某一专题的新动态、新进展、新水平、新发现、新趋向以及未来展望。因此，综述被看作是新知识突破和新技术推广应用的开始。毕业论文文献综述的写作是毕业论文写作过程中的重要一环，毕业生在进入毕业论文写作之前，应该先写一篇有关的综述，以便掌握该专题的最新信息，从而为选定研究论题和修订研究计划提供有益的信息和依据。 二、收集资料：文献综述写作的基础 收集文献资料是写作文献综述的基础。因此，收集的文献资料力求广泛与全面，且尽可能收集与研究论题有关的原始文献，同时也应收集相关的权威的综述性文章。 一般地，收集文献的方法有两种：一是通过各种检索工具，如文献索引、文摘杂志进行检索。选择文献时，应由近及远，主要应用近2～3年内的文献，这样才能体现出文献综述的新观点、新水平。二是从其它文章的参考文献追溯。即从一篇或数篇最新发表、有权威性的论著或综述，及这些文章所附的参考文献中寻找所需资料，这是一种较为快速而方便的方法。 收集到的文献如何阅读取舍?通常，阅读文献大致有三个步骤：

营运管理外文文献+中文

An Analysis of Working Capital Management Results Across Industries Greg Filbeck. Schweser Study Program Thomas M. Krueger. University of Wisconsin-La Crosse Abstract Firms are able to reduce financing costs and/or increase the funds available for expansion by minimizing the amount of funds tied up in current assets. We provide insights into the performance of surveyed firms across key components of working capital management by using the CFO magazine’s annual Working Capital Management Survey. We discover that significant differences exist between industries in working capital measures across time. In addition. we discover that these measures for working capital change significantly within industries across time. Introduction The importance of efficient working capital management is indisputable. Working capital is the difference between resources in cash or readily convertible into cash (Current Assets) and organizational commitments for which cash will soon be required (Current Liabilities). The objective of working capital management is to maintain the optimum balance of each of the working capital components. Business viability relies on the ability to effectively manage receivables. inventory. and payables. Firms are able to reduce financing costs and/or increase the funds available for expansion by minimizing the amount of funds tied up in current assets. Much managerial effort is expended in bringing non-optimal levels of current assets and liabilities back toward optimal levels. An optimal level would be one in which a balance is achieved between risk and efficiency. A recent example of business attempting to maximize working capital management is the recurrent attention being given to the application of Six Sigma? methodology. Six Sigma? methodologies help companies measure and ensure quality in all areas of the enterprise. When used to identify and rectify discrepancies. inefficiencies and erroneous transactions in the financial supply chain. Six Sigma? reduces Days Sales Outstanding (DSO). accelerates the payment cycle. improves customer satisfaction and reduces the necessary amount and cost of working capital needs. There appear to be many success stories. including Jennifer Towne’s (2002) report of a 15 percent decrease in days that sales are outstanding. resulting in an increased cash flow of approximately $2 million at Thibodaux Regional Medical Center. Furthermore. bad debts declined from $3.4 million to $600.000. However. Waxer’s (2003) study of multiple firms employing Six Sigma? finds that it is really a “get rich slow” technique with a rate of return hovering in the 1.2 – 4.5 percent range. Even in a business using Six Sigma? methodology. an “optimal” level of working capital management needs to be identified. Even in a business using Six Sigma? methodology. an “optimal” level of working capital management needs to be identified. Industry factors may impact firm

共享经济英语作文

①It is universally acknowledged that the sharing economy means that people sell or purchase the unoccupied resources via online transaction. Having been a new trend, the sharing economy is playing a more and more crucial part in our modern life. ②There is no doubt that a large number of people benefit a lot from the sharing economy. Above all, it contributes to making good use of the resources. People, who own available stuff and don’t use it for the moment, can sell or rent it to others who need it. Thus, it’s beneficial for both of them, for not only the seller or renter can make money but the purchaser can save money. Moreover, it can make sure that things can be used as many times as possible instead of being abandoned. In addition, it helps to build up trust between each other. ③However, the rise of the sharing economy leads to the difficult management. For instance, the sharing bikes bring convenience for people, but people place the bikes at random and even occupy the room of the sidewalk. Therefore, how to manage the sharing things is worth considering 众所周知，共享经济意味着人们通过在线交易出售或购买未被占用的资源。在现代生活中，分享经济是一种新的趋势，它正在发挥着越来越重要的作用。 毫无疑问，许多人从分享经济中获益良多。最重要的是，它有助于充

简述碳关税对中国对中国对外贸易的影响

简述碳关税对中国对外贸易的影响 摘要：在国际金融危机的背景下，美国通过了对包括中国在内的不实施碳减排限额国家的进口产品征收碳关税的法案。本文主要阐述碳关税对中国对外贸易产生了严重的影响以及应对措施。 关键字：碳关税、贸易保护主义、影响 一、概述 碳关税是指对高耗能产品进口征收特别的二氧化碳排放关税。碳关税，这个概念最早由法国前总统希拉克提出，用意是希望欧盟国家应针对未遵守《京都协定书》的国家课征商品进口税，否则在欧盟碳排放交易机制运行后，欧盟国家所生产的商品将遭受不公平之竞争，特别是境内的钢铁业及高耗能产业。 2009年6月底，美国众议院通过的一项征收进口产品“边界调节税”法案，实质就是从2020年起开始实施“碳关税”——对进口的排放密集型产品，如铝、钢铁、水泥和一些化工产品，征收特别的二氧化碳排放关税。2009年7月4日，中国政府明确表示反对碳关税。 二、对中国对外贸易的影响 从中国对美贸易的总体情况来看，美国“碳关税”的征收，无论是出口还是进口均将产生负面影响，比较而言，对美出口的影响要略大于进口的影响。 显而易见，在全球正在共同经历金融危机的经济大背景下，美国这一未在《京都议定书》上签字的温室气体排放头号大国突然出台对包括中国在内的不实施碳减排的国家征收碳关税的措施，其本意并不是为全球低碳化作积极贡献，而是面对日渐虚弱的国内工业产业采取的一种打击竞争对手的贸易保护措施。 追溯美国施行贸易保护主义的原因，我们不难发现，进入20 世纪70 年代后，布雷顿森林体系的崩溃代表美元的世界货币称谓已名不副实，美国经济受到了重创，进入“滞胀”状态。因此，美国不得不借助各种名目繁多的非关税贸易壁垒来保护国内日渐衰弱的传统工业和新兴工业，从纺织品贸易到钢材、造船、汽车、家电，几乎所有工业行业都被贸易保护这张严密的大网所覆盖。 一旦美国的碳关税政策得到相应支持，将对我国出口贸易和经济发展带来重大影响。我国目前的二氧化碳排放量中，大约有7%--14%是为生产出口美国的产品而产生的。在中国对美国出口商品中，机电、建材、化工、钢铁、塑料制品等传统高碳产品占据了中国出口市场一半以上的比重。例如，2008年中国对美国出口机电产品1528.6亿美元，约占中国对美国出口总额的61％。而这类高碳产业在我国国民经济中又占有很大比重，对这类产业进行全面低碳化升级改造面临着资金、技术等多方面约束，短期内无法实现。根据上海财经大学公共经济与管理学院副院长刘小川教授的测算，如果美国对从我国进口的产品征收30美元/吨的碳关税，将会导致我国出口总额下降0.715%；如果碳关税率提高一倍达到60美元/吨，出口总额就会下降 1.244%。 更重要的是，如果美国碳关税政策真正实行，将引起欧盟成员国和其他发达国家的效仿，当前，法国和加拿大正酝酿出台类似于美国的碳关税政策，拟对从中国等发展中国家进口的高碳产品征收碳关税。对我国这样一个出口贸易占GDP很大比重的国家而言，将导致巨大的经济损失。 如果欧美国家对高耗能产品征收碳关税，无疑将降低我国制造业的竞争力。当前，我国制造业的出口优势主要还是价格优势，依靠低廉的劳动力成本取胜竞争对手。欧美国家仅仅在劳动力方面的成本至少是我们的10倍以上，而这些产品主要集中在消费品行业、重化工业领域。也就是说，无论是轻工业还是重化工业，我们都将受到不同程度的打击。

建筑类外文文献及中文翻译

forced concrete structure reinforced with an overviewRein Since the reform and opening up, with the national economy's rapid and sustained development of a reinforced concrete structure built, reinforced with the development of technology has been great. Therefore, to promote the use of advanced technology reinforced connecting to improve project quality and speed up the pace of construction, improve labor productivity, reduce costs, and is of great significance. Reinforced steel bars connecting technologies can be divided into two broad categories linking welding machinery and steel. There are six types of welding steel welding methods, and some apply to the prefabricated plant, and some apply to the construction site, some of both apply. There are three types of machinery commonly used reinforcement linking method primarily applicable to the construction site. Ways has its own characteristics and different application, and in the continuous development and improvement. In actual production, should be based on specific conditions of work, working environment and technical requirements, the choice of suitable methods to achieve the best overall efficiency. 1、steel mechanical link 1.1 radial squeeze link Will be a steel sleeve in two sets to the highly-reinforced Department with superhigh pressure hydraulic equipment (squeeze tongs) along steel sleeve radial squeeze steel casing, in squeezing out tongs squeeze pressure role of a steel sleeve plasticity deformation closely integrated with reinforced through reinforced steel sleeve and Wang Liang's Position will be two solid steel bars linked Characteristic: Connect intensity to be high, performance reliable, can bear high stress draw and pigeonhole the load and tired load repeatedly.

国际经济学英文第七版克鲁格曼英文经济名词翻译

Key Terms of International Economics Chapter3 Labor Productivity and Comparative Advantage Comparative advantage 比较优势 Absolute advantage 绝对优势 Opportunity cost 机会成本 Production possibility frontier 生产可能性边界 Unit labor requirement 单位产品劳动投入 Relative price 相对价格 Relative demand curve相对需求曲线 Relative supply curve 相对供给曲线 Relative wage 相对工资 Relative quantity 相对产量 Ricardian model 李嘉图模型 Pauper labor argument 贫民劳动论 Nontraded goods 非贸易商品 Chapter 4 Resources and Trade: the Heckscher-Ohlin Model Abundant factor 丰裕要素 Biased expansion of production 偏向性生产扩张 Equalization of factor prices 要素价格均等化 Factor abundance 要素丰裕度 Factor intensity 要素密集度 Scarce factor 稀缺要素 Leontief paradox 里昂惕夫悖论 land-intensive 土地密集型 Labor-intensive劳动密集型 the ratio of 2 factor prices 要素价格比 Wage-rental ratio 工资-租金比 Land-labor ratio ，the ratio of land to labor 土地劳动比 Chapter 5 The standard Trade Model Biased growth 偏向性增长 Export-biased growth 出口偏向性增长

经济管理类专业英语翻译 (管理原则)

期末论文 院系 专业班级 学号 学生姓名 成绩评定

管理原则 也许在那些关于管理者这门学科的书中有许多关于管理的定义。许多定义是相对扼要和简单化的。一位早期的学者将它定义为“清楚地知道你想让人们去做什么，然后看着他们以最好最廉价的方式去完成它”。管理实际上是一个非常复杂的过程——远远比那些定义让我们知道的要复杂得多。因此，我们要建立一种管理的定义，从而能更好地了解这过程的实质。 管理是在一定的环境条件下通过对人员技术和资金等资源的利用和协调去设立和完成某一个组织目标的过程。这个过程有若干个核心包括计划和决策，组织，人员，领导，管理和控制。所有从事于这些工作的负责人在更大或更小的程度上都依赖于他们所承担的特殊的责任。当谈论管理的定义时，我们不应该忽略管理的原则。 管理的最基本原则在文明诞生时就存在了。当人们第一次开始群居生活和首次提高他们的生活质量时它就存在了。2500年前，巴比伦国王尼布甲尼撒二世决定把他的沙漠王国变成绿洲去取悦他的妻子。在公元前6世纪，尼布甲尼撒二世耗尽了国家财政部的金钱，雇佣劳动者和技术人员利用有限的资源建造一个宫殿，建造了完善的管网系统，把当地河流的水输送到皇宫里。当工程完成后，他在平台上种植漂亮稀有的花草树木。巴比伦的空中花园改变了这座城市。 尼布甲尼撒二世制定了一个目标。他要把沙漠中的主要城市变成绿洲。他利用和协调人员，技术和金钱去完成这一目标。他从王室金库中获得的资金去雇佣民工和技师并从附近地区购买材料。他在这种只能提供原始水管装置，建筑技术以及只能从茫茫沙漠中取得有限的材料的环境下完成了目标。最终，每个人在这个工程商所付出的努力创造了世界七大奇观之一。 2500年前，人们完成某项巨大的任务所运用的管理过程与如今运用的基本原理相似，管理者在执行这个过程是将它分成了5个部分。 这篇文章的主旨在于表达有关管理过程的一些观点和如何将它运用到我们所面临的不同的情况中去。你们所要学习的管理原则是指指导管理者的宗旨，原则或者是组织规范。他们会提供一个行动框架，为了有效的使用他们，一个人必须培养和使用技能的决策。理智决策是识别某个问题或机会，找到可行的方法去处理它并选择最好的方法的过程。因此，决策是最重要的管理活动。管理者必须决定去实施管理的每个功能以及每种情况所需要采取的相应的原则。 在这一点上，我们对于管理必须有两点最基本的理解。首先，在特定的环境下运用各种资源设立完成目标。第二，为了确保组织的成功，组织者必须满足他的技术要求，行政要求和责任制度。尽管这听起来很简单，但这两个原则却经过了几个世纪的发展才形成的。之后将要提到的所有原则都是随着时间的推移从各种来源中汲取的。一些原则来源于各人的直觉，然而其他的则反映了组织中那些成功企业家，著名商业巨子或者是富有创新精神的工作者的经验。直到十九世纪，直觉和经验仍是管理原则的基本来源 尽管本能和直觉曾经是商业管理的基础，但现在创业者创立新的企业经常以他们的直觉进行管理。在十九世纪70年代至80年代的电脑产业中，对技术很精通，但对管理知之甚少的企业家成立了数以百计的硬件和软件公司，一些存活下来，更多的则不是。许多公司开始发展得好是得益于创

共享经济外文翻译文献编辑

文献信息： 文献标题：Putting the sharing economy into perspective（透视共享经济） 国外作者：Koen Frenken，Juliet Schor 文献出处：《Environmental Innovation and Societal Transitions》, 2017, 23:3-10 字数统计：英文3345单词，18027字符；中文5823汉字 外文文献： Putting the sharing economy into perspective Abstract We develop a conceptual framework that allows us to define the sharing economy and its close cousins and we understand its sudden rise from an economic-historic perspective. We then assess the sharing economy platforms in terms of the economic, social and environmental impacts. We end with reflections on current regulations and future alternatives, and suggest a number of future research questions. Keywords:Sharing; Platform; Sustainability; Reverse technology assessment; Regulation 1.Introduction In the Spring of 2014, the sharing economy held an unusual gathering in San Francisco, a sort of “coming out” party. Entitled “SHARE,” the conference included not only founders, funders and fans of the sharing economy, but also harsh critics. Politically progressive insiders and outsiders raised questions about access, exclusion and the distribution of value in the sector. They discussed their vision of a fairer, lower-carbon, more transparent, participatory and socially-connected economy, and whether those goals are consistent with the actions of the large, moneyed players—the successful platforms and the venture capitalists who are backing them with vast sums

“碳关税”的性质界定研究

“碳关税”的性质界定研究 关键词：碳关税/边境调节税/性质／界定 内容提要: 本文从碳关税问题的缘起出发,在深入分析支撑碳关税的相关理论基础上，对碳关税的性质进行了厘定,认为“碳关税”属于WTO规则中的边境调节税,是一种区别于关税而被定性为税收调整的制度,其主要目的是为了平衡国内被征收“碳税”产品与相同进口产品之间的税收负担，但由于WTO规则的模糊性，“碳关税”措施尚有待于进一步澄清。? ?一引言?在钢铁般的国家利益、锱铢必较的权利分割和无休止的争吵面前，人类的前途何其渺小,经过十二天的漫长会谈,联合国气候变化框架公约第十五次缔约方会议和京都议定书第五次缔约方会议通过的《哥本哈根协议》并没有就20１2年后的全球减排行动、资金技术支持等方面达成具体共识，不具有法律约束力。就在全球失意哥本哈根气候大会后,有专家便指出,可以预料的是,全球气候政治的激烈博弈不会随着哥本哈根大会的结束而停止,而是会在一个相当长的时期内继续作为国际政治经济领域的重要议题，被探讨、谈判乃至争执。碳关税作为一种国际气候政治博弈的手段,在哥本哈根气候大会后，越来越受到以欧美为首的一些发达国家的重视。欧洲政策研究中心能源气候项目负责人伊恩霍夫表示：“如果启动碳关税，那么可以帮助欧盟在未来的气候变化谈判中获得主导地位。”法国总统萨科奇也多次在各个场合不遗余力地“推销”碳关税,表示将继续推

动欧盟设立碳税边界机制,以加强针对“环境倾销”行为的斗争。20０9年12月22日,欧盟各国环境部长在布鲁塞尔召开会议，很多欧盟国家部长均认为碳关税将是一种最终的选择。事实上,这是碳关税引起的第二轮冲击波了。２０09年6月，美国国会通过《清洁能源与安全法案》,第一次提出了“碳关税”相关条款，虽然没有马上出台具体实施细则，但仍然在国际上引起轩然大波。可见,在征收碳关税的问题上,欧洲和美国正遭受着巨大的压力,以至于碳关税被热炒成箭在弦上、伺机而发的问题。面对严峻的形式,亟需国内学者在对碳关税相关问题进行深入研究的基础上提出我国的合理应对策略。本文拟从碳关税问题的缘起出发，在深入分析支撑碳关税的相关理论基础上,力求对碳关税的性质进行厘定，为其后对碳关税规则的全面研究打下坚实基础。?二碳关税问题的缘起?碳关税(ｃaｒbｏn tarｉｆf)，根据笔者掌握的资料，目前尚无权威定义,一个普遍的看法是：是指对高耗能的产品进口征收特别的二氧化碳排放关税。早在20０6年1１月6日至17日在肯尼亚内罗毕召开的第1２届联合国气候变化大会上，法国前总理多米尼克．德维尔潘就提议：“应对没有签署后2012气候变化国际公约(即所谓的“后《京都议定书》”)的国家的工业产品出口征收额外关税（extra ｔariｆf)”。[１]由于欧盟委员会认为该提议与WTO规则存有潜在的冲突而提出反对,因此，这一所谓的“额外关税”尚未在普遍范围内引起人们的关注。一般认为，碳关税这一提法最早由法国前总统希拉克提出。2007年1月,法国前总统希拉克要求美国签署《京都议定书》和《后京都议定书》时，警告美国如果不

工程管理专业毕业设计外文翻译(外文+翻译)

Study on Project Cost Control of Construction Enterprises By: R. Max Wideman Abstract With the increasing maturity of construction market, the competition between construction enterprises is becoming fierce. The project profit is gradually decreasing. It demands that all construction enterprises enhance their cost control, lower costs, improve management efficiency and gain maximal profits. This paper analyses the existing problems on project cost control of Chinese construction enterprises, and proposes some suggestions to improve project cost control system. Key Words ：Construction enterprises, Project management, Cost control After joining the WTO, with Chinese construction market becoming integrated, the competition among architectural enterprises is turning more intense. Construction enterprises must continually enhance the overall competitiveness if they want to develop further at home and abroad construction market. Construction Enterprises basically adopt the "project management-centered" model, therefore, it is particularly important to strengthen project cost control. 1.The Current Domestic Project Cost Classification and Control Methods Cost refers to the consumption from producing and selling of certain products, with the performance of various monetary standing for materialized labor and labor-consuming. Direct and indirect costs constitute the total cost, also known as production cost or manufacturing cost. Enterprise product cost is the comprehensive indicator to measure enterprise quality of all aspects. It is not only the fund compensation scale, but also the basis to examine the implementation of cost plan. Besides, it can provide reference for product pricing According to the above-mentioned definition and current domestic cost classification, construction project cost can be divided into direct costs and indirect costs. Direct costs include material cost, personnel cost, construction machinery cost, material transportation cost, temporarily facility cost, engineering cost and other direct cost. Indirect costs mainly result from project management and company's cost-sharing, covering project operating costs (covering the commission of foreign projects), project's management costs (including exchange losses of

经济学基础文献选目

经济学基础文献选目（暂定） 第一单元：现代经济学方法论 1、弗里德曼：“实证经济学的方法论” 2、周其仁：“研究真实世界的经济学：科斯研究经济学的方法及其在中国的实践”。 3、阿尔钦：“不确定性、进化与经济学” 4、丹尼尔.贝尔：“经济论述中的模型与现实” 第二单元：经济运行的一般过程 5、里德：“铅笔的故事” 6、雷德福德：“战俘营的经济组织”。 第三单元：知识、信息与人类行为 7、哈耶克：“知识在社会中的利用”。 8、斯蒂格勒：“信息经济学”。 9、阿伦.杨“递增报酬与经济进步” 10、亚当.斯密：《国富论（节选）》。 第四单元：新制度经济学 11、张五常：“关于新制度经济学” 12、科斯：“生产的制度结构”。 13、科斯：“企业的性质” 14、科斯：“社会成本问题” 15、德姆塞茨：“关于产权的理论” 16、阿尔钦、德姆塞茨：“生产、信息费用与经济组织” 第五单元：经济学的性质、范围和边界 17、凯恩斯：“我们孙辈的经济学”。 18、兰格：“马克思经济学与现代经济理论”。 19、赫什拉弗：“扩张中的经济学领域”。 20、贝克尔：“观察生活的经济方式”。 经济学基础教材简介 一、入门教材：人大版《经济科学译丛系列》 1、曼昆《经济学原理》上下册，88元。梁小民教授翻译。曼昆为哈佛高才生，天才横溢，属新古典凯恩斯主义学派，研究范围偏重宏观经济分析。 该书为大学一年级学生而写，主要特点是行文简单、说理浅显、语言有趣。界面相当友好，引用大量的案例和报刊文摘，与生活极其贴近，诸如美联储为何存在，如何运作，Greenspan 如何降息以应付经济低迷等措施背后的经济学道理。该书几乎没有用到数学，而且自创归纳出“经济学10大原理”，为初学者解说，极其便利完全没有接触过经济学的人阅读。学此书，可了解经济学的基本思维，常用的基本原理，用于看待生活中的经济现象。可知经济学之功用及有趣，远超一般想象之

经济与管理专业外文翻译--运用作业成本法和经济增加值的具体应用

A FIELD STUDY:SMALL MANUFACTURING COMPANIES In this section, the implementation of the proposed Integrated ABC-EVA System at two small manufacturing companies is presented. The managers of the companies wished for their company names to remain anonymous. T herefore, they will be referred to as “Company X” and “Company Y” from here on. Prior to the field study, both companies were using traditional costing systems. The overhead was allocated to product lines based on direct labor hours. In both companies, managers felt that their traditional costing systems were not able to provide reliable cost information. 1 Company X Company X, located in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, was a small manufacturing company with approximately 30 employees. Company X’s main products l ines were Overlays、Membranes、Laser、Roll Labels and N’Caps. In the mid 1990’s, a group of investors purchased the company from the previous owner-manager who had retired. At the time of the study, the company was managed by its former vice-president, who was supported by a three-person management group. Investors were primarily concerned with financial performance rather than daily decision-making. The management group was very eager to participate in the field study for two reasons. First, the management was under pressure from their new investors who were not satisfied with the current return from existing product lines; Second, management was trying to identify the most lucrative product line in order to initiate a marketing campaign with the biggest impact on overall profits. 2 Company Y Company Y, also located in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, was owned and managed by three owner-managers who bought the company from a large corporation in the mid 1990’s, Company Y employed approximately 40 people. The majority of this compa ny’s business was in the area of manufacturing electrical devices and their main product lines were Motors and Motor Parts、Breakers、and Control Parts. Company Y sold its products in the domestic market as well as abroad. A portion of the company’s output was sold directly to end-users, while the remainder was sold with the help of independent distributors. The management of Company Y was