翻译理论知识概要
翻译理论知识概要
第一部分：翻译术语
1. Definitions of translation
Translation can be roughly defined as a reproduction or recreation in one language of what is written or said in another language. Being a very complicated human activity, its whole picture is never easy to describe. Scholars with different academic backgrounds have attempted to define it from various perspectives.
(1). Linguistic Views on Translation
Translation theorists from the linguistic school conceive of translation as a linguistic activity and some believe that translation theory is a branch of linguistics, approaching the issues of translating primarily from the viewpoint of the linguistic differences between source and target texts.
Translation may be defined as the replacement of textual material in one language (the source language) by equivalent textual material in another language (the target language). (Catford, 1965: 20).
Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. (Nida & Taber,1969:12).
Translation theory derives from comparative linguistics, and within linguistics, it is mainly an aspect of semantics; all questions of semantics relate to translation theory. (Newmark, 1982 /1988:5).
(2). Cultural Views on Translation
In the cultural approach, translation is regarded not only as a transfer of linguistic signs, but also as a communication of cultures, i.e. translation is an "intercultural communication"; hence the terms of "intercultural cooperation", "acculturation", and "transculturation".
Translation is a process which occurs between cultures rather than simply between languages {Shuttleworth & Cowie,1997:35).
A translator who uses a cultural approach is simply recognizing that each language contains elements which are derived from its culture (such as greetings, fixed expressions and REALIA), that every text is anchored in a specific culture, and that conventions of text production and reception vary from culture to culture (Shuttleworth & Cowie1997:35).
For truly successful translating, biculturalism is even more important than bilingualism, since words only have meanings in terms of the cultures in which they function. (Nida, 2001:82).
翻译不仅涉及语言问题,也涉及文化问题。译者不仅要了解外国的文化, 还要深入了解自己民族的文化。不仅如此, 还要不断地把两种文化加以比较, 因为真正的对等应该是在各自文化中的含义、作用、范围、感情色彩、影响等等都是相当的。翻译者必须是一个真正意义的文化人。人们会说：他必须掌握两种语言; 确实如此, 但是不了解语言当中的社会文化, 谁也无法真正掌握语言(王佐良,1989)。
(3).Literary Views on Translation
Translators who hold this view believe that translation is an artistic recreation or a recreated art. Some modern Western scholars from the literary school take literary translation to be "the manipulation or rewriting of the source texts".
文学翻译的任务是要把原作中包含的一定社会生活的映象完好无损地从一种语言移注到另一种语言中, 在翻译过程中追求语言的艺术美, 再现原作的艺术性。用茅盾的话说, 是"使读者在读译文的时候能够像读原作时一样得到启发、感动和美的感受"。
语言是塑造文学形象的工具, 因而文学的形象性特征必然要在语言上表现出来。文学语言的特征, 诸如形象、生动、鲜明、含蓄、凝练、准确、风趣、幽默、辛辣、滑稽、悦耳、民族特点、地方色彩, 还有行业习语、民间的俚语、谚语等等, 都是作家根据塑造形象的需要, 从现实生活中提炼创造出来的。文学作品的艺术形式与思想内容是辩证统一的, 翻译要保存原作风格特点, 因此要求译文生动形象、形神毕肖、雅俗等同、简洁精美、词情并茂(《译学辞典》2004: 291)。
(4). Semantic Views on Translation
This view focuses on the semantic equivalence between the two languages,as well expressed by Eugene Nida(1986):"Translating means translating meaning".
Translation is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text (Newmark,1988:5).
Semantic translation: the translator attempts,within the bare syntactic and semantic constraints of the target language,to reproduce the precise contextual meaning of the author (Newmark,1982:22).
In semantic translation, greater attention is paid to rendering the author's original thought-processes in target language than to attempting to re-interpret source text in a way which the translator considers more appropriate for the target setting (Shuttleworth & Cowie,1997:151).
(5).Functional Views on Translation
Functionalists believe that translation is a specific form of human action with a certain purpose, a kind of linguistic service provided to the society.Translators should take into account the needs of the client, the reader as wellas the purpose or use of the translation:
It is not the source text, or its effects on the source-text recipient, or the function assigned to it by the author, that determines the translation process, but the prospective function or purpose of the target text as determined by the initiator's,
i.e.client's needs (Baker,2001:236).
(6).Communicative Views on Translation
This approach views translation as a communicative process which takes place within a social context.
Communicative translation:the translator attempts to produce the same effect on
the target language readers as was produced by the original on the source language readers (Newmark, 1982:22).
Communicative translation is generally oriented towards the needs of the target language reader or recipient. A translator who is translating communicatively will treat source text as a message rather than a mere string of linguistic units,and will be concerned to preserve source text's original function and to reproduce its effect on the new audience (Shuttleworth & Cowie,1997:21).
The above views help us to understand the complex nature of translation. Since there are many factors which affect the translation process, translation is a complicated human activity.
2. Translation Criteria Put Forward by Famous Translators or
Translation Theorists
Some well-known translators or translation theorists at home and abroad have put forward criteria to judge the quality of a translation.
(1). 严复(1853-1921):Triple Principle of Translation
信(faithfulness): 忠实准确
达(expressiveness}: 通顺流畅
雅(elegance): 文字古雅
Yan Fu put forward this "Three-character Guide‖ in his preface to the translation of T.H. Huxley's book Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays (《天演论》译例言1898): 译事三难信达雅。求其信己大难矣。顾信矣不达。虽译犹不译也。则达尚焉...... 易曰修辞立诚。子曰辞达而已。又曰言之无文，行之不远。三者乃文章正轨。亦即为译事楷模。故信达而外，求其尔雅。此不仅期以行远已耳。实则精理微言。用汉以前字法句法，则为达易。用近世利俗文字，则求达难。往往抑义就词，毫厘千里。审择于斯二者之间，夫固有所不得已也。岂钓奇哉。......
Translation has to do three difficult things: to be faithful, expressive, and elegant. It is difficult enough to be faithful to the original, and yet if a translation is not expressive, it is tantamount to having no translation. Hence expressiveness should be required too.……
The Book of Changes says that the first requisite of rhetoric is truthfulness. Confucius says that expressiveness is all that matters in language. He adds that if one's language lacks grace, it won't go far. These three qualities, then, are the criteria of good writing and, I believe, of good translation too. Hence besides faithfulness and expressiveness, I also aim at elegance. I strive for elegance not just to make my translations travel far, but to express the original writer's ideas better, for I find that subtle thoughts are better expressed in the vocabulary and syntax of pre-Han prose than those of the vulgar writings of today. Using the latter often leads to distortion of meaning, which, however slight, results in vast misunderstanding. Weighing the pros and cons, I opted for the former, as a matter of necessity, not trying to be different ……
Yan Fu‘s first two criteria of being faithful to the original text in content and being expressive in translation are generally acceptable, but his interpretation of "elegance" has aroused plenty of criticism because, in his opinion, one has to resort to the vocabulary and syntax of pre-Han prose to achieve "elegance". Yan Fu's criteria are also controversial for his emphasis on the equal status of the three conflicing principles. Despite this, Yan‘s criteria are still popular in China, but the interpretation of his criteria has changed. Nowadays to many translators, "elegance" implies "the safe and sound preservation of the taste and shade of the original‖(黄龙, 1988:90) or "运用读者所最乐于接受的文体, 使译文得以广泛流传，扩大影响"(劳陇，《翻译通讯》1983年第10期).
(2). 鲁迅信（faithfulness)
顺（smoothness)
翻译必须有异国情调，就是所谓洋气。其实世界上也不会有完全归化的译文，倘有，就是貌合神离，从严辨别起来，它算不得翻译。凡是翻译，必须兼顾着两面，一当然力求其易解，一则保存着原作的丰姿，但这保存却又常常和易懂相矛盾：看不惯了。不过它原是洋鬼子，当然谁也看不惯，为比较的顺眼起见，只能改换他的衣裳，却不该削低他的鼻子，剜掉他的眼睛(《鲁迅全集》第6卷，48页)。
(3). 林语堂忠实{faithfulness)
通顺(smoothness)
美(beautifulness)
翻译的标准问题，大概包括三方面。我们可依三方面的次序讨论。第一是忠实标准，第二是通顺标准，第三是美的标准。这翻译的三层标准，与严氏的"译事三难"，大体上是正相比符的。……我们并须记得这所包括的就是：第一、译者对原文方面的问题，第二、译者对中文方面的问题，第三、是翻译与艺术文的问题。以译者所负的责任言，第一是译者对原著者的责任，第二是译者对中国读者的责任，第三是译者对艺术的责任。三样的责任全备，然后可以谓具有真正译家的资格。(《论翻译》,林语堂名著全集,1995:306)
(4). 傅雷:神似(resemblance in spirit)
以效果而论，(文学)翻译应当像临画一样，所求的不在形似而在神似。(《高老头》重译本序，1951)
(5). 钱钟书：化境(reaching the acme of perfection)
文学翻译的最高境界是"化"，把作品从一国文字转变成另一国文字，既能不因语文习惯的差异而露出生硬牵强的痕迹，又能完全保存原有的风昧，那就算得入于"化境"。十七世纪有人赞美这种造诣的翻译，比为原作的"投胎转世"(the transmigration of soul), 躯壳换了一个，而精神姿致依然故我。换句话说，译本对原作应该忠实得以至于读起来不像译本，因为作品在原文里绝不会读起来像经过翻译似的。(《林纾的翻译》，1964)
(6). 刘重德：信（faithhlness）
达（expressiveness）
切（closeness)
信于内容(to be faithful to the content of the original);
达如其分(to be as expressive as the original);
切合风格(to be as close to the original style as possible).
(《浑金璞玉集》，1994: 9)
(8). Alexander Fraser TytIer (泰特勒): Three Principles of Translation Alexander F.Tytler, a famous British translation theorist, put forward the classical criteria in his Essay on the Principles of Translation (1790):
1) The translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work
(译作应该完全传达原作的思想)；
2) The style and manner of writing in the translation should be of the same character
with that of the original (译作的风格与笔调应当与原作保持一致)；
3) The translation should have all the ease of the original composition(译作应当和原
作一样流畅).
Tytler further points out that the above-said three principles are arranged and ranked according to the order of their significance, and that, when they are not simultaneously attainable, the first should be held to at the sacrifice of the third principle, then the second .
(9). Eugene A. Nida (奈达): Functional Equivalence (功能对等)
Eugene A.Nida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward his recent interpretation of functional equivalence in his Language and Culture: Context in Translating(2001:87):
1) A minimal, realistic definition of functional equivalence:The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the
original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it. (最低限度而又切合实际的功能对等定义：译文读者对译文的理解应当达到能够想像出原文读者是怎样理解和领会原文的程度).
2) A maximal, ideal definition of functional equivalence: The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did. (最高限度合乎理想的功能对等定义：译文读者应当能够基本上按照原文读者理解和领会原文的方式来理解和领会译文).
3. Classification of translation
(1). Jakobson (1896-1982)
1) Intralingual translation or rewording is an interpretation of verbal signs by means
of other signs of the same language.
2) Interlingual translation or translation proper is an interpretation of verbal signs by
means of some other language.
3) Intersemiotic translation or transmutation is an interpretation of verbal signs by
means of signs of nonverbal sign systems.
e.g.
1) 原文：子曰：“学而时习之，不亦乐乎!有朋友自远方来，不亦乐乎!人不知而不愠，不亦君子乎!”
译文一:孔子说:“学习了而时常温习，不也高兴吗！有朋友从远方来，不也快乐吗!别人不了解我，我并不怨恨，不也是君子吗？”(徐志刚译)
译文二: The Master said，"To learn and at due times to repeat what one has learnt，Is that not after all a pleasure? That friends should come to one from afar, Is this not after all delightful? To remain unsoured even though one‘s merits are unrecognized by others, Is that not after all what is expected of a gentleman? (Waley 译)
[点评]原文同译文一之间的转换属于语内翻译(intralingual translation), 即用同一语盲的其他语言符号对原文迸行阐释或者重述(rewording)。原文同译文二之间的转换属于语际翻译(interlingual translation)，即两个不同语言之间所进行的转换。
2) 原文：A: What does your watch say?
B: It says ―five past three‖.
[点评]在这一对话中，B实际上是在迸行一种翻译，这种翻译叫做符际翻译(intersemiotic translation)，即语言同非语言符号之间的代码转换。当A询问B几点钟的时候，B只能看钟或者看手表，而钟或者手表并不能说话，B只能根据钟表的时针和分针来确定具体儿点钟了。而B所言实际上是言语传达一个非言语信息(non-linguistic message)。将非言语信息用言语传达出来是翻译的一种方式，这不是从一种语言到另一种语言的转换过程，而是从非语言交际系统到语言交际系统的过程。非语言交际系统和语言交际系统的共同特征是两者都属于"符号系统"(即用于交际的系统)。雅可布逊Jakobson)将这种由非语言交际系统到语言交际系统的转换过程称为符际翻译是恰当的。其实，我们每个人每一天、每一刻都
在迸行着符际翻译而不自知也。从这个意义上说，我们每个人都是某种意义上的译者(Hervey et.al 1995:8-9).
(2). Peter Newmark (纽马克): Communicative and Semantic Translation (交际翻译与语义翻译)
Peter Newmark, a famous British translation theorist, put forward his concepts of communicative and semantic translation in his Approaches to Translation (1982/1988:39):
1) Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as
possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. (交际翻译力图对译作读者产生尽可能接近原作读者所获得的效果).
2) Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic
structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. (语义翻译力图在译作语言的语义结构和句法结构允许的情况下，译出原作在上下文中的准确意义).
(3). Christiane Nord
“译文的功能并非由分析原文自动得出，而是由跨文化传意的目的决定的”。（Nord,1991:9）而译文可以按照其传意功能分为两种类型，一种是能在目标文化的新情景中独立地起传意作用的工具；另一种是纪录作者与原文接受者如何在来源文化里传意的文献。换言之，翻译有两种方法：工具性翻译和文献性翻译。
a) 工具性翻译(instrumental translation)有三种：
1）等功能翻译：对目标读者发挥原文功能，例如，使用说明书；
2）异功能翻译：发挥相似功能，例如把《格列佛游记》翻译给儿童阅读；
3）相应翻译：在目标文学语境中再现原文在来源文学语境中的功能，以发挥与原文相应的效果，常见于诗歌翻译。
b) 文献性翻译(documental translation)
1）逐字翻译：再现原语系统；
2）字面翻译：再现原文形式；
3）语文学翻译：结合字面翻译和文外阐释，再现原文的形式和内容；
4）异化翻译：保留原文的文化背景，给译文接受者营造异国情调（Nord,1997:47-52；1991：73）
4. Nature and Scope of Translation
What is translation? Some people believe it is a science, others take it as an art, and yet many consider it a craft, or rather, a skill.
Of these varied opinions, which one holds true for our purpose? The answer depends on how we understand or interpret the word "translation", for the very word "translation" itself is ambiguous, and the Chinese equivalent "'fanyi" sounds even fuzzier. Fanyi, in Chinese, may either stand for a subject of the curriculum, a job
people engage in, a piece of literary work, or the translating or interpreting work itself. Sometimes, "fanyi" may even refer to the translator or interpreter himself/herself.
If the word "translation" refers to a subject, namely, the study of translation theory and skills, it is no doubt a science, just as any subject is, with its own rules, laws and principles for the translators to abide by; however, if it refers to some specific pieces of translation, then it is more like an art, with each piece manifesting its own charms and style in the creative hands of the translator; whereas, if it refers to a process, in which something is translated, then we may regard it as a craft or skill. For unlike any branch of natural science, the process of translation has its peculiarity, and none of its rules and principles are universally applicable. Besides, it entails a lot of practice—particular craftsmanship and skills are displayed by the touches of different translators.
Translation covers a very broad range. In terms of languages, it can be divided into two categories: from native languages into foreign languages and vice versa; in terms of the mode, it can be divided into oral interpretation, written translation and machine translation; in terms of materials to be translated, there is translation of scientific materials, translation of literary works such as novels, stories, prose, poetry, drama, etc. , translation of political essays such as treatises on social problems, reports, speeches, etc. , and translation of practical writing (as official documents, contracts and agreements, notices , receipts, etc.); in terms of disposal, it can be either full-text translation（全文翻译）, abridged translation（摘译）or adapted translation（编译）.
5. Principles or Criteria of Translation
The so-called principles and criteria of translation are actually the two sides of the same thing. The former lays emphasis on the translator, who should follow them while translating; while the latter on the reader or critic, who may use the criteria to evaluate translation works. Whenever principles or criteria of translation are under discussion in China, Yan Fu’s "three-character guide", which was first proposed in 1898, would evoke controversy, namely, the principle of "信、达、雅"(faithfulness expressiveness and elegance ).
In the past decades Mr. Yan's principle of translation has been generally regarded as a plumb-line for measuring the professional level of translation and a goal for translators to strive after. However, in the application of this principle, people have come to find some limitations to the three characters and put forward a variety of new standards instead.
Three kinds of opinions are expressed on the principle of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. The first group maintains the original three characters, and in the meantime, adds some new concepts to the character "雅". According to them, "雅"
means far more than the English word "elegance". Apart from the traditional interpretation, it also means classicism, the adherence to the original style and flavor. The second group, however, argues that the word "雅" is out of place in translation. While adopting the first two characters of Mr. Yan Fu's principle, it discards the character "雅" and tries to find some other new criteria instead. Noticeably, there are revisions such as "信、达、切" (faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness), "信、达、贴" (faithfulness, expressiveness and fitness), and so on. The third group of people, by casting away the three-word guide, propose some new principles or criteria of translation of their own. Of the various popular theories two of them are most influential: spiritual conformity (神似) and sublimated adaptation(化境). The former, proposed by Fu Lei emphasizes the reproduction of the spirit or the flavor of the original, while the latter, advocated by Qian Zhongshu, focuses on the translator's smooth and idiomatic Chinese version for the sake of the Chinese reader.
Despite the variety of opinions, two criteria are almost unanimously accepted, namely, the criterion of faithfulness/accuracy（忠实、准确) and that of smoothness (流畅). We may also take these two criteria as the principles of translation in general. By faithfulness/ accuracy, we mean to be faithful not only to the original contents, to the original meaning and views, but also to the original form and style. By smoothness, we mean not only easy and readable rendering, but also idiomatic expression in the target language, free from stiff formula and mechanical copying from dictionaries.
6. Literal Translation and Free Translation
The process of translation consists of two phases: comprehension and expression. Generally speaking, comprehension is of foremost importance, and expression is the natural consequence of thorough comprehension. However, in the practice of translation we may find that now and then some words in their usual senses are very difficult to deal with because of the disparity between the English and the Chinese languages. In this case, we have to resort to some special means of translation. Literal translation and free translation are two useful approaches in dealing with such awkward situations.
The so-called literal translation, superficially speaking, means "not to alter the original words and sentences"; strictly speaking, it strives "to keep the sentiments and style of the original". It takes sentences as its basic units and takes the whole text (discourse) into consideration at the same time in the course of translation. Furthermore, it strives to reproduce both the ideological content and the style of the original works and retains as much as possible the figures of speech. There are quite a lot of examples of successful literal translation that have been adopted as idiomatic Chinese expressions. For example, crocodile's tears,armed to the teeth, chain reaction, gentlemen's agreement, and so on. Similarly, some Chinese idioms also
find their English counterparts through literal translation. For example, 纸老虎(paper tiger), 一国两制(one country, two systems ), and so on.
Free translation is an alternative approach which is used mainly to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without trying to reproduce its sentence patterns or figures of speech. This approach is most frequently adopted when it is really impossible for the translator to do literal translation. For example:
·Adam's apple 喉结
·at sixes and sevens 乱七八糟
·It rains cats and dogs. 大雨滂沱
·Don't cross the bridge till you get to it. 不必担心过早。(不必自寻烦恼)
·Do you see any green in my eye? 你以为我是幼稚可欺的吗?
The above illustrations can not be translated literally，otherwise，the Chinese rendition would make nonsense at all，let alone the original meaning.
Literal translation and free translation, however, are relative concepts. In other words, there is no absolute ―literal‖，nor entirely "free" version in the practice of translation, and overemphasizing either of them would result in ridiculous consequences. Let's scrutinize the following two practical cases.
Original English 1
I love tiger cat, … British movies on public television，fluffy blouses, the nuclear family, (Helen Snow，My China Years)
Chinese Version A:
我爱虎猫, …… (爱)电视上放映的英国影片，有绒毛的短衫，核心家庭，……Chinese Version B:
我喜欢豹猫, …… 喜欢公共电视台播放的英国电影，喜欢蓬松、柔软的棉毛衫，喜欢一夫一妻制的家庭，……
Comment:
Apparently, these two Chinese versions are far from being perfect. Other things aside, the rendering of the phrase nuclear family poses a serious problem of representation. Version A renders "the nuclear family" as "核心家庭" by means of literal translation. However, this version is too stiff, therefore it fails to convey the original meaning to the Chinese reader—for most Chinese, they have hardly any idea what "核心家庭" really means. Version B adopts the approach of free translation and puts it into "一夫一妻制"；evidently it goes too far and distorts the author's original intention, and in doing so, the translator abuses the practice of free translation. In fact, the nuclear
family has nothing to do with either of the versions. A close examination of its definition in an English-English dictionary sheds light on this phrase: nuclear family, a family group that consists only of father, mother and children. Therefore, the proper rendering of the phrase should be words to this effect: a cozy small family, namely, the Chinese equivalent "小家庭".
Original English 2 :
Mao Tse-tung was well bred, but inside he was made of steel, of hard resistance, of tough tissue—the kind of tissue the Boxers thought they had by magic, and bared their solar plexuses to foreign bullets.(ibid. )
Chinese Version A:
毛泽东有很好的教养，内部是钢，有坚强的抗力，是坚韧的材料制成的。这是义和团设想的由于神力具有的，可以把腹部袒胸给外国人的子弹的那种材料。
Chinese Version B:
毛泽东教养有素，精神支柱铁铸钢打，不怕高压，是由坚韧的组织构成的。这
种组织，就是义和拳认为他们通过魔法得到的那种组织袒胸露体，刀枪不入。
Comment:
The word "tissue" can hardly be rendered into Chinese either in literal translation or free translation，nor could the metaphor "inside he was made of steel" be properly rendered without grasping the essence of the whole sentence. However，since there is no corresponding expressions in Chinese, the translators tackle them according to their own understanding. Inversion A，"tissue" is freely rendered as "材料" (material)，while version B literally as"组织"(organic tissue)—both fail to convey the original meaning and attitude of the writer. By adopting translation skills such as amplification, omission，conversion and restructuring，we may translate the original English sentence as follows:
Revised Version:
毛泽东外表温文尔雅，但内心深处却钢铸铁打，既坚韧，又抗压—在他的身上可以看到当年义和团自信所具有的那种神力，面对洋枪洋炮也敢袒胸露怀。
From the above analysis, we come to the conclusion that there is no obvious distinction between literal translation and free translation, nor is it necessary to distinguish one from the other. The key point for a translator to grasp is to comprehend the original thoroughly, and then put it into idiomatic Chinese. In the process of translation, specific approaches such as literal or free translation may be of some help, but we should avoid the two extremes. In the application of literal translation, we should endeavor to rid ourselves of stiff patterns and rigid adherence to translation rules, trying to be flexible; while in the practice of free translation, we
should be cautious of subjectivity, avoiding groundless affirmation or arbitrary fabrication. Whatever the circumstances, we may alternate or combine these two approaches when it is necessary.
7. Omission
Omission is a technique opposite to amplification. True, a translator has no right to subtract any meaning from the original work. But it does not follow that he should refrain from omitting any words at all in translation. In fact, one of the marked differences in syntax between English and Chinese is the disparity in wording. What is regarded as a natural or indispensable element in one language may be regarded as superfluous or even "a stumbling block" in the other. Take the following English sentence and its Chinese version for example:
Original English: The time-keeping devices of electronic watches are much more accurate than those of mechanical ones.
Chinese Version: 电子表比机械表准确得多。
A comparison between the Chinese version with the English original shows that many of the "redundant" English words have been omitted in the Chinese translation, otherwise, the Chinese sentence would sound wordy and unnatural. Therefore, a manipulation of the technique "omission" is always called for in English-Chinese translation. On the other hand, some Chinese sentences, when translated into English, also need to be rid of redundant wording so as to conform to idiomatic English expressions.
8. Conversion
Conversion, one of the commonly adopted translation techniques, means the change of parts of speech in translation. Owing to the syntactical differences between English and Chinese, it is usually impossible for a translator to keep to the original part of speech in the process of translation. For example:
Original English: This watch never varies more than a second in a month.
Chinese Version: 这块表一个月的误差从不超过一秒钟。
The English verb "varied" can hardly be rendered into Chinese by the same part of speech without spoiling the original meaning. As a matter of fact, a word belonging to a certain part of speech in one language sometimes has to be converted into a different part of speech, so as to bring forth a readable and coherent sentence.
9. Restructuring
Restructuring, as one of the translation techniques, means the necessary or inevitable change of word order in a sentence according to the usage of the language to be translated into. It is also called rearrangement or inversion.
10. Hypotactic vs. Paratactic (形合与意合)
Hypotaxis (形合法) is the dependent or subordinate construction or relationship of clauses with connectives, for example, I shall despair if you don't come. English sentence building is featured by hypotaxis.
Parataxis(意合法)is the arranging of clauses one after the other without connectives Showing the relation between them, for example, The rain fell; the river flooded; the house washed away. Chinese sentence building is featured by parataxis.
11. Foreignizing Translation and Domesticating Translation
(1). Foreignizing Translation
Foreignizing translation lays great emphasis on retaining the cultural flavors of the source language and enables the reader to have an alien reading experience, thus developing the reader's awareness of cultural differences. To promote cultural exchange and mutual understanding between peoples of different languages and cultures, foreignizing translation is a far better choice than domesticating translation. In this way we can better understand the source-language culture and enrich Chinese modes of expression. The weakness of foreignization is that the culture-specific expressions thus translated may not be familiar to our readers or smooth enough for us to read with ease. In this case, a semantic translation or an explanatory note may be added. However, what is unfamiliar at present may gradually become familiar as more and more intercultural communications take place, or as people read more and more such translated expressions. Here we are reminded of a much quoted saying by Lu Xun:
翻译必须有异国情调，就是所谓洋气。其实世界上也不会有完全归化的译文，倘有，就是貌合神离，从严辨别起来，它算不得翻译。凡是翻译，必须兼顾着两面，一当然力求其易解，一则保存着原作的丰姿，但这保存，却又常常和易懂相矛盾：看不惯了。不过它原是洋鬼子，当然谁也看不惯，为比较的顺眼起见，只能改换它的衣裳，却不该削低它的鼻子，剜掉它的眼睛。（《鲁迅全集》第6卷，348页）
and also a quotation from Mao Zedong:
要从外国语言中吸收我们所需要的成分。我们不是硬搬或滥用外国语言，是要吸收外国语言中的好东西，于我们适用的东西。因为中国原有语汇不够用，现在我们的语汇中就有很多是从外国吸收来的。例如今天开的干部大会，这“干部”两个字，就是从外国学来的。我们还要多多吸收外国的新鲜东西，不但要吸收他们的进步道理，而且要吸收他们的新鲜用语。（《反对党八股》）
It should be noted that skilful foreignizing translation, which may involve the techniques of necessary addition or omission, does not mean word-for-word or mechanical translation which disregards the original implication, the constraints of Chinese usage (linguistic and cultural), and the acceptability of our readers. Examples:
1). arm to the teeth
武装到牙齿(cf. 全副武装)
2). crocodile tears
鳄鱼的眼泪(cf. 猫哭老鼠假慈悲)
3). Beauty lies in the lover's eyes.
情人眼里出美人(cf. 情人眼里出西施)
4). In the country of the blind, the one-eyed man is King.
盲人国里，独眼人称王(cf. 蜀中无大将，廖化作先锋)
5). as gay (cheerful) as a lark
像云雀那样快活(cf.兴高采烈)
e.g. Ha, ha! We should be as gay as larks, Mr. Richard — why not? (C. Dickens:
The Old Curiosity Shop)
6)．Sour grapes
酸葡萄(cf.把得不到的东西说成是不好的)
e.g. But because we cannot satisfy the desires of our hearts - why should we cry
"sour grapes" at them? (H. Wells: Christina Alberta's Father)
7). Pandora's box
潘多拉的盒子(cf. 灾难和罪恶的来源)
8). Judas kiss
犹大之吻(cf.虚伪的好意)
9). teach a pig to play on a flute
教猪吹笛(cf. 对牛弹琴)
10). flog a dead horse 鞭打死马(cf.做无用功；白费口舌)
11). a dark horse 黑马(cf. 出人意料的获胜者)
12). as easy as ABC 像ABC 字母一样简单(cf. 非常容易)
13). ivory tower 象牙塔(cf. 人们避免现实生活中烦恼的小天地)
14). Beauty is but skin-deep.
(谚语) 美貌只是一层皮(cf. 不可以貌取人)
15). Can the leopard change his spots?
(谚语)美洲豹岂能改变身上的花纹(cf. 本性难移)
16). Trojan horse
(谚语) 特洛伊木马(cf. 诡计；隐患；从内部进行颠覆破坏的人)
17). Never offer to teach fish to swim.
(谚语) 不要教鱼游泳(cf. 不要班门弄斧)
18). look for a needle in a haystack
在草堆里找针(cf. 海底捞针)
19). a stick-and-carrot policy
大棒加胡萝卜政策(cf.软硬兼施；恩威并用)
20). domino effect
多米诺骨牌效应(cf.连锁反应)
21). John is her office Romeo.
约翰是她办公室里的罗迷欧(cf. 办公室里的男情人)
22). sandwich man
三明治式广告宣传员(cf. 身前身后挂着标语牌的广告宣传员)
In foreignizing translation, a paraphrase or an explanation, if necessary, may be added to the unfamiliar expression or a footnote may be placed at the end of the translation, so as to make the English culture-loaded expression comprehensible to our readers:
e.g. It was another one of those Catch-22 situations, you're damned if you do and you're damned if you don't.
这真是又一个如同军规第二十二条的尴尬局面：做也倒霉，不做也倒霉，令人左右为难。
注:：Catch-22 situation 源自美国小说家Joseph Heller 于1961 年出版的小说《第二十二条军规》（Catch-22)。该条军规规定：飞行员如果觉得自己神经不正常，可以获准不执行飞行任务，但必须提出申请并得到批准。但同时该军规又规定：如果飞行员因此提出申请，则充分证明该飞行员能意识到面临着无法克服的困难，头脑清醒，神经正常，因此不得豁免飞行任务。这是一条自相矛盾、无法执行的规定。
(2). Domesticating Translation
Domesticating translation minimizes the foreignness of the source-language text by changing heterogeneous elements into what is familiar to the target-language reader. This method of "substitution" means replacing the English culture-loaded expression by its Chinese equivalent, which may be similar in form and same in meaning (形似意同) or different in form but same in meaning (形异意同), to minimize the strangeness of the English expression by adopting a fluent, natural-sounding Chinese style for our readers' preferences. Domestication is usually employed when the translator believes that the original cultural flavor is widely different from Chinese culture and therefore too difficult for our readers to understand.
Both at present and in history, the domesticating strategy seems to have been dominant in China, for reviewers and publishers tend to lay great emphasis on readability of the translated text, which coincides with the taste of the general reader.
The weakness of domestication is that the original cultural flavors are not communicated to our readers and the translation becomes a "regrettable art".
It should be emphasized that many English and Chinese expressions may seem similar in form, but they are actually different in meaning or in shades of implication. Translators should guard against these "false friends" and the resulting mistakes (see the "CAUTION" below).
Examples:
1). Give him an inch and he will take a mile.
2). like a cat on hot bricks
3). spring (shoot) up like mushrooms
4). The spirit is willing but the flesh is weak.
5). have one foot in the grave
6). carry coals to Newcastle
7). lion in the way (来自《圣经》) 拦路虎
8). Seeing is believing.
9). What's done is done. (Shakespeare)
10). When Greek meets Greek then comes the tug of war. (谚语) 两雄相遇，其斗必烈。
12. Semantic Translation
Semantic translation means reproducing the precise contextual meaning of the English culture-loaded expression within the syntactic and semantic constraints of the Chinese language. Wemay employ the method of concretization" (具体法) or "abstraction" (抽象法) to paraphrase the expression. Semantic translation is employed often after the failure of "foreignizing translation" or "domesticating translation". In many cases we find it difficult to translate them unless we refer to contexts or consult dictionaries. Examples:
1). apple of discord
(来自希腊神话) 不和的种子；争吵的根源
2). escape by (with) the skin of one's teeth
(来自《圣经》) 死里逃生；幸免于难
3). hole-and-corner
(来自《圣经》) 偷偷摸摸；鬼鬼祟祟
4). as poor as Job
(来自《圣经》) 一贫如洗（穷得象约伯一样）
5). By George!
天啊！好家伙！糟糕！(used as an exclamation of surprise or approval.)
e.g. It couldn't be, by George, that she was deceiving him. (Th. Dreiser: Sister Carrie)
6). Mickey Mouse (= small and unimportant; not to be taken seriously, LDCE 1998: 952)
e.g. ·A "Mickey Mouse course" meansa snap course. (American Speech)
·He calls himself the managing director but his company is just a Mickey Mouse operation that he runs from his own home. (LDCE 1998: 952)
7). in for a penny, in for a pound
(= if something has been started it should be finished, whatever the cost may be, LDCE 1998: 1108)
e.g. Now gentlemen, I am not a man who does things by halves, being in for a penny,
I am ready, as the saying is, in for a pound. (The Curiosity Shop)
8). bite off more than one can chew
(= attempt more than one can deal with or succeed in finishing, LDCE 1998: 130) e.g. I told him he would be biting off more than he could chew if he tried to rebuild the house himself, (ibid)
9). be in good company
(= be able to take comfort from the fact that many other [skilled or clever] people are the same as yourself, esp. in not being able to do something, Longman Dictionary of English Idioms, 1979)
e.g. —"Why are we going to France? I can't speak a word of French."
—"Don't worry, you're in good company— neither can I!" (LDCE 1998: 294) 10). a square peg in a round hole
(= someone who is not suited to the job they hold, the group they belong to, LDCE 1998: 1489)
e.g. Horace hated his work in the office as he had always worked out of doors; he was
a square peg in a round hole.
13. Affixation
Affixation is an important means of coining new English words and technical terms, with prefix and suffix as inseparable elements, of the words being coined. The advantage of affixation is evident: it is the most flexible means of forming new words and its potential of creation is almost boundless, therefore it is extensively used in the formation of technical terms. Besides prefix and suffix of English origin, there are some foreign borrowings, noticeably the Latin ones, e.g. bio-(生命、生物), thermo-（热）, electro-(电), aero-(空气) carbo-(碳), hydro-(水), -ite(矿物), -mania(热，狂), etc. If we are familiar with these prefixes and suffixes, many technical terms of such formation can be translated appropriately. The following are some typical examples. ·miniultrasonicprober = mini + ultra +sonic +prober 微型超声波金属探测仪
·macrospacetransship = macro +space + trans + ship 巨型空间转运飞船
·teletypesetter = tele + type + setter 电传排字机
·bathythermograph = bathy +thermo + graph 海水测温仪
·barothermograph = baro + thermo + graph 气压温度记录器·deoxyribonucleic = de + oxy + ribo + nucleic 脱氧核糖核·photomorphogenesis = photo +morpho + genesis 光形态发生
14. Compounding
Two or more words combined to form a new word is called compounding. English technical terms formed by compounding generally take three forms: combining with a hyphen (e. g. salt-former 卤素, dew-point 露点, pulse-scaler 脉冲定标器) or without it (e.g. fallout 放射性尘埃, waterlock 水闸, thunderstorm 雷暴) or two or more separate words forming a word combination (e. g. verbal translator 逐字翻译机, hover craft 气垫船, satellite antimissile observation system 卫星反导弹观察系统). Most of such compound words may be translated literally, i.e. put the Chinese equivalents of the separate elements together and we get the Chinese equivalents of the compound words. Sometimes, however, there are exceptions. For example, bull's eye, cat-and-mouse, dog house etc.—literal translation in tackling such terms may lead astray. Therefore whenever we are confronted with unfamiliar terms and are not sure of their meaning, we should frequently consult dictionaries of relevant specialties. In many cases some additional explanations are needed to make the original meaning clear and accurate.
15. Blending
This is a variant of compounding, omitting the latter part of the first word and clipping off the first part of the second word. Sometimes, however, either the first part or the second part of the overlapped word may be a full word. Generally speaking, this blending of words possesses the combined meaning of both, therefore, literal translation is used in translating such terms, with one element modifying the other. ·smog = smoke + fog
·telex = teleprinter + exchange
·gravisphere = gravity + sphere
·medicare = medical + care
·biorhythm == biological +rhythm
·copytron == copy + electron
16. Acronym
An acronym is a word made up from the first letters of the name of something. Since it is very convenient to use this brief form, acronym is widely adopted in English technical terms. With the rapid development of science and technology, more and
more acronyms are extensively used in various fields, therefore, it is up to the translator to discern their actual meaning in different context.
·ADP automatic data processing
·AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
·EDPM electronic data processing machine
·GSV guided space vehicle
·Laser light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation
·RAM random access memory
Sometimes, an acronym happens to be a significant English word, or it may possess more than one meaning. In this case, special attention is necessary to pick out the proper one.
MOUSE minimum orbital unmanned satellite of the earth
SALT Strategic Arms Limitation Talks
SNAP subsystem for nuclear auxiliary power
space nuclear auxiliary power
systems for nuclear auxiliary power
AS air scoop
air seasoned
air speed
air station
American Standard
atmosphere and space
automatic sprinkler
automatic synchronizer
第二部分常用翻译技巧
英汉两种语言在句法、词汇、修辞等方面均存在着很大的差异，因此在进行英汉互译时必然会遇到很多困难，需要有一定的翻译技巧作指导。常用的翻译技巧有增译法、省译法、转换法、拆句法、合并法、正译法、反译法、倒置法、包孕法、插入法、重组法和综合法等。
1增译法：指根据英汉两种语言不同的思维方式、语言习惯和表达方式，在翻译时增添一些词、短句或句子，以便更准确地表达出原文所包含的意义。这种方式多半用在汉译英里。汉语无主句较多，而英语句子一般都要有主语，所以在翻译汉语无主句的时候，除了少数可用英语无主句、被动语态或"There be…"结构来翻译以外，一般都要根据语境补出主语，使句子完整。英汉两种语言在名词、代词、连词、介词和冠词的使用方法上也存在很大差别。英语中代词使用频率较高，凡说到人的器官和归某人所有的或与某人有关的事物时，必须在前面加上物主代词。因此，在汉译英时需要增补物主代词，而在英译汉时又需要根据情况适当地删减。英语词与词、词组与词组以及句子与句子的逻辑关系一般用连词来表示，而汉语则往往通过上下文和语序来表示这种关系。因此，在汉译英时常常需要增补连词。英语句子
离不开介词和冠词。另外，在汉译英时还要注意增补一些原文中暗含而没有明言的词语和一些概括性、注释性的词语，以确保译文意思的完整。总之，通过增译，一是保证译文语法结构的完整，二是保证译文意思的明确。如：
（1）What about calling him right away?
马上给他打个电话，你觉得如何？（增译主语和谓语）
（2）If only I could see the realization of the four modernizations.
要是我能看到四个现代化实现该有多好啊！（增译主句）
(3) Indeed, the reverse is true
实际情况恰好相反。（增译名词）
(4) 就是法西斯国家本国的人民也被剥夺了人权。
Even the people in the fascist countries were stripped of their human rights.（增译物主代词）（5）只许州官放火，不许百姓点灯。
While the magistrates were free to burn down house, the common people were forbidden to light lamps. （增译连词）
（6）这是我们两国人民的又一个共同点。
This is yet another common point between the people of our two countries.（增译介词）（7）在人权领域，中国反对以大欺小、以强凌弱。
In the field of human rights, China opposes the practice of the big oppressing the small and the strong bullying the weak.（增译暗含词语）
（8）三个臭皮匠，合成一个诸葛亮。
Three cobblers with their wits combined equal Zhuge Liang the mastermind.（增译注释性词语）
2. 省译法：这是与增译法相对应的一种翻译方法，即删去不符合目标语思维习惯、语言习
惯和表达方式的词，以避免译文累赘。增译法的例句反之即可。又如：
（1）You will be staying in this hotel during your visit in Beijing.
你在北京访问期间就住在这家饭店里。（省译物主代词）
(2) I hope you will enjoy your stay here.
希望您在这儿过得愉快。（省译物主代词）
（3）中国政府历来重视环境保护工作。
The Chinese government has always attached great importance to environmental protection. (省译名词)
3转换法：指翻译过程中为了使译文符合目标语的表述方式、方法和习惯而对原句中的词类、句型和语态等进行转换。具体的说，就是在词性方面，把名词转换为代词、形容词、动词；把动词转换成名词、形容词、副词、介词；把形容词转换成副词和短语。在句子成分方面，把主语变成状语、定语、宾语、表语；把谓语变成主语、定语、表语；把定语变成状语、主语；把宾语变成主语。在句型方面，把并列句变成复合句，把复合句变成并列句，把状语从句变成定语从句。在语态方面，可以把主动语态变为被动语态。如：
(1) 我们学院受教委和市政府的双重领导。
Our institute is co-administrated by the States Education Commission and the municipal government. (名词转动词)
（2）Too much exposure to TV programs will do great harm to the eyesight of children.
孩子们看电视过多会大大地损坏视力。(名词转动词)
翻译理论概述
翻译理论知识 一、翻译的定义 学习一门新的学科，首先必须有一个科学的定义。翻译是一个包罗万象、博大精深的技艺，至今也没有一个统一规范、举世公认的定义。我们只能综合各种不同的定义来掌握翻译的本质。 1. The Definition of The Oxford English Dictionary To turn from one language into another. 2. The Definition of Webster’s Third New International Dictionary of the English Language To turn into one’s own or another language. 3. A good translation is one which the merit of the original work is so completely transfused into another language as to be as distinctly apprehended and as strongly felt by a native of the country to which that language belongs as it is by those who speak the language of the original work.好的翻译应该是把原作的长处完全地移注到另一种语言，以使译人语所属国家的本地人能明白地领悟、强烈地感受，如同使用原作语言的人所领悟、所感受的一样。（泰特勒，1790） 4. Translation consists in reproducing in receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language , first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.翻译就是在译入语中再现与原语的信息最切近的自然对等物，首先是就意义而言，其次是就文体而言。 （奈达，1974） 5. 翻译是用一种语言把另一种语言所表达的思维内容准确而完整地重新表达出来的语言活动。（张培基，1980） 6. 翻译是把一种语言表达的意义用另一种语言传达出来，以达到沟通思想感情、传播文化知、促进社会文 明，特别是推动译语文化兴旺昌盛的目的。（孙致礼：2003） 7. 翻译是将一种语言文字所蕴含的意思用另一种语言文字表达出来的文化活动。 （王克非，1997） 二、翻译的分类 翻译分不同的类型。就文本而言，随着世界发展的全球化趋势，翻译的范围越来越广，涵盖各个领域，如文学、政治、文化、贸易、科技、传媒等。在这个意义上，翻译可分为文学翻译、科技翻译和实用文体翻译。 1.按语言分类：本族语译成外语、外语译成本族语/ 语内翻译（intralingual translation）、语际翻译（interlingual translation） 2.按活动形式分类：笔译（translation）、口译（oral interpretation） 3按翻译材料的文体分类：应用文体翻译、科技文体翻译、文学作品翻译、政论作品翻译 4按处理方式分类：全译、节译、摘译、编译、译述 三、翻译的标准 翻译标准就是指翻译实践时译者所遵循的原则，也是翻译批评家批评译文时必须遵循的原则。翻译是一种社会活动，翻译标准则是从中产生的。由于社会活动受制于社会条件及译者个人等等因素，因此翻译标准也就打上了深深的社会和译者的烙印。 在我国持这一翻译原则的有玄奘、严复和鲁迅等人。玄奘是唐代著名的佛经翻译家，主张翻译"既须求真又须喻俗"(A good translation should be both faithful to the original and intelligible to the public.)，意即译文要"忠实通顺"。严复是我国清末时期的名学者。他在《天演论》(译例言)(1898)中提出了"信达雅"三字标准(faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance)。"信"是"意义不背本文"，"达"是不拘原文形式，尽译文语音的能事以求原意明显。"信"、"达"互为照应，不可分割开来。"雅"在今天看来是不可取的，因为这个"雅"是用汉以前字法句法，即所谓的上等文言文。鲁迅先生认为："凡是翻译，必须兼顾两面，一当然力求其易解，一则保存着原作的丰姿。"这就是说，译文既要信又要顺(both faithful to the SL and smooth in expression)。我国当代翻译理论家张培基等人在其《英汉翻译教程》中所提出的"忠实"、"通顺"标准也属此类型。从
[考研类试卷]英语翻译基础(英汉互译)模拟试卷4.doc
[考研类试卷]英语翻译基础（英汉互译）模拟试卷4 汉译英 1 扶持农业发展 我们必须加大对农业的支持力度。采取符合世贸组织规则的措施，努力维护农民利益。增加对农业和农村基础设施建设投资，改善生产生活条件和生态环境。重点支持节水灌溉、人畜饮水、农村沼气、农村水电、乡村道路和草场围栏等设施建设。要在农业科研、技术推广、病虫害防治、信息咨询和农民培训等方面加强对农业的支持。特别要加大对粮食主产区的支持力度。改进金融对农业的服务。深化农村信用社改革。进一步搞好农村扶贫开发，多渠道增加扶贫资金，扩大以工代赈规模。加大对灾区和特困地区的支持，减免农、牧业税，并真正落到实处。积极帮助农村特困户和优抚对象解决实际困难。 2 中华人民共和国成立以后，我国社会逐步实现了由新民主主义到社会主义的过渡。生产资料私有制的社会主义改造已经完成，人剥削人的制度已经消灭，社会主义制度已经确立。工人阶级领导的、以工农联盟为基础的人民民主专政，实质上即无产阶级专政，得到巩固和发展。中国人民和中国人民解放军战胜了帝国主义、霸权主义的侵略、破坏和武装挑衅，维护了国家的独立和安全，增强了国防。经济建设取得了重大的成就，独立的、比较完整的社会主义工业体系已经基本形成，农业生产显著提高。教育、科学、文化等事业有了很大的发展，社会主义思想教育取得了明显的成效。广大人民的生活有了较大的改善。 3 中国新民主主义革命的胜利和社会主义事业的成就，都是中国共产党领导中国各族人民，在马克思列宁主义、毛泽东思想的指引下，坚持真理，修正错误，战胜许多艰难险阻而取得的。今后国家的根本任务是集中力量进行社会主义现代化建设。中国各族人民将继续在中国共产党领导下，在马克思列宁主义、毛泽东思想指引下，坚持人民民主专政，坚持社会主义道路，不断完善社会主义的各项制度，发展社会主义民主，健全社会主义法制，自力更生，艰苦奋斗，逐步实现工业、农业、国防和科学技术的现代化，把我国建设成为高度文明、高度民主的社会主义国家。 4 坚持党的思想路线，解放思想、实事求是、与时俱进，是我们党坚持先进性和增强创造力的决定性因素，也是十六大报告的精髓。学习贯彻十六大精神要紧紧把
西方翻译理论课文总结文档
课文上的总结： 1.The two dominant modes of research in the field of translation through the seventies were those focused on primarily literary concerns: First, rejecting theoretical presuppositions, normative rules, and linguistic jargon, and those focused on linguistic matters, claiming a "scientific" approach; Second, rejecting a logical solutions and subjective speculation. 2.A few years later, Lefevere outlined the crux of the theoretical problem, in "Translation: The Focus of the Growth of Literary Knowledge" He argued that the antagonism between the two opposing factions which he calls the hermeneutic and the neopositivistic. 3.Lefevere argued that translation theories based on such approaches did not further the growth of literary knowledge, but tended to have vested interests - ideological as well as corporate . 4.New questions were posited regarding the subject of investigation, the nature of the translation process, how mediation occurs, and how the process affects both the original (redefined as source text) and received (redefined as target text) works. 5.The object of study was neither an absent core of "meaning" nor deep "linguistic structure”but rather the translated text itself.
翻译理论知识
《翻译理论与实践》考试理论部分复习提纲 一、翻译定义: 1、张培基——翻译就是用一种语言把另一种语言所表达的思维内容准确而完整地重新表达出来的语言活动。 3、刘宓庆——翻译的实质就是语际的意义转换。 4、王克非——翻译就是将一种语言文字所蕴含的意思用另一种语言文字表达出来的文化活动。 5、泰特勒——好的翻译应该就是把原作的长处完全地移注到另一种语言,以使译入语所属国家的本地人能明白地领悟、强烈地感受,如同使用原作语言的人所领悟、所感受的一样。 6、费道罗夫——翻译就就是用一种语言把另一种语言在内容与形式不可分割的统一中所业已表达出来的东西准确而完全地表达出来。 7、卡特福德——翻译的定义也可以这样说:把一种语言(Source Language)中的篇章材料用另一种语言(Target Language)中的篇章材料来加以代替。 8、奈达——翻译就就是在译入语中再现与原语信息最切近的自然对等物,首先就意义而言,其次就就是文体而言。 “Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style、”---Eugene Nida 纽马克——通常(虽然不能说总就是如此),翻译就就是把一个文本的意义按作者所想的方式移译入另一种文字(语言)。“Translation is a craft consisting in the attempt to replace a written message and/or statement in one language by the same message and/or statement in another language、”--- Peter Newmark 10、“Translation is the expression in one language (or target language译入语) of what has been expressed in another language (source language 原语), preserving semantic and stylistic equivalences、”--- Dubois 12、13、Translation or translating is a communicative activity or dynamic process in which the translator makes great effort to thoroughly comprehend a written message or text in the source language and works very hard to achieve an adequate or an almost identical reproduction in the target language version of the written source language message or text、 二、翻译标准 1、翻译的标准概括为言简意赅的四个字:“忠实(faithfulness)、通顺(smoothness)”。忠实指的就是忠实于原文。通顺指的就是译文的语言必须合乎规范、通俗易懂。 2、严复对翻译曾经提出“信(faithfulness)、达(expressiveness)、雅(elegance)”的标准:“译事三难:信、达、雅。求其信已大难矣,顾信矣不达,虽译犹不译也,则达尚焉。” 3、“泰特勒三原则”:(1)That the Translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work;(2)That the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original;(3)That the Translation should have all the ease of original composition、”(1)译作应完全复写出原作的思想;(2)译作的风格与手法应与原作属于同一性质;(3)译作应具备原作所具有的通顺。”(谭载喜,2006)泰特勒指出,这三项原则就是好的翻译所必备的条件,它们次序的排列就是恰当的、自然的,就是按重要顺序排列的,如果在不得已的情况下要牺牲某一个原则就要注意到它们的次第与比较上的重要性,决不能颠倒主次,以牺牲思想内容的忠实来求得译文的优美与流畅。 5、奈达提出了著名的“动态对等”。她对翻译所下的定义: 所谓翻译, 就是在译语中用最切近而又最自然的对等语再现源语的信息, 首先就是意义, 其次就是文体。
英汉翻译的基本方法和技巧
英汉翻译的基本方法和技巧 翻译是信息交流过程中极其复杂的社会心理现象。语言知识是翻译的基础。此外，翻译还涉及到推理、判断、分析和综合等复杂的心理认识过程。翻译的方法和技巧是翻译工作者在长期的实践中根据两种语言的特点总结归纳出来的一般规律。这些规律可以指导我们的翻译实践，使我们能更自觉、更灵活地处理翻译过程中所遇到的各种语言现象。下面就英译汉中的一些方法和技巧结合翻译实例作一概述。 1.词义的选择 ? 一词多义和一词多类是英汉两种语言都有的一种语言现象。因此，在平日的翻译练习和测试中，我们在弄清原文句子结构后，务必注意选择和确定句中关键词的词类和词义，以保证译文的质量。通常可从以下三个方面来考虑词义选择： 1)根据词在句中的词类来选择词义 例如：Censorship is for the good of society as a whole. Like the law, it contributes to the common good. ［译文］：审查是为了整个社会的利益。它像法律一样维护公众利益。 ［注释］：本句中like作介词，意为"像……一样"。但like作动词用，则意为"喜欢；想要"。例如：He likes films with happy endings. (他喜欢结局好的电影。)又如：Would you like to leave a message (你要不要留个话儿)此外，like还可以作形容词用，意为"相同的"，如：Like charges repel; unlike charges attract.(电荷同性相斥，异性相吸。) 2)根据上下文和词在句中的搭配关系选择词义 例1According to the new school of scientists, technology is an overlooked force in expanding the horizons of scientific knowledge. ［译文］：新学派的科学家们认为，技术在扩大科学知识范围过程中是一种被忽视的力量。 ［注释］：school一词常被误译为"学校"，其实，school还有一个词义"学派"。可见，正确选择词义对译文质量有重要影响，而文章的上下文和逻辑联系是翻译中选择词义的重要依据。 例2Now since the assessment of intelligence is a comparative matter we must be sure that the scale with which we are comparing our subjects provides a "valid" or "fair" comparison. ［译文］：既然对智力的评估是比较而言的，那么我们必须确保，在对我们的对象进行比较时，我们所使用的尺度要能提供"有效的"和"公平的"比较。
翻译理论整理汇总
翻译理论整理汇总 翻译腔（translationeses）是在译文中留有源语言特征等翻译痕迹的现象，严重的翻译腔使译文读起来不够通顺。出现翻译腔有时是很难免的。形成翻译腔有以下几个原因：1）英汉语言本身的不同，包括句型结构等，在翻译时如果不能做到自由转换就会有种不是地道目标语的感觉。2）英汉文化的不同，不同的文化背景下，单词或习语有时会出现偏差甚至零对等（zero-correspondence）。有时只讲词对词的反应就会出现翻译腔。3）译者自身水平。奈达的功能对等就要求译者注重译文对读者的影响，好的译文让读者感觉是母语的写作、实现功能的对等。Venuti主张同化和异化的结合，通过同化让读者获得相识的反应，通过异化使读者领略异国语言和文化。译者应该提高自己翻译水平，在翻译策略上实现功能对等，从而尽量避免翻译腔的出现。 1. 中国的翻译理论家 严复、茅盾、鲁迅、朱光潜、傅雷、钱钟书 1）严复 信、达、雅——faithfulness、expressiveness、elegance/gracefulness 2）茅盾 他也主张“直译”，反对“意译”，他认为汉语确实存在语言组织上欠严密的不足，有必要吸引印欧语系的句法形态。但是矛盾与鲁迅观点同中有异，他认为“直译”并不是“字对字”，一个不多，一个不少。因为中西文法结构截然不同，纯粹的“字对字”是不可能的。 3）鲁迅 鲁迅的“宁信而不顺”是“凡是翻译，必须兼顾两面，一当然是力求易解，一则保存着原作风姿”，这是鲁迅的基本思想。针对当年那种“牛头不对马嘴”的胡译、乱译以及所谓“与其信而不顺，不如顺而不信”的说法（梁秋实），提出了“宁信而不顺”这一原则，主张直译，以照顾输入新表现法和保持原作的风貌。他还认为，翻译一要“移情”、“益志”，译文要有“异国情调”，二要“输入新的表现法”，以改进中文的文法，在当时主要表现为改进白话文。必须强调的是，鲁迅其实是主张翻译要通顺，又要忠实的。只是二者不可兼得的情况下，“宁信而不顺”。 4）林语堂 他是在中国议学史上第一个最明确地将现代语言学和心理学作为翻译理论的“学理剖析”的基础的。了解翻译的三条标准：忠实、通顺和美。 5）朱光潜 他的翻译标准是：第一，不违背作者的意思；第二，要使读者在肯用心了解时能够了解。 6）傅雷的“神似说”（spirit alikeness） 傅雷对翻译有两个比喻，一是“以效果而言，翻译应该像临画一样，所求的不在形似而在神似”。二是就手法而言“以甲国文字传达乙国文字所包含的那些特点，必须像伯乐相马，要得其精而忘其粗，在其内而忘其外”。 7）钱钟书的“化境”说（sublimation） 所谓“化境”（sublimation），是指原作在译文中就像“投胎转世”，躯体换了一个，但精魄依然故我。换句话说，译本对原作应该忠实得读起来不像译本，因为作品在原文里绝不会读起来想翻译出的东西的：“文学翻译的最高理想可以说是‘化’，把作品从一国文字转换成另一国文字，既能不因语文习惯的差异而露出生硬牵强的痕迹，又能完全保存原作的风味，那就算得入于‘化境’”。 2. 国外的翻译理论家 1）John Dryden Metaphrase(逐词译), turning an author word by word, and line by line, from one language into another. Paraphrase(释译), or translation with latitude, where the author's words are not so strictly followed but his sense.
翻译理论概述
第一章翻译理论概述一、Definition of Translation二、中国翻译简史三、中国翻译理论四、翻译的基本原则五、翻译工作者的基本素质一、Definition of TranslationDefinitions given by Chinese scholars：● 翻译是把一种语言文字的意义用另一种语言文字表达出来。（现代汉语词典）●翻译是将一种文字之真义全部移至另一种文字而绝不失其风格和神韵。（吴献书，1949）●翻译是用一种语言把另一种语言所表达的思维内容准确而完整地重新表达出来的语言活动。（张培基，1980）●翻译的实质是语际的意义转换。（刘宓庆，1990）●翻译的定义应该是：“将一种语言传达的信息用另一种语言传达出来。” （蔡毅，1995）●翻译是将一种语言所蕴含的意思用另一种语言文字表达出来的文化活动。（王克非，1997）翻译是跨语言、跨文化的交流。（沈苏儒，1998）● 翻译应当把原文的本意，完全正确地介绍给中国读者，使中国读者所得到的概念等于英俄日德法┅┅读者从原文得来的概念。（瞿秋白）Definitions given by Western scholars：● 翻译是翻成本族语言或另一种语言（to turn into one’s own language or another language）美国韦氏新大学词典●好的翻译应该是把原作的长处完全地遗注到另一种语言，以使译入语所属国家的本地人能明白地领悟、强烈地感受，如同使用原作语言的人所领悟、所感受一样。（泰特勒，1790）●翻译就是用一种语言把另一种语言在内容与形式不
可分割的统一中所业已表达出来的东西准确而完全地表达出来。（费道罗夫，1953）● According to Catford transl ation is “ the replacement of textual material in one language SL by equivalent textual material in another language TL”. （翻译的定义也许可以这样说：把一种语言（SL）中的篇章材料用另一种语言（TL）中的篇章材料来加以代替。）（卡特福德，1965）● ●翻译是把一种语言的言语产物在保持内容方面（也就是意义）不变的情况下改变为另外一种语言的言语产物的过程。（巴尔胡达罗夫，1985中文版）● According to Newmark translation is “ a craft consisting in the attempt to replace a written message and/or statement in one language by the same message and/or statement in another language”2001a:7.美国现代翻译家、语言学会主席尤金奈达（EugeneA Nida）1969年所下的定义：Nida in sists “… translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style” Nida1969: 53。（翻译就是在译入语中再现与原语的信息最切近的自然对等物，首先是就意义而言，其次是就文体而言）Translation Translation in fact has three distinguishable meanings for this word. It can refer to: 1 translating: the process to translate the activity rather than the tangible object 2 a translation: the
翻译基本理论知识
翻译概述（1） 一、学科特点 翻译是一种跨越时空的语言活动，是"把一种语言已经表达出来的东西用另一种语言准确而完整地重新表达出来"(范存忠："漫谈翻译"《翻译理论与技巧》中国对外翻译出版公司，1985，p.80), 是"从语义到文体在译入语中用最切近而又最自然的对等语再现原语的信息"（谭载喜：《奈达论翻译》中国对外翻译出版公司，1984，p.10）。翻译虽为个体所承作，却是一种社会活动，一门综合性很强的学科。它既有很强的理论性又有丰富的实践内涵。就前者而言，翻译经过千百年来各国翻译家的共同努力，已经在语言学、文学、文化、心理学、人类学、哲学和教育学等学科的基础上初步建立了一套理论体系，并在具体实践中总结出了一套行之有效的跨文化和语言转换模式。随着科学的日益进步，这种体系和模式正处在不断地完善之中。就后者而言，翻译是人类社会活动的产物，具有很强的实践性。翻译理论与实践的关系是辨证的；翻译理论产生于翻译实践，反过来又指导实践，实践转过来又丰富翻译理论。可以说，没有社会实践就不会有翻译理论的产生；没有翻译理论作为指导，翻译实践就会难免走弯路。因此，学好翻译既要重视翻译理论的学习，又要加强翻译实践；理论联系实际，这是我们学好翻译的必由之路。 二、为什么可能有翻译 翻译是人类社会发展和进步的需要，因为人类社会要发展进步就需要在不同文化的民族之间进行沟通，而这一全过程都离不开翻译。正如Steiner和张培基所说的那样：Translating it is that openeth the window, to let in the light; that breaketh the shell, that we may eat the kernel. (Steiner) 翻译是沟通各族人民的思想，促进政治、经济、文化、科学、技术交流的重要手段，
自考翻译理论总结
自考翻译理论总结 1.我国翻译通用的标准是: 忠实和通顺.. 2.我国最早的翻译是从佛经翻译开始的. 3.释道安的<<四十二章经>> 是我国现存佛经中最早的译本. 4.玄奘认为翻译要"既须求真,又须喻俗”. 5.茅盾主张直译,提倡保留”神韵”, 他认为直译就深处说要保留原文的情调与风格. 6.郭沫若认为, 1) 翻译是一种创造性工作,好的翻译等于创作. 2) 翻译不能采取轻率的态 度,翻译工作者要有高度的责任感. 3) 他认为“雅”不是高深或修饰，而是文学价值或艺术价值比较高。 7.鲁迅主张“宁信而不顺”，凡是翻译，一要求易解，二要保存原作的丰姿。 8.傅雷强调“神似”。他说，谈到翻译，我觉得最难应付的倒是原文中最简单最明白而 最短的句子。他译的《《老实人》》改过八次。 9.钱钟书认为文学翻译的最高标准是“化”。 10.关于风格，茅盾和刘隆惠认为风格可译，周煦良和张中楹认为不可译。 11.林纾第一次使中国读者接触到许多外国文学作品。 12.杨宪益认为译者应尽量忠实于原文，既不夸张，又不夹带任何别的东西。 13.朱光潜：1）直译和意译的区别根本不存在。2）在“谈翻译”中，他说所谓直译是指一 字一句就译一字一句。 14.周煦良：1）认为“雅”指得体。2）他在翻译三论中写道，直译可分为三类：一是译 音不译意，二是照字面译，三是按原文结构或词序翻译。 15.许渊冲在“翻译的几对矛盾中”也谈到直译与意译的问题。 16.王佐良：1）将曹禺的《雷雨》译成英文。2）关于风格，他认为适合就是一切。3）在 翻译诗歌时，若有比喻，应把它直译过来，保留原有的新鲜和气势。4）认为文学翻译不是机械乏味的事，而是一种创造性的努力。5）认为翻译者是一个永恒的学生。6）翻译者翻译的是个别的词，面对的是两大片文化，翻译者是个文化人。7）该直译就直译。 该意译就意译。 17.徐永瑛认为泰特勒的三原则与严复的信达雅是不同程度的信。 18.施觉怀认为法律文件最主要的要求是严谨，认为法律语言三个特点：条理清，文字明， 意思全。 19.李赋宁指出，练好外语基本功和翻译的质量有密切的关系。 20.译文在内容上要忠实于原文，在语言上要readable, 这样的译文才是好的译文。 21.王力先生指出，汉语多用意合法，联接成分并非必需，而英语重形合。 22.翻译的基本功在汉英翻译中主要指：1）拼法正确2）合乎用法3）句子平稳 23.英文先评论或先表态，后叙述情况，而汉语相反。 24.汉语有许多四字成语，译成英语时，译文一定要符合原文的意思。 25.英语主从关系多，抽象名词多，代词多，大量使用被动语态和分词短语，不喜欢重复， 而汉语动词多，不怕重复，多用并列结构或并列分句，因此汉语并列关系多，层次不甚明显。 26.瞿秋白认为“信”和“顺”不应当对立起来。 27.英文抽象名词多译成汉语的动词或形容词。 28.费道罗夫提出翻译的确切性原则 29.巴尔胡达罗夫提出翻译中的上下文和环境问题。 30.奈达和泰伯：1）每种语言都有自己的特点(Each language has its own genius) 2) 如果所有 的语言形式不同，译者要保存内容，自然就必须改变形式。
翻译理论概括
翻译理论 尤金?奈达的“动态对等” (Dy namic Equivale nee)/ “功能对等” (Fu nctio nal Equivale nee) 尤金? A ?奈达(Eugene A.Nida )(1914-2011)，美国著名的语言学家，翻译家，翻译理论家。1943年获密歇根大学语言学博士学位，长期在美国圣经学会主持翻译部的工作，曾任美国语言学会主席，1980年退休后任顾问。奈达 是一位杰出的语言学家，他到过 96个国家，在一百多所大学做过讲座，来中国有13次之多，直至2003年，奈达89岁高龄时，仍到非洲讲学。 尤金最有影响的著作是1964出版的《翻译的科学探索》(Toward a Scienee of Translating )，其次要数《翻译理论与实践》(The Theory and Practice of Tran slation )，系与查尔斯?泰伯合著(1969)。 奈达理论的核心概念是“功能对等”。所谓“功能对等”，就是说翻译时不求文字表面的死板对应，而要在两种语言间达成功能上的对等。为使源语和目的语的之间的转换有一个标准，减少差异，尤金? A ?奈达从语言学的角度出发， 根据翻译的本质，提出了著名的“动态对等”翻译理论，即“功能对等”。在这一理论中，他指出，“翻译是用最恰当、自然和对等的语言从语义到文体再现源语的信息”(郭建中,2000 , P65)。奈达有关翻译的定义指明，翻译不仅是词汇意义上的对等，还包括语义、风格和文体的对等，翻译传达的信息既有表层词汇信息，也有深层的文化信息。“动态对等”中的对等包括四个方面：1?词汇对等；2.句法对等；3.篇章对等；4.文体对等。 在这四个方面中，奈达认为，“意义是最重要的，形式其次”(郭建中,2000 , P67)。形式很可能掩藏源语的文化意义，并阻碍文化交流。因此，在文学翻译中，根据奈达的理论，译者应以动态对等的四个方面，作为翻译的原则，准确地在目的语中再现源语的文化内涵。 为了准确地再现源语文化和消除文化差异，译者可以遵循以下的三个步骤。第一，努力创造出既符合原文语义又体现原文文化特色的译作。然而,两种语言代表着两种不同的文化，因此,完全展现原文文化内涵的完美的翻译作品是不可能存在的,译者只能最大限度地再现源语文化。第二，如果意义和文化不能同时兼顾译者只有舍弃形式对等，通过在译文中改变原文的形式达到再现原文语义和文化的目的。例女口 ,英语成语“ spring up like mushroom 中“ mushroom 原意为 “蘑菇”，但译为汉语多为“雨后春笋”，而不是“雨后蘑菇”，因为在中国文化中,人们更为熟悉的成语和理解的意象是“雨后春笋”。第三,如果形式的改变 仍然不足以表达原文的语义和文化，可以采用“重创”这一翻译技巧来解决文化差异,使源语和目的语达到意义上的对等。“重创”是指将源语的深层结构转
(完整word)第2章汉英翻译基础知识(新编汉英翻译教程陈宏薇).doc
“文化”（ culture ） 物质文化（ material culture ） 制度文化（ institutional culture ） 心理文化（也称观念文化）（mental culture）咖啡（ coffee）、 巧克力（ chocolate ）、 色拉（ salad）、 三明治（ sandwich ）、 歇斯底里（ hysteria）、 休克（ shock）、 基因（ gene）、 钙（ calcium）、 维他命（ vitamin ）、 奥林匹克（ Olympic ）、 雷达（ radar）、 先令（ shilling ）、 夹克（ jacket）、 电视（ television ）、 激光（ laser）、 飞机（ aeroplane）、 火车（ train）、 交响乐（ symphony ）、 基督徒（ Christian ）、 面包（ bread）、 盲文（ brail ）、 圣诞老人（ Santa Claus）、 圣经（ Bible ）、 马海毛（ mahair）、 贝雷帽（ beret）、 革命（ revolution ） 、营养（ nourish ）、 解放（ liberate ）、 民主（ democracy）、 科学（ science）、 独裁（ dictatorship ）、 心理学（ psychology ）、 形而上学（ metaphysics）、 图书馆（ library ）、 想象（ imagination ）、 暗示（ hint ）、 投资（ investment） 磁卡电话（ card phone）、 立交桥（ overpass）、 隐形眼镜（ contact lenses）、
翻译实践心得体会
笔译实践 院系名称：外语学院 专业年级：英语f1101 姓名：王欢 学号 心得体会 在做这次笔译实践题目之前，关于笔译我是完全不了解的。在我的感觉中笔译相对于口译而言应该算是比较简单的，但是在做完全部题目之后我就彻底改变了原有的这种认知，原来看起来简单的事情并不定就像表象上呈现出的那样容易做到。表面看来笔译能够看着文本逐字逐句翻译，貌似很简单，只要把文本内容真实的翻译出来就可以达到要求了。实际上则不然。这学期我们有一门专业课就是关于英汉翻译的。课堂上老师曾经讲述过关于翻译的历史、理论、要求等一系列相关知识，所以在简单翻阅这次翻译之后，我觉得看似简单的题目确实需要投入大量的精力才能较好地完成任务。在翻译过程中我发觉自己存在以下几点问题： 1、对某些专业术语了解甚少。例如第一篇the high-tech student中出现的gopher program，generic2 database，moby dick，等等，类似这样的词汇我就需要上网查阅相关资料才能进而推测了解作者想要借此来表达怎样的意思。再如a roller-coaster ride in the stock market中，关于股市的一些专用名词，dow and nasdaq，cnbc等也是这样。 2、对统计数字的描述能力较差。如何用不同的描述性词汇来体现数字的增长和下降及其各自升降的幅度，如何准确把握那些不同用词之间细微的差别，较好地描述数字变化，这对我来说是比较困难的。此次翻译题目中出现的仅仅只是一些已经被数字化的统计数据，但是要用合适的词汇来体现尚且不简单，倘若是给出bar chart, pie chart, line chart等这一类图标来自行描述其内容，就会更加困难了。题目中出现数字最多的莫过于描述汶川大地震的这一部分了。各种数字，表示年月的，表示伤亡人数、经济损失的，以及各个地区经济损失所占的不同比例，这对我来说无疑是亟待加强训练的部分。 3、关于某些长句翻译起来较困难。长句出现最多的就是最后一篇题目描述"我"的文本。这片文章涉及不同领域大家的杰出作品及其艺术特色，各式各类的建筑，建筑中体现出的精湛的技巧，还有各种被写入经典的景物，所有的描写都交织在一起，翻译起来很容易找不到方便。摸不清头绪，到底哪里才是开始，应该如何结束。在翻译课上老师曾经说过长句的翻译技巧，要先根据谓语动词进行切分，之后再根据逻辑顺序进行重新组合，之后才能慢慢进行翻译，听起来就很繁琐的程序。我一直在试着这样做，却发现这要求太难达到了，而且每次被提问翻译总是被说翻译的一塌糊涂。关于长句，我可能还要经历一段很艰难的路程。 虽然完成所有题目有点困难，但是我觉得收获还是很不小的。这是第一次这么耐心的昨晚这么多翻译题目，最大的感触就是那些翻译工作者们真的是好辛苦，之前还以为翻译是我们英语专业发展的目标。事实上也是，但是这项工作并不是所有人都能胜任的，这也是我的真实感触之一。总结一下，收获可以归纳为以下几点： 1、一定程度上开阔了知识面，提高了自己的专业能力。虽然这次实践题目只有几个，但是各个题目都具有的一定的代表性。这些题目涉及科技、经济、文学、报道等各种题材的不同内容，对于我们这样的初学者算是一个挑战但是同时也是一个很好的锻炼自己的机遇。初次涉猎翻译领域就得到这样的锻炼，既让我们看到了自己的不足之处，又给自己之前的知识积淀找到了一个合适的展现平台，对于一个语言学习者无疑是一次很好的机会。 2、增加了对专业的认知。在刚入学的时候每每都被别人问到你们英语专业出来 的是不是只能做翻译，这句话给我的最初印象就是英语翻译既然这么容易做，那我学这个专业不就一点竞争力都没有了，可是自己亲身时间之后才知道翻译并不是每个人都能做来的，只要好好学专业，任何专业都是
谢天振当代国外翻译理论总结
《当代国外翻译理论》期末总结 本学期，我们主要从西方翻译学的各个学派学习了有关西方翻译学的一些理论。所以，在进行期末总结时，我按照课本上所划分的学派，从学派简介、代表人物、主要理论、评价这四个方面做了简要总结，最后简单的谈几点在本学期的学习之后我的个人感想。 在本学期，我们主要学习了语言学派翻译理论、阐释学派翻译理论、功能学派翻译理论、文化学派翻译理论、解构学派翻译理论、女性主义翻译理论、后殖民主义翻译理论和苏东学派翻译理论。 语言学派翻译理论 20 世纪50 年代，翻译的独立学科性凸显出来，一些学者开始引用语言学理论研究翻译，这批学者被称为西方翻译研究中的语言学派（结构主义），他们从语言学的相关理论视角出发，为翻译研究开辟新途径。 该学派的代表人物有尤金?奈达、约翰?卡特福德、彼得?纽马克、巴兹尔?哈蒂姆、罗曼?雅克布逊、斯奈尔-霍恩比、费奥多罗夫（本书中将其理论放在了苏东学派中的语言学派）。 在这次总结中，我按照时间顺序对语言学派发展过程中各阶段的翻译理论进行了简单概括： 1、20世纪50至90年代，对等概念是翻译研究的主要思想。以语言为中心，从语言的结构特征出发研究翻译的对等问题，对等是语言学派翻译理论的思想核心（例如：奈达：功能对等?动态对等；纽马克：交际翻译?语义翻译；卡特福德：等值?转换） 2、20世纪80年代，语言学派开始从语篇语言学和话语分析的角度进行翻译研究，并开始注重语境的研究，在此阶段，语言学派的翻译研究开始逐渐接受文化意识形态对翻译学研究的影响，对翻译的文化转向起了过渡作用。 3、20世纪90年代，随着认知语言学研究的逐渐升温，翻译迎来了“认知转向”“认知翻译”逐渐形成 在语言学派之前，语文学式的翻译研究没有形成系统的理论，人们对于翻译
翻译理论概括
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