英语语法体系(English Grammar)
导论：英语语法体系（English Grammar）
英语语法课程体系
基本概念
1．词性 2. 语法层次 3. 词类的功能（常规/非常规）4. 分句成分（常规/非常规）4. 词类与成分对应关系 5. 基本句型
英语句子常态结构
一、句内关系模块
1. 支配关系（动词概述）
2. 一致关系
二、非限定动词模块
3. 动名词
4. 动词不定式
5. 分词
三、从句模块
6. 名词性从句
7. 状语从句
8. 定语从句
四、限定动词模块
9. 动词的时与体10. 将来时间表示法
11. 虚拟语气12. 情态助动词
五、名词模块
13. 名词及其属格14. 限定词
六、修饰语模块
15. 形容词16. 副词17. 介词
七、英汉对比模块
18. 英汉句型比较19. 英汉句子结构比较
20. 英汉词汇搭配、词义对比21. 英汉表达法比较
22. 英汉连贯与衔接对比
英语句子的非常态结构
1.（反意疑问句）
2. It 句型与There be 句型
3.强调句
4. 倒装
5.分隔（前置与后置）
6. 省略
7.替代
综合练习
1.句型判断
2. 联句
3.语法手段判断
4. 长难句结构分析
Language possess grammatical systems not, as some learners might be inclined to think, simply to make the learning of the language more difficult, but to express meanings. The grammatical devices of a language are not to be learned as an end in themselves. It is the capacity to express meaning that is the end. The grammatical system provides the necessary means.
第一讲语法的内容
总论
英语的基本结构单位有词和句两个，因而词的构造规则和句的构造规则就成为英语语法的基本内容，分别由词法和句法去研究。它们都是从语汇中抽象出来的规则。
词法的主要内容大致可分为两部分：
一是词素组合为词的规则和词的变化规则；
二是词的语法分类。
词的语法分类就是将词分成名词、动词和形容词等的词类。为什么要分词类？这是由于在组词造句的时候，词类与句子结构成分之间存在着有规律的对应关系，要分析组词造句的规则，必须将词分类，使之在词和句之间架起一座桥梁。能充当句子结构成分的词类一般可以分为名词、动词、形容词和副词，它们与句子成分之间存在着对应关系，因而人们称它为双轨制的语法结构：
主语、宾语谓语定语状语
名词动词形容词副词
一轨是以“主语——谓语”结构为框架的句法，其中的核心的规则就是主、谓语之间的一致关系；一轨是和句子结构成分有对应关系的名词、动词、形容词的词类划分，二轨相互依存，因为名词是做主、宾语用的，动词是做谓语用的，形容词是做定语用的，副词是做状语用的。这种状况如用演戏作比喻，大致情况是：“主语——谓语”框架好像是舞台，名词、动词、形容词、副词好像是演员，而主语、谓语、宾语、定语、状语犹如演员所扮演的角色，而一个个具体的句子就犹如一出出戏剧；舞台、演员、角色和演出的戏剧在演出中相互依存，形成一个整体，缺一就演不成戏。所以，由两个基本结构单位构成的双轨是相互依存的，在造句的时候二轨合而为一，彼此拧成一股绳，造出一个个合格的句子。
词法和句法的构造规则虽然很多，但核心的规则只有一条，这就是一致关系所维持的“主语——谓语”的结构框架，因为其他的规则都需要接受它的控制。人们如果掌握了这条总原则的精神，也就容易把握印欧语语法的基本脉络了。
1词法、句法与语篇
语法是研究词形变化、句子结构及语篇组织的科学。
研究词形变化的部分称为词法(morphology)，如名词的数、格，动词的时态、语态都属于词法范畴。研究句子结构的部分成为称为句法(syntax)，如句子的成分、语序、句子结构、句子种类等，都属于句法范畴。这两部分虽有不同内容，中间的关系却非常紧密。在词法时不可避免要涉及句法，在句法中也有许多部分与词法有关。因此在学习过程中，既要注意两者之间的差异，又要注意两者之间的联系，机械地把它们分割开对学习是不利的。
传统的语法中不包括语篇部分。
所谓“语篇text”，不论是口头形式或书面形式，都是一些意义相连的句子为达到一定交际目的并通过一定手段连接起来，从而具有结构上的粘着性(cohesion)意义上的连贯性(coherence)的语义整体。（A text, spoken or written, is a structurally cohesive and semantically coherent unit realized by a string of sentences for communicative purposes.）句子是语法结构的最高层次，也是构成语篇的基本语言单位，句子和语篇有着不可分割的联系。
语篇分析研究的是语篇的结构以及构成语篇性(texture)的机制, 即语篇内部的衔接与连贯。
2 语法与词汇
语法虽有一定的独立性，但它与词汇是密不可分的。语法指谴词造句的规律，但它离不开词汇。语法体现在词汇中，而词汇受语法制约。语法好比是骨架，而词汇好比是血肉；
语法也可说是一棵树的躯干，词汇则是枝叶。要形成有机的躯体几根深叶茂的大树，必须把两者结合起来。可以说每个词汇中都有语法问题，语法体现在整个词汇之中。孤立研究语法不可能掌握语法，干巴巴的语法条文绝不代表语法，语法要在活生生的语言中体现。
在英语入门阶段，主要学词汇，也学少量语法，到词汇积累到一定程度，则应比较系统地学习语法。学语法可帮助更快地积累词汇和掌握词汇，提高语言学习的自觉性。不论是加强语言理解力或语言的使用能力，语法都可以发挥重要的作用。比较理想的做法是把语法和词汇交叉学习，经过多次反复，才可更深入掌握语言。学词汇他体上是加强感性认识，学语法则是提高理性认识。只有把两者结合起来才能真正掌握语言，才能学到有血有肉的语言。
3 词类(parts of speech)
英语中的词可根据词义、句法作用和形式特征，分为十大类（见下表），称为词类，
在这十种词类中，前六种可以在句子中独立担任成分，称为实意词(notional words)。介词、连词和冠词都不能独立在句子中担任任何成分，称为虚词(form words)。感叹词一般不构成句子成分，可以看作特殊的一类。除了这十大类之外，还有表示肯定与否定的yes 和no，还有不定式前的小品词(particle) to。实意词大多数在句子中重读，只有助词，情态动词和动词be以及人称代词等在某些情况下弱读，而虚词一般都不重读。
4 限定词
关于词类的区分，大多数语法学家按上述分发，但有一些英国语法学家把一些词归在一起，成为限定词(determiners), 主要指用在名词前帮助说明词义的词，如冠词a, an, the
物主代词，如my, your, his
用作定语的某些不定代词，如some, any, many, little, few, both, each.
用作定语的指示代词、疑问代词、关系代词等，如this, what, whose, whatever.
而美国语言学家不作这种区分，用作定语的代词他们干脆称为形容词，如This is Helen‘s room. （代词）
This room is mine. （形容词）
You can have either of them. （代词）
You can have either one. （形容词）
这样处理在字典中也比较方便。但从实用角度看，统统称为代词也未尝不可。
5 分清词类至关重要
要学好英语，第一件事就是分清词类。每学一个词都要知道它属于哪个词类，是名词还是动词，这样区分至关重要。各种词类都有自己的特点，只有知道一个词属于哪个词类，才能正确使用它。同时还应弄清各个句子成分应由哪类词来担任，例如：
主语、宾语多由名词担任：
The success of the play has been a great encouragement to him. (作主语)
She wished him success. （作宾语）
The experiment has succeeded. （作谓语）
He is a successful writer. （作定语）
He worked successfully. （作状语）
从这些句子中可以看出，不分清词类就寸步难行。
6 同一个词可用作多种词类
同一个词只用作一个词类的情况是相对较少的，多数词都可兼作不同词类，例如：
It is easy to be wise after an event.
I will tell them the news after you leave.
A moment afte r there was a knock at his door.
In after years I became familiar with it.
He again did double work that day.
Jane and Tom won the mixed doubles.
The price of vegetables has been doubled because of the weather.
Many things now cost double what they did a year ago.
In the middle was a round table.
She looked round her in astonishment.
The children gathered round to hear the story.
Charles was on his rounds.
We round our lips to say oo.
7 词尾
有些词从词尾上就可看出属于哪个词类，有些词尾是名词的标志，另一些是副词的标志，例如：
名词词尾–er (fighter), -or (sailor), –ist (artist)
-ant (assistant), –ee(employee)
-ian (librarian), –tion (action)
-ment (government),
-dom (wisdom), -ness (eagerness),
-ism (terrorism), -ship (friendship,
-ure (pleasure), -ty (cruelty),
-ence (reference)
形容词词尾–ful (careful), -less (careless)
-ish (selfish), -ive (active)
-ous (famous), -able (drinkable)
--ible (audible), -y (easy)
-ese (Chinese, -al (natural)
-ent (different), -ant (important
动词词尾–ize (realize), -en (strengthen)
-ify (simplify)
副词词尾–ly (luckily), -ward(s) (homeword)
-wise (likewise)
数词词尾–teen (fifteen), -ty (thirty),
-th (fourth)
8 词缀、词义与词性
大多数前缀不影响词根的词性，而仅仅对词根的意义加以修饰，表示否定、相反、贬低、向背、程度、时间、方位等意义。
但英语中有几个前缀，如be-, en/em-, a- 等，并不改变词根的基本意义，而是引起词性的变化。如：
belittle, befriend, benumb（使…失去知觉，使…麻木）, enforce, encourage, enslave, enable, embody, empower, asleep, ablaze（燃烧，着火）
英语的后缀具有较强的语法作用，加在词根上构成派生词，并不改变词根的基本意义，而是改变了词性。
但也有一些带后缀的派生词仅仅改变词义，而不改变词性。例如：
Gangster（匪徒，歹徒）, boyhood, impressionism, kingdom, spoonful, Londoner, machinery, matting（粗糙编织物）, booklet, idealism, friendship, drudgery（繁重、乏味的工作）。
一个词缀附加与某一个单词，有两方面特点：
（1）某一特定词缀仅与某种词性的词组合，如-ative一般只与动词组合
comparative, informative, preventive, talkative
-ee只能与动词组合成“被动者”：appointee, employee, examinee, invitee, interviewee, trainee
-able也只能与动词组合构成形容词
dependable, movable, adjustable;
（2）加上某一词缀后的词属于同一词类，例如：
centralize, economize, industrialize, modernize, normalize, realize; airproof, fireproof, lightproof, rainproof, soundproof, waterproof
9 语法层次(Grammatical hierarchy)
It is usually assumed that the grammar of the English language is organized into five ranks: the sentence, the clause, the phrase, the word and the morpheme. Let‘s look at Quirk‘s categorization first. According to Quirk et al.(1985), units of grammar may be placed in a hierarchy of potential size or extensibility as follows:
HIGHEST UNIT: sentences, which consist of one or more
clauses, which consist of one or more
phrases, which consist of one or more
words, which consist of one or more LOWEST UNIT: morohemes.
By clause, Quirk et al. include the finite clause: a clause whose verb element is finite (such as ―takes‖, ―took‖, ―can work‖, ―has worked‖, ―is writing‖, ―was written‖), the nonfinite clause: a clause whose verb element is nonfinite (such as ―to work‖, ―having worked‖ and ―taken‖) and the verbless clause: a clause that does not have a verb element, but is nevertheless capable of being analyzed into clause elements such as ―although always helpful‖ in the sentence: Although always helpful, he was not much liked. And they divide sentences into the simple and the multiple. A simple sentence consists of a single independent clause and a multiple sentence contains one or more clauses as its immediate constituents. Multiple sentences are either compound or complex. In a compound sentence the immediate constituents are two or more coordinate clauses while in a complex sentence one or more of its elements are realized by a subordinate clause. It must be pointed out that in their classification a sentence with a clause functioning within a phrase (such as ―You can borrow the car that belongs to my sister‖) is regarded as a simple sentence and that a nonfinite construction (which has a nonfinite verb as its verb element) is considered as a clause. However, in other traditional grammars, the former is usually viewed as a complex sentence and the latter a phrase.
语法层次
（1）词素
不可再分的最小意义单位。
粘着词素-ish，-s，-un，-able
自由词素：book, store，explain
book, store, bookstore;
-ish, bookish,
-s, books
unexplainable
(2) 词book; do; pretty
（3）短语/词组
作为词和分句之间的中间层次，词组是按照一定语法规则围绕一个中心词(head\headword)结合起来的一组词，中心词所属词类决定着词组的性质、类别及其结合方式。所谓“中心词”就是在词组重起支配作用的词，例如名词词组是以名词为中心词，其结合方式受着名词的支配，这种中心词通常要求带有限定词以及修饰成分的其它词项。
A. 名词短语（NP）；中心词为名词的短语。an interesting book;
a very interesting book;
a book on the table;
the book my father bought yesterday；
all the college students;
his new book on music；
the tall boy sitting in the corner
the author‘s new novel that will soon come out
B. 动词短语(VP): 动词短语是以主动词为中心词的短语。动词短语可能只包括一个主动词或
者主动词带修饰语；也可以由一个或一个以上的助动词加主动词构成。
She looks beautiful.
John arrived last night.
They fully appreciate our problem.
We utterly detested him.
It is getting dark.
She ought to have told him about it.
The children might have been playing in the garden.
Joan will certainly object and so will Mary.
I have rarely reviewed a more dishonest book.
He may really have injured innocent people.
live in China; live happily; study hard
C. 形容词短语(AdjP):
very good; quite young;
pretty difficult;careful enough；
too difficult for that child
too hot to be enjoyable；
glad to help you repair the car
D. 副词短语(AdvP):
very early; far away;
loudly and clearly;
so slowly; very clearl y indeed;
far from the station
E. 介词短语(PrepP)：
on the table; from your friends; by the window; in the classroom; across the river; at school;
about him; with my father
（4）小句/分句
“分句＝名词词组＋动词词组”的提法与“分句＝主语＋谓语”的提法是一致的：前者是就分句结构形式而言；后者是就分句的表意功能而言(一个词的语法功能指的是这个词在句法结构里所能占据的语法位置)。分句之所以不同于词组在于前者具有述谓性，而后者没有这种特性。正因为如此，所谓分句应该是一种主谓结构，这是分句之所以谓分句的本质特征。
分句(clause)==主语(subject)+谓语部分(predicate)
主语=名词短语(NP)
谓语部分=谓语动词(VP)+宾语部分（NP）
Clause
Subject Predicate
NP VP NP
The little girl is happily eating a big apple.
分句种类：
A.独立分句：不依附于其他结构而独立存在的分句。
B.从属分句：从属于其他结构的分句。
He knows everything about it. (独立分句)
I don‘t think he knows everything about it. (从属分句)
That hat does not fit; you may try another. (独立分句)
If that hat does not fit, try another. (从属分句)
Some of your answers were correct, but I do not remember which. (独立分句)
I do not remember which of your answers were correct. (从属分句)
His new book will soon come out. It is on grammar. (独立分句)
His new book that will soon come out is on grammar. (从属分句)
C.简单分句：仅包括一个主谓结构的分句。上述各句的斜体部分都是简单分句；单独出
现的简单分句也就是“简单句”。
D.复杂分句：带有其他主谓结构作为分句成分的分句；一个单独出现的复杂分句也就是“复
杂句”。
It is not true. (独立简单分句/简单句)
What you said is not true.（独立复杂分句/复杂句）
He said that it was not true.（从属简单分句）
He complained that what you said was not true.（从属复杂分句）
E. 主句和分句
主句是相对于从句而言。“从句”即从属分句，可以直接从属于另一个分句，作为分句成分，也可以从属于一个短语，作为短语的一部分，例如：the book my father bought yesterday中my father bought yesterday是名词短语的修饰语（定语），属于名词短语的一部分。带有从属分句作为自己成分的分句便是主句，充当主句的一个成分的分句便是从句。主句和从句的关系是相对的: 在一个复杂结构中是主句的，在另一个复杂结构中则又可能是从句，例如：
He complained that what you said was not true.
从句
主句
从句
主句
E.限定分句、非限定分句、无动词分句
由于分句被看作为一种主谓结构，一个分句的谓语如果是以限定动词（谓语动词）为中心的动词词组表示，它便是限定分句；如果充当谓语的动词词组中心词是个非限定动词（非谓语动词），这便是非限定分句；如果作为分句谓语的动词词组中心词没有表示出来，而仅保留被省略的动词的连带成分（通常是主语补语），那便是无动词分句，如，
I signed the paper to get the license.
Renee bought a book to read on the plane.
It is forbidden to smoke in this room.
Can‘t you recall telling me that story last week？
The man，wearing such dark glasses, obviously could not see clearly.
Leaving the room, he tripped over the mat.
Covered with confusion, they apologized abjectly. （绝望无助，怯懦）
The discussion completed, the Chairman adjourned the meeting for an hour.
一个主谓结构如果不带任何形式的动词短语作谓语动词便是“无动词分句”。
Hungry and exhausted, the climbers returned.
Confident of the justice of their cause, they agreed to put their case before the arbitration panel. One of the most popular tourist sites in Italy, Pompei was viewed by nearly two million visitors last year.
Christmas then only days away, the family was pent up with excitement.
（5）句子
由一个或一个以上构成的语法单位就是句子。
简单句：只包含一个主谓结构而且各个成分均由短语构成的句子。
The students have made better grades in the past few weeks.
The boy can stay in the room only for a few minutes.
如果构成分句成分的短语本身带有从属分句，那么这个句子仍然是简单句。
The students I teach have made better grades in the past few weeks.
但若某个句子成分直接由从属分句表示，那么这种句子便不再是简单句而是复杂句。
The students would have made better grades if they had studied hard.
The boy can stay in the room so long as he keeps quiet.
What he said is not true.
I didn‘t understand what he meant.
两个或两个以上的简单句由并列连词或其他并列手段连接起来便构成并列句。
Miss Lindstorm came to the party, but Mr and Mrs Sherman did not.
Most of us were in the hall, the doors had been closed, and the latecomers had to wait outside.
一个并列句，如果包含一个或一个以上的复杂句作为并列成分，这便是并列复杂句。
They watched television and enjoyed themselves immensely, but we couldn‘t see the program because our television was broken.
It would be dark before he could reach the village, and he heaved a heavy sigh when he thought of encountering the terrors of Dame Van Wrinkle.
10. 句子成分
句子是表达思想的基本单位，就象家庭是社会的基本单位一样。只有完整的句子才能表达完整的思想。句子由单词组成，但组成时要遵循一定的规律，这就是语法。违反了这些规律，语言即不正确，也就不能正确地表达思想。因此，每句话都牵涉到语法。就英语书面语而言，每句话的第一个字母要大写，句末应有句号，若是问句，末尾应加问号。
汉语也有语法，有些地方与英语是相似的，但在更多地方是不同的，在学习过程中要注意两种语言的异同。实际上，学习英语的过程，也是一个与母语干扰作斗争的过程。
句子总的说来由两部分构成，即主语与谓语部分。
主语谓语部分
We are Chinese.
Chinese is our mother tongue.
We love our motherland.
Everybody is working hard.
具体地讲，句子主要有以下这些成分：
（1）主语(Subject, 缩写成S)——是一句话的中心，整句话都是谈它的情况。
My sister is a nurse.
Her room is on the fifth floor.
（2）谓语(Predicate, V)——是主语的主要情况，可表示动作，也可表示状态。
She works in a hospital.（动作）
She knows a little English.（状态）
（3）宾语(Object, O)——表示动作的承受者，也可表示动作的结果。
Everybody likes her.
She is writing a letter now.
（4）表语(Predictive, P)——说明主语的性质、特点、状况、身份、位置等的句子成分，和系动词一道构成谓语。
She is a conscientious girl.
（5）宾语补足语Object complement, C)——补充说明宾语的性质、特点、状况、身份、动作、位置等的成分，与宾语一起构成复合宾语。
We made him our class president.
The noise was driving him mad.
I felt myself unworthy of the praise.
I saw him studying in the classroom.
I found him in the library/in low spirit s.
（6）状语(Adverbial, A)——修饰动词、形容词、副词或整个句子。
She goes to work very early.
She feels very happy.
She swims like a fish.
Luckily, she was not in when the fire broke.
（7）定语(Attribute, Attr.)——修饰名词、不定代词等。
Her hospital isn‘t very big.
But everybody in the hospital works hard.
其中，S, V, P, O与C 是句子成分，A有时是句子成分，有时则是短语/词组成分；Attr.是短语/词组成分；介词的宾语也是短语/词组成分。
此外，还有同位语(Appositive, App.)、插入语(Parenthesis)及呼语(Vocative)：
This is my sister Mary. (同位语)
Mary is a good girl, they say. (插入语)
Sit down, Mary. (呼语)
第二讲各词类的语法功能
1 名词短语(NP)
(1)主语（subject---S）
[1] A moment’s insight is sometimes worth a life’s experience.
[2] The first half of our life is ruined by our parents, the second half by our children.
[3]The fundamental defect of fathers is that they want their children to be a credit to them.
[4]The smallest actual good is better than the most magnificent promises of impossibilities.
Love’s highest intensity doesn’t necessarily mean its highest quality.
最强烈的爱并不意味着最高质量的爱。
[5] Almost all absurdity of conduct arises from the imitation of those whom we cannot resemble.
Knowledge is power.
Where there is a will, there is a way.
(2)表语（predicative----P）
[6] Life is at best only a children’s game. Yet the game must be played conscientiously.
[7] Jealousy is the fear of losing the thing you love most. It’s very normal. Suspicion is the thing that’s abnormal.
Animals are such agreeable friends --- they ask no questions, they pass no criticism.
动物是如此令人愉快的朋友----它们不提问题，也不说三道四。
[8] Committee is a group of men who keep minutes and waste hours.
[9] A committee is a thing which takes a week to do what one good man can do in an hour.
[10] My way of joking is telling the truth; that is the funniest joke in the world.
Ignorance is the mother of all evils.
Smoking is my only weakness.
The affair remained a complete mystery.
(3)宾语(object-----O)
A.动词宾语
[11] One machine can do the work of fifty ordinary men. No machine can do the work of one extraordinary man.
Man often applauds an imitation, and hiss the real thing.
人们往往对假货喝彩，对真品发出嘘声。
Did you get my letter?
They agreed to fax us their proposal tomorrow.
B. 介词宾语
[12] When he was expected to use his mind, he felt like a right-handed person who has to do something with his left.
She majored in physics at Yale.
He was devoted to pure science.
(3)定语(attribute-----Attr.)
[13] A man who has never gone to school may steal from a freight car, but if he has had
a university education, he may steal from the whole railroad.
We bought a new color TV.
Would you like to go to the flower show?
(5) 同位语(appositive----App.)
This is our department head, Mr. Owe.
You girls sit on this side.
(6) 宾语补足语(complement-----C)
They elected James Chairman.
He painted the door a brighter color.
(7) 状语(Adverbial---A)
Wait a minute. I‘ll call her.
We will meet Monday.
(8) 呼语（vocative----V）
Morning, Helen.
Come in, Mrs Patterson.
(9) 引导状语从句-----兼作连词
The day he returned home, his father was already dead.
Next time you come, please bring your book.
We‘ll leave the minute you‘re ready.
She came to the scene the moment she heard of the accident.
2. 代词(pron.)
(1) S
This is our new home.
Both are from the south.
Who is on the phone?
(2) O
[14] When people are free to do what they please, they usually imitate each other.
[15] If money is your hope for independence, you will never have it.
[16] You shall have joy, or you shall have power, said God; you shall not have both.
I have read neither of the books.
Take good care of yourself.
We should help each other.
(3) P
That is not mine.
Who is it?--------It‘s me.
I‘m not quite myself today.
(4) App.
We both live in the dorm.
You yourself are to blame.
He ate them all.
(5) V
You sit here.
Get out, both of you.
Be patient, everybody.
(6) Attr.
It‘s my book.
I‘ll take that shirt.
(7) C
What do you call it?
You should make what you have learned yours.
3. 数词(Num.)
A. 基数词（cardinal）
(1)Attr.
Over 4,650.000 workers were involved in the strike. (2) S
There were millions of blooms.
Two of the girls are from Shanghai.
Three will be enough.
(3) O
I read four of her novels.
The city has a population of three million.
(4) P
He is a little over five.
Its population is nearly 2 million.
(5) App.
You two take these seats.
Have you got tickets for us three?
B. 序数词(ordinal)
(1) Attr.
We live on the 5th floor.
We gave a party to celebrate her twentieth birthday. (2) P
Who was the third?
You are the second to make that mistake.
(3) S
First went to American team.
The first (one) was no good, the second was even worse.
(4) O
I was among the first to learn of this.
She is arriving on the second of June.
She got a third (丙级分，不及格分) in biology.
4介词短语（Prep.P）
(1)Attr.
[17] College students should become tramps in the spiritual world but not on campus or in the streets.
[18] Love is a fan club with only two fans.
[19] Of all forms of caution, caution in love is perhaps most fatal to true happiness.
[20] Every rose has its thorn; you never find a woman without pins and needles.
[21] Notice the difference between what happens when a man says to himself, “I have failed three times” and what happens when he says, “I am a failure.”
[22] Nothing in the world is more dangerous than sincere ignorance and conscientious stupidity.
He is a man of integrity. The skyscraper in the distance is a five-star hotel.
(2) A
[23] Nothing comes from nothing.
[24] We should learn grammar through language, not learn language through grammar.
Her eyes were tired from long reading.
In all probability, he will decline your invitation.
（3）P
Men are like that------ they can resist sound argument and yield to a glance.
男人都是那样：他们能置充分的理由于不顾，而屈服于秋波的一闪。
The decision is of great importance to me.
Hundreds of new products are on display in the shop windows.
(4) C
They found the machine in a bad state.
A conceited man always thinks himself above others.
(5) O of a preposition
A pretty girl appeared from behind the curtain. A snake appeared from under the rock.
5. 形容词短语(Adj.P)
(1) Attr.
He is the greatest writer alive. Someone else has done it.
[25] Many of us no longer have the peace of mind necessary to a quiet hour with a book. Ignorance is the necessary condition of life itself. If we knew everything, we could not endure existence for a single hour.
（2）P
[26] Journalism largely consists in saying “Lord Jones Dead” to people who never knew that Lord Jones was alive.
The bird‘s song is very sweet. He remained silent at the meeting.
(3) C
形容词作主语补足语和宾语补足语时，可以表示其现状、状态，也可以表示某一动作的结果（eg. Knoch sb senseless），并常用在表示“认为、看待”的动词如believe, prove, consider 等后。
[27] As the faculty of writing has been chiefly a masculine endowment, the reproach of
making the world miserable has always been thrown upon the woman.
[28] When you make a world tolerable for yourself, you make a world tolerable for others.
The news made her very sad. The bottle was found empty.
The facts proved his accusation groundless.
He died young. Don‘t marry young.
She came back sick. He beat her black and blue.
He acted strange. He sat silent at the meeting.
He likes to drink wine hot. The farmer sold the oranges green.
(5) A
形容词作状语可看作是being或if/when/because等从句的省略
Ripe, the oranges will sell at a good price. Alice tiptoed to the bed, careful not to wake the baby. Cheerful and warm-hearted, she gave help to a lot of people.
Eager to see the sunrise, they got up at four. Large or small, all countries are equal. Breathless, she rushed in through the back door.Angry with him, she complained all day.
He approached, careless of danger. Young in years, he is old in experience.
6. 副词短语(Adv.P)
(1)A----修饰v, adj, adv, prep, conj, sentence
He runs fast. The book is very interesting.
[29] Miracles sometimes occur, but one has to work terribly hard for them.
[30] Although it is dangerous to have too much knowledge of certain subjects, it is still
more dangerous to be totally ignorant of them.
[31] History is, indeed, little more than register of crimes, follies, and misfortunes of
mankind.
The bus came quite early.
He knocked the man right out. 他把那个人完全打败了。
They left her well behind. She left shortly after the meeting.
He is much against the proposal.
He made his application well within the time. 他按时递交了申请书。
She failed entirely through her own fault. He fell ill mainly because he ate too much.
I heard of her long before I met her. They caught him exactly when he got off the bus.
Happily, he was not in the house then. Frankly, I don‘t agree with you.
Ordinarily we eat breakfast at seven. Hopefully we can get this work done before dark.
(2) P---只有与介词拼写相同的副词才能作表语及宾补。
Time is up. The book will be out（出版）soon. Jack was down with a fever.
Is the TV on? What‘s up? School is over. The village is 10 miles off.
Oranges are now in (上市).
（3）C
Please ask her in. I went to her room only to find her out.
The woman walked along the river with her head down.
It was a quiet night, with the moon high up in the sky.
(4) Attr.---以-ly结尾的副词不能作定语，副词作定语一般后置
The buildings around are of modern style. The students there are from India.
I met her on the way home. This is my first day off.
I saw her the week before. Her life abroad was colorful.
the way ahead/the hall downstairs/ the neighbors upstairs
但是
The up train leaves at 8. She flew to a far country.
Who was the then president? She had inside information about it.
an away match
(5) O of a preposition
Please put the key under there. She looked everywhere except there.
You can leave the goods anywhere but here. A cry from above warned me of the danger.
Come over here! He lived not far from here.
Don‘t put off till t omorrow what can be done today. It happened the day before yesterday.
come up from below I don‘t know her until quite recently.
另外一些副词可修饰某些不定代词和数词
Nearly everybody came to our party. They have improved roughly half their equipment. Virtually all the students participated in the discussion.
We counted approximately the first thousand votes.
有时还可以修饰名词，置于“不定冠词+名词”之前，勇于增强语气。这类副词最常用的有quite 和rather
We had quite a party. 我们举行了一个蛮好的晚会。
It was a rather mess. 事情相当糟。Even a child can understand that.
7. 限定动词短语(finite VP)----作谓语V
She works in a hospital. （动作）She knows a little English.（状态）
They have been working on the project for many years. How did things turn out?
I’m running up against (遇到)problems. You needn’t worry.
They aren’t going to make any concessions. She doesn’t seem to like the idea.
We used to work in the same department. He is said to know many languages.
8. 非谓语动词/非限定动词短语(non-finite VP)
A 动名词短语（gerund----G）(V-ing)：S/ P/ O/ Attr
B 动词不定式短语(infinitive---Inf)：S P O
C A Attr
C 分词(participle----Part.) (V-ing, V-ed)： A P C Attr
9. 从句（clause）
A名词性从句(nominal clauses)
主语从句——S 宾语从句——O 表语从句——P 同位语从句——App.
B 定语从句——Attr.
C 状语从句——A
第三讲句子成分(Clause Elements)
1. 主语S---一句话的中心，整句话都谈它的情况。
(1)NP
[1] Waste of time is the most extravagant and costly of all expenses.
[2] A beggar can never be bankrupt.
[3] One machine can do the work of fifty ordinary men. No machine can do the work of one extraordinary man.
[4] The whole significance of life lies in the unremitting efforts to explore the unknown and become wise.
[5] Perfection of means and confusion of ends seem to characterize our age.
[6] A verbal contract isn’t worth the paper it’s written on.
Our plane is taking off in five minutes.
Beijing is a beautiful city.
(2) Pron.
Who is speaking, please?
Both were offered jobs immediately.
(3)Num.
One-tenth of the population are elderly people.
Two will be enough.
(4) G
Singing is one of my interests.
There is no denying the fact.
(5) Inf
To act like that is childish.
It‘s better to be on the safe side.（保险行事）
(6)Subject clause
What I sa y goes! （我说了算）
Whether it is a good plan remains to be seen.
(7) 名词化的其他词类
The unemployed lead a hard life.
The old are taken good care of in China.
2. 谓语V——主语的主要情况，可表动作，也可表状态
（1）简单谓语——一个动词或成语动词构成
Time flies. / I know him.
We’ve long been hoping to visit your country.
He has fallen in love with her.
I would like to say a few words in this regard.
(2) 复合谓语——情态动词+动词
——Inf
Can you speak English?
完整版初中英语语法大全知识点总结
英语语法大全 初中英语语法 学习提纲 一、词类、句子成分和构词法： 1、词类：英语词类分十种： 名词、形容词、代词、数词、冠词、动词、副词、介词、连词、感叹词。 1、名词(n.)：表示人、事物、地点或抽象概念的名称。如：boy, morning, bag, ball, class, orange. ：who, she, you, it . 主要用来代替名词。如)： 2、代词(pron.3、形容词(adj..)：表示人或事物的性质或特征。如：good, right, white, orange . 4、数词(num.)：表示数目或事物的顺序。如：one, two, three, first, second, third, fourth. 5、动词(v.)：表示动作或状态。如：am, is,are,have,see . 6、副词(adv.)：修饰动词、形容词或其他副词,说明时间、地点、程度等。如：now, very, here, often, quietly, slowly. 7、冠词(art..)：用在名词前,帮助说明名词。如：a, an, the. 8、介词(prep.)：表示它后面的名词或代词与其他句子成分的关系。如in, on, from, above, behind. 9、连词(conj.)：用来连接词、短语或句子。如and, but, before . 10、感叹词(interj..)表示喜、怒、哀、乐等感情。如：oh, well, hi, hello. 2、句子成分：英语句子成分分为七种：主语、谓语、宾语、定语、状语、表语、宾语补足语。 1、主语是句子所要说的人或事物,回答是“谁”或者“什么”。通常用名词或代词担任。如：I'm Miss Green.(我是格林小姐) 2、谓语动词说明主语的动作或状态,回答“做(什么)”。主要由动词担任。如：Jack cleans the room every day. (杰克每天打扫房间) 3、表语在系动词之后,说明主语的身份或特征,回答是“什么”或者“怎么样”。通常由名词、 代词或形容词担任。如：My name is Ping ping .(我的名字叫萍萍) 4、宾语表示及物动词的对象或结果,回答做的是“什么”。通常由名词或代词担任。如：He can spell the word.(他能拼这个词) 有些及物动词带有两个宾语,一个指物,一个指人。指物的叫直接宾语,指人的叫间接宾语。间接 宾语一般放在直接宾语的前面。如：He wrote me a letter . (他给我写了 一封信) 有时可把介词to或for加在间接宾语前构成短语,放在直接宾语后面,来强调间接宾语。如：He wrote a letter to me . (他给我写了一封信)
GrammarTest大学英语语法练习测试题
1. If the earth suddenly ________spinning, we would all fly off it. A. stopped B. had stopped C. has stopped D. would stop 2. “How should the city be run?” “If I ________a mayor, I would make the streets cleaner and hire more policemen.” A. would B. were C. would be D. should 3. If the whole operation _________ beforehand, a great deal of time and money would have been lost. A. was not planned B. has not been planned C. had not been planned D. were not planned 4. Jean doesn’t want to work right away because she thinks that if she________ a job she probably wouldn’t be able to see her friends very often. A. has to get B. were to get C. had got D. could have got 5. It is recommended that the project________ until all the preparations have been made. A. is not started B. will not be started C. not be started D. is not to be started 6. Who would you rather his daughter ________ in the same office? A. going B. to go C. have gone D. went 7. Church as we use the word refers to all religious institutions, ________they Christian, Islamic, Buddhist, Jewish, and so on. A. be B. being C. were D. are 8. My pain ________ apparent the moment I walked into the room, for the first man I met asked sympathetically：“ Are you feeling all right?” A. must be B. had been C. must have been D. had to be 9. Mary ________ my letter; otherwise she would have replied before now. A. couldn’t have received B. ought to have received C. has received D. shouldn’t have received 10. You needn’t have come over yourself. As it turned out to be a small house party, we_______ so formally. A. needn’t dress up B. did not need have dressed up C. did not need dress up D. needn’t have dressed up 11. Research findings show that we spend about two hours dreaming every night, no matter what we ________ during the day. A. should have done B. would have done C. may have done D. must have done 12. Some women ________ a good salary in a job instead of staying home, but they decided not to work for the sake of family. A. must make B. should have made C. would make D. could have made 13. He ________ another career but, at the time, he didn’t have enough money to attend graduate school. A. might have chosen B. might choose C. had to choose D. must have chosen
英语语法基础入门
英语基础语法知识（一） 第一节词类和句子成分 一、词类 能够自由运用的最小语言单位叫词。根据词的形式、意义及其在句中的作用所作的分类叫词类（parts of speech）。 英语的词通常分为十大类，即名词、冠词、代词、数词、形容词、副词、动词、介词、连词和感叹词。现分别叙述如下： （一）名词 名词(noun)是表示人、事物、地点或抽象概念的名称。例如： foreigner外国人 soap 肥皂Newton牛顿 law 法律freedom自由peace和平 英语名词可分为两大类： < 1。普通名词(common noun)是某一类人、事物、某种物质或抽象概念的名称。例如： teacher教师 market市场rice大米 magazine杂志sound声音production生产 2。专有名词(proper noun)是特定的某人、地方或机构的名称。专有名词的第一个字母必须 大写。例如： Hemingway海明威 Russia 俄罗斯 New York 纽约 United Nations联合国 名词又可分为可数名词(countable noun)与不可数名词(uncountable noun)两种。可数名词有单、复数之分。绝大多数名词的复数形式的构成是在单数名词的后面加-s或-es。例如： shop→shops商店 bus→buses 公共汽车 library→libraries图书馆
toy→toys玩具leaf→leaves树叶 英语中有一些名词的复数形式是不规则的。例如： man→men男人tooth→teeth牙齿datum→data数据 有关名词复数形式构成的具体规则，请参阅有关的英语语法书。 （二）冠词 冠词(article)放在名词之前，帮助说明该名词所指的对象。冠词分为不定冠词(indefinite article)和定冠词(definite article)两种。 不定冠词为a/an，用在单数名词之前，表示某一类人或事物的“一个”。a用在以辅音开头的名词之前，an用在以元音开头的名词之前。例如： a hotel 一家旅馆 a chance 一次机会 a double room一个双人间 a useful book一本有用的书 an exhibition一次展览an honest man一个诚实的人 冠词只有一个，既the，表示某一类人或事物中特定的一个或一些。可用于单数或复数名词前，也可用于不可数名词前。例如： · the TV programs那些电视节目 the house那座房子 the Olympic Games奥运会 （三）代词 代词(pronoun)是用来指代人或事物的词。代词包括： 1。人称代词，如：I, you, they, it等； 2。物主代词，如：my, his, their, our, mine, hers等； 3。反身代词，如：myself, yourself, itself, ourselves, oneself等； 4。相互代词，如：each other, one another等； 5。指示代词，如：this, that, these, those, such, same等；
英语语法体系
英语知识点 一、词汇 二、听力 三、口语 四、写作 五、语法 英语基础语法体系 对于任何英语句子，要分析其结构，这样才能找到英语语言的规律。每种语言都有它的难点，汉语的难点在于汉语不是拼读语言，汉字很难写，而且有四种声调。其实，许多接触过多种外语的人都认为，英语的语法比法语、德语、俄语、日语等都简单，是最容易学的。著名语言学家乔姆斯基说过，语法是内生的、也就是随着语言的诞生而诞生的。因此，学习语法和学习语言是相辅相成的。一、英语动词的时态 （一）英汉两种语言在时态表达方式上的差异： 英语的词类与汉语的不同。汉语词类形态稳定，比如“书”这个字，“一本书”、“三本书”都一样，没有词形变化。英语就不同了，book, books仅从词形上就能知道是单数还是复数。 动词是英语中变化最多、最复杂的词类。有人说，学好英语就是学好动词，此言甚是。同一个动作或状态分别在不同时间发生或存在，表达这个动作或状态的动词就要用不同的形式，这就是时态。 （二）英语动词的形式： 英语的时态是通过动词的变化来体现的。因此，了解动词的形式及其变化规律非常重要。英语的实义动词有以下五种形式： (1)动词原形：动词原形在句子中形式不变。主要用于主语为非第三人称单数的 一般现在时，情态动词之后，或根据语法规定必须用动词原形的其他情况。 (2) 一般现在时第三人称单数形式（简称现单三）：主要用于主语为第三人称单
数的一般现在时。 (3) 过去式：主要用于一般过去时。 (4) 现在分词：主要用于进行时态，或语法规定的其他情况。 (5) 过去分词：主要用于完成时态，或语法规定的其他情况。 动词过去式和过去分词，大多数是动词原形+ ed 构成，这是规则动词。规则动 于发现不规则中的规则，即某些字母组合的不规则动词有一定的规律。如：weep→wept, sleep→slept, sweep→swept 英语动词所表示的动作在以上每个时间段中分别有四种状态：一般、进行、完成和完成进行。因此我们便有了四四一十六个时态。
初三英语语法知识点归纳
初中英语语法速记口诀大全 很多同学认为语法枯燥难学，其实只要用心并采用适当的学习方法，我们就可以愉快地学会英语，掌握语法规则。笔者根据有关书目和多年教学经验，搜集、组编了以下语法口诀，希望对即将参加中考的同学们有所帮助。 一、冠词基本用法 【速记口诀】 名词是秃子，常要戴帽子， 可数名词单，须用a或an， 辅音前用a，an在元音前， 若为特指时，则须用定冠， 复数不可数，泛指the不见， 碰到代词时，冠词均不现。 【妙语诠释】冠词是中考必考的语法知识之一，也是中考考查的主要对象。以上口诀包括的意思有：①名词在一般情况下不单用，常常要和冠词连用；②表示不确指的可数名词单数前要用不定冠词a或an，确指时要用定冠词the；③如复数名词表示泛指，名词前有this，these，my，some等时就不用冠词。 二、名词单数变复数规则 【速记口诀】 单数变复数，规则要记住， 一般加s，特殊有几处： 末尾字母o，大多加s， 两人有两菜，es不离口， 词尾f、fe，s前有v和e； 没有规则词，必须单独记。 【妙语诠释】①大部分单数可数名词变为复数要加s，但如果单词以/t?蘩/、/?蘩/、/s/发音结尾(也就是单词如果以ch，sh，s，x等结尾)，则一般加es；②以o结尾的单词除了两人(negro，hero)两菜(tomato，potato) 加es外，其余一般加s；③以f或fe结尾的单词一般是把f，fe变为ve再加s；④英语中还有些单词没有规则，需要特殊记忆，如child—children，mouse—mice，deer—deer，sheep—sheep，Chinese—Chinese，ox—oxen，man—men，woman—women，foot—feet，tooth —teeth。 三、名词所有格用法 【速记口诀】 名词所有格，表物是“谁的”， 若为生命词，加“’s”即可行， 词尾有s，仅把逗号择； 并列名词后，各自和共有， 前者分别加，后者最后加； 若为无生命词，of所有格， 前后须倒置，此是硬规则。 【妙语诠释】①有生命的名词所有格一般加s，但如果名词以s结尾，则只加“’”；②并列名词所有格表示各自所有时，分别加“’s”，如果是共有，则只在最后名词加“’s”；③
高中英语语法grammar and usage必修3
M3 Unit 3 Grammar and Usage 宾语补足语 英语的五个基本句型结构： S 十V 主谓结构He runs quickly．他跑得快。 S 十V 十P 主系表结构The story sounds interesting．这个故事听起来有趣。 S 十V 十O 主谓宾结构They built a house last year．他们去年建了一所房子。 S 十V 十O1十O2 主谓双宾结构He offered me his seat / his seat to me．他把座位让给我。S 十V 十O 十C 主谓宾补结构 They found her happy that day．他们发现那天她很高兴。 I found him out．我发现他出去了。 They named the boy Charlie．他们给这个男孩起名为查理。 I saw him come in and go out．我见他进来又出去。 They felt the car moving fast．他们感到汽车行驶得很快。 He found the door of study closed to him．他发现研究所的大门对他关闭了。 说明： S＝主语；V＝谓语；P＝表语；O＝宾语；O1＝间接宾语；O2＝直接宾语；C＝宾语补足语 一、可以充当宾语补足语的词和词组有： 1、名词： We made him our monitor. They thought this good advice. They named their daughter Jenny. 注①：常用名词充当宾语补足语的动词有：call, name, elect, make, think, appoint, choose, find, consider, keep, wish, feel等。 注②：充当宾语补足语的名词若表示正式的或独一无二的头衔、职位时，前面一般不用冠词。 They elected John chairman of the committee. 2、形容词： You should keep your room clean and tidy. We’d better leave the door open. 注：常用形容词充当宾语补足语的动词有：believe, think, get, keep, make, find, set, like, wish, see, consider, prove, have, leave, 以及paint, drive, turn, cut 等。 3、现在分词： I’m sorry to have you waiting for so long. I could feel the cold wind blowing on my face. At this moment she noticed the teacher coming in. 二、宾语和其补足语之间的逻辑关系： 1、当名词、形容词、副词和介词短语充当宾语补足语时，它们和宾语之间有着逻辑上的主谓关系（或称表语关系），若无宾语补足语，则句意不完整。宾语补足语说明宾语的情况、性质、特征、状态、身份或属类等。试比较： We made him our monitor. (He is our monitor.) You should keep your room clean and tidy. (Your room is clean and tidy.) We could hear the children playing outside. (The children are playing outside.) 3、当过去分词充当宾语补足语时，它与宾语之间有着动宾关系，即：宾语是过去分词所表示的动作的承受者，如： I once heard this song sung in Japanese. (This song was once sung in Japanese.) I didn’t want the children taken out in such weather. (The children were taken out in such weather.)
人教版小学英语语法知识点汇总知识讲解
目录 一、音素及音标 (2) 二、音节及音节的划分 (3) 三、常用字母或字母组合发音规律 (4) 1、元音字母及组合的发音 (4) （1）与字母a 相关的单词 (4) （2）与字母 e 相关的单词 (5) （3）与字母i 相关的单词 (6) （4）与字母o 相关的单词 (7) （5）与字母u 相关的单词 (8) 2、辅音字母及组合的发音 (9) （1）单个字母 (9) （2）字母组合 (10) 四、词的变式及用法 (11) 1、名词及名词的复数形式 (11) 2、冠词及其用法 (12) 3、代词及其用法 (13) 4、形容词的比较级和最高级 (14) 5、介词的固定用法 (15) 五、时态及语法 (16) 1、一般现在时及其用法 (16) 2、现在进行时 (19) 3、一般将来时 (20) 4、一般过去时 (21) 六、常见固定词组 (23) 附各专项测试习题 (24)
一、音素及音标 音素：英语把组成一个读音的最小单位叫音素。因素分为元音和辅音（相当于语文中的韵母和声母） 1、元音（韵母） 1.1发音方式：靠声带发音，有声调，气流通过喉头、口腔不受阻碍。 元音单元音 长元音[a:][?:][i:][?:][u:] 短元音[Λ][?][i][?][u][?][e]双元音[ai][ei][?i][i? ][e? ][u? ][au][?u] 1.3元音的结构 元音的常见构成有： 组合方式举例1单个元音字母D o g 2元音字母+元音字母S ee、s ea、m ea t、b oo k 3元音字母+辅音字母T al l、pl ay a e i o u 2、辅音（声母） 2.1发音方式：主要是用气流与牙齿舌头等其它器官摩擦发音,气流通过喉头、口腔要受到某个部位的阻碍。 辅音10对 清辅音[p] [t] [k] [f] [s] [∫][t∫][tr] [θ][ts] 浊辅音[b] [d] [g] [v] [z] [?][d?][dr] [e] [dz] 3个鼻音[m] [n] [η] 3个似拼音[h] [r] [l] 2个半元音[w] [j] 组合方式举例 1单个辅音字母D og、b ook 2辅音字母+辅音字tr ee、dr aw、tea ch、sh ip 26个字母中，除去5个元音字母（a、e、i、o、u），其他字母都是辅音字母。 3、开音节（结尾必然是元音字母） 分类组成举例绝对开音节辅音+元音He、go、hi、do、be、tree、three、相对开音节辅音+元音+辅音+e name、bike、home、due、plane、shine 4、闭音节（结尾必然是辅音字母） 分类组成举例 1元音+辅音it、is、of、in、on、up、out、ant 2辅音+元音+辅音bad、bed、sit、hot、cup、let sleep
英语语法基础知识大全.doc
v1.0可编辑可修改 英语语法基础知识大全 第一节词类和句子成分 一、词类 能够自由运用的最小语言单位叫词。根据词的形式、意义及其在句中的作用所作的分类叫词 类（ parts of speech）。 英语的词通常分为十大类，即名词、冠词、代词、数词、形容词、副词、动词、介词、连词 和感叹词。现分别叙述如下： （一）名词 名词 (noun) 是表示人、事物、地点或抽象概念的名称。例如： foreigner 外国人 soap肥皂Newton 牛顿 law法律freedom 自由peace 和平 英语名词可分为两大类： 1。普通名词 (common noun) 是某一类人、事物、某种物质或抽象概念的名称。例如： teacher 教师market 市场 rice大米 magazine 杂志sound 声音 production生产 2。专有名词 (proper noun) 是特定的某人、地方或机构的名称。专有名词的第一个字母必须 大写。例如： Hemingway 海明威Russia俄罗斯 New York 纽约United Nations联合国 名词又可分为可数名词(countable noun) 与不可数名词 (uncountable noun) 两种。可数名词有单、复数之分。绝大多数名词的复数形式的构成是在单数名词的后面加-s 或 -es 。例如：shop→shops 商店bus→buses 公共汽车library→libraries图书馆 toy →toys玩具leaf →leaves树叶 英语中有一些名词的复数形式是不规则的。例如： man→men 男人 tooth →teeth牙齿datum→data数据 有关名词复数形式构成的具体规则，请参阅有关的英语语法书。 （二）冠词
小学英语语法入门(一)
小学英语语法入门（一） 接数字要大写首字母的单词 有些单词接数字时必须大写首字母，并且数字的首字母也要大写，这样的单词有lesson、grade、class、team、row、number等。如Lesson One第一课，Class Two, Grade Three三年级二班，Team Four第四组，Number Five第五号。但是它们不接数字时不大写首字母。 Be动词的一般用法 be动词包括am、is、are,其用法如下： 1. am只用于I的后面，如：I am a girl. I am ten. 2. is只用于she/he/it或其他单数第三人称后面，如： It is a big apple. A girl is in a bus.(a girl 一个女孩，单独一个人是单数第三人称) Mike is in Team Three.(Mike一个人名是单数第三人称) An apple is in a box.(an apple一个苹果，一个东西是单数第三人称) A book is in a desk.(a book 一本书，也是单数第三人称) 3. are只用于you、we、they或复数人称后面。如： You are Number Thirteen. They are in Grade Nine. We are at home. Mike and a girl are in a bus. (Mike and a girl Mike和一个女孩两个人是复数人称) Six boys are in Team Six.（Six boys六个男孩，多于两个人也是复数人称） A book and a box are on a desk.（A book and a box一本书和一个盒子，两个物是复数人称） Three pencils are in the pencil-box.（Three pencils三支铅笔，多于两个物也是复数人称） 如何变一般疑问句（一） 1. 提前原句中的be动词is、are，Be动词首字母要大写，原句首字母恢复小写，照抄剩余部分，然后加问号。 e.g. 1. Tom is in Grade One. Is Tom in Grade One? Yes, he is. / No, he isn’t. 2. This is an egg. Is this an egg? Yes, it is. / No, it isn’t.(an egg是物，所以用it来回答) 3. That is Rose. Is that Rose? Yes, she is. / No, she isn’t.（Rose是女孩，所以用she回答）
中专英语语法知识点总结
中专英语语法知识点总结 第一章：词类、词法、句子成分和句法 第二章： 名词的数：1. 名词复数的构成可数名词复数规则变化和一些常见名词不规则变化形式。 2．不可数名词没有复数形式 3. 名词作主语时, 句中主、谓语的一致关系。 4.名词的所有格 第三章： 冠词:1. 冠词的分类的基本用法 2. 不定冠词(a，an )和定冠词(ｔhｅ)的基本用法 3．一些不加冠词的情况 第四章： 代词： 1.人称代词的主格、宾格 ２.名词性物主代词、形容词性物主代词的构成及用法 3.自身代词、指示代词（thｉs,thaｔ,ｔhese，ｔhose,ｉt)和不定代词(some，anｙ，no，noｎe,many,muｃｈ，feｗ,liｔｔｌe,ｅach,evｅｒy，one，all，boｔｈ,ｎｅitheｒ,ｏｔｈe ｒ，anｏther)的构成及用法 第五章: 数词：1. 数词的分类: 基数词和序数词 2. 数词的几种用法，重点掌握1－－--9种 第六章: 形容词和副词1．形容词和副词基本用法: “tｈe＋形容词”表示某一类人或物, 形容词修饰sｏmｅｔhing, everythinｇ，anythｉng, ｎothing等不定代词 时的位置，副词在句中的位置,常见副词短语。 ２．形容词和副词的比较级和最高级：要求重点掌握形容词比较级和最高级的构成及用法。学习中注意规则变化形式及少数不规则变化的形式。学习中注意规则变化的形式及少数不规则变化的形式。在用法上，要注意在比较级之后一般跟有than 引出的比较的另一方;在最高级之后一般跟有限定范围的介词短语,而且在最高级的前面要有定冠词thｅ。 ３．比较等级的特殊用法 第七章: 动词的时态这是语法教学的重点，重点要求掌握：“一般现在时”,“现在进行时”,“一般 将来时”（bｅgoinｇ+动词不定式,bｅ+动词不定式表将来）“一般 过去时”,“现在完成时”和“过去完成时”。要求掌握这六种时态的 构成和用法。现在分词构成和常用不规则动词的过去式,过去分词； 弄清楚几种时态所表示的不同时间概念,尤其当不同时态交替所用 时，要注意对比,在使用中加深理解。时间状语往往对于时态有提示 作用,但在没有明确时间状语的情况下,学生应能根据上下文及所要表 达的意思选用适当的时态。其余六种时态做一般性了解。 第八章: 动词的被动语态 1.被动语态构成以及用法２.注意主动结构与被动结构之间的相互转换 第九章: 虚拟语气虚拟语气的构成及用法,并且要求学生了解除条件句以外的其它特殊用法 第十章： 情态动词ｃaｎ，coulｄ, may, ｍｉgｈｔ和mｕst，need的基本用法以及情态动词ｂe a ｂle ｔｏ和ｃａn的比较，oｕghｔto与sｈoｕld的比较
Grammar英语语法
人称代词：指人、物 be动词： 我用am，你用are，is连着他她它。 单数用is，复数用are 疑问提前be，否定+not 可数名词复数： 一般直接加s，以s,x,ch,sh结尾+es o结尾，有生命+es,无生命+s 辅音+y结尾，y变i+es f,fe结尾，f,fe变v+es f,fe结尾，直接加s：giraffe，roof，handkerchief，scarf，golf 可数名词有单复数，单数用a/an修饰， 不可数名词无复数，常与a+量词+of+u.n. 两者都可用some修饰
指示代词：this（这个），that（那个），these （这些），those（那些） 所有格： 表人：sb+’s 表物：of（前后倒置） there be：有 地点介词：里面in，上面on，over，under 上下方；between…and两者间，among用于3者间，紧挨next to，附近near，before 后面，in front of在外部前方， in the front of空间内部前方 来自from，朝前to，里面穿过是through，表面穿过across，到里面into，到上面onto 一般现在时：表示经常反复、现在状态、客观真理 助动词：do，does否定分别don’t,doesn’t 动词单三： 一般+s,以s,x,ch,sh，o结尾，词尾+es，辅音+y结尾，y变i+es，have单三是has 一般疑问句把be、情态动词、助动词提前，谓语动词还原 特殊疑问句=特殊疑问词+一般疑问句
how many提问可数名词复数 how much提问不可数名词 年月季节前用in，日期前面可不行， 具体几号要用on，上午下午又是in， 具体某天上下午，要用on来不用in at用法真不少，正午午夜到黎明 频度副词：always（100%），usually（90%），often（80%），sometimes(40%),seldom(30%) never(0%) 现在进行时：表现在正在进行的动作 结构：be+doing 现在分词变化规则： 一般直接+ing 不发音e结尾，去e+ing 重读闭音节结尾，双写词尾辅音字母+ing ie结尾，ie变y+ing 形容词：系动词后，名词前；译为：…的 方式副词：用在动词后，译为：…地 形容词变副词规则：
(完整word版)英语语法基础入门
英语基础语法知识 第一节词类和句子成分 一、词类 能够自由运用的最小语言单位叫词。根据词的形式、意义及其在句中的作用所作的分类叫词类（parts of speech）。 英语的词通常分为十大类，即名词、冠词、代词、数词、形容词、副词、动词、介词、连词和感叹词。现分别叙述如下： （一）名词 名词(noun)是表示人、事物、地点或抽象概念的名称。例如： foreigner外国人soap 肥皂Newton牛顿 law 法律freedom自由peace和 平 英语名词可分为两大类： 1。普通名词(common noun)是某一类人、事物、某种物质或抽象概念的名称。例如： teacher教师market市场rice大 米 magazine杂志sound声音production生产 2。专有名词(proper noun)是特定的某人、地方或机构的名称。专有名词的第一个字母必须 大写。例如： Hemingway海明威Russia 俄罗斯 New York 纽约United Nations联合国 名词又可分为可数名词(countable noun)与不可数名词(uncountable noun)两种。可数名词有单、复数之分。绝大多数名词的复数形式的构成是在单数名词的后面加-s或-es。例如：
shop→shops商店bus→buses 公共汽车library→libraries图书馆 toy→toys玩具leaf→leaves树叶 英语中有一些名词的复数形式是不规则的。例如： man→men男人tooth→teeth牙齿datum→data数据 有关名词复数形式构成的具体规则，请参阅有关的英语语法书。 （二）冠词 冠词(article)放在名词之前，帮助说明该名词所指的对象。冠词分为不定冠词(indefinite article)和定冠词(definite article)两种。 不定冠词为a/an，用在单数名词之前，表示某一类人或事物的“一个”。a用在以辅音开头的名词之前，an用在以元音开头的名词之前。例如： a hotel 一家旅馆 a chance 一次机会 a double room一个双人间 a useful book一本有用的书 an exhibition一次展览an honest man一个诚实的人 冠词只有一个，既the，表示某一类人或事物中特定的一个或一些。可用于单数或复数名词前，也可用于不可数名词前。例如： the TV programs那些电视节目the house那座房子 the Olympic Games奥运会 （三）代词 代词(pronoun)是用来指代人或事物的词。代词包括： 1。人称代词，如：I, you, they, it等； 2。物主代词，如：my, his, their, our, mine, hers等； 3。反身代词，如：myself, yourself, itself, ourselves, oneself等； 4。相互代词，如：each other, one another等； 5。指示代词，如：this, that, these, those, such, same等；
Grammar Challenge (英语语法)
Grammar Challenge: Present Continuous 15 May 09 The present continuous is a verb form which we use to talk about things that are happening at the moment of speaking and for things that are happening around now. We challenge Bilal from Syria to form correct sentences using this grammar. Grammar Challenge: Questions with 'like' 22 May 09 'Like' is a word frequently used in English - in different ways. We challenge Lorenzo from Italy to listen to answers and produce the correct question forms. Grammar Challenge: Forming question tags 29 May 09 We challenge Juliana to form correct question tags (also called tag questions). Will she succeed? And what on earth is a question tag anyway? Grammar Challenge: Pronouncing question tags 5 Jun 09 We find out about two different intonation patterns you can use with question tags. Our challenger Giovanni can hear the difference - but can you? Grammar Challenge: '-ed' and '-ing' adjectives 12 Jun 09 Do you sometimes get confused about whether to use an adjective ending in '-ing' or '-ed'? Don't worry, lots of people have trouble with these words. We are challenging Deniz from Turkey to make correct sentences using this grammar.
初中英语语法入门基础知识
初中英语语法入门基础 知识 公司内部编号：（GOOD-TMMT-MMUT-UUPTY-UUYY-DTTI-
语法基础知识 词法 规则名词单数变复数： 1)一般情况下，在名词后加-s; 2)词尾是s,x,ch,sh结尾的词，在词尾后加-es; 3)“辅音字母+y”结尾的词，变y为i，再加-es;以y结尾的专有名词或“元音字母+y”结尾的词，直接加-s; 4)以“+o”结尾的词，一般在词尾加-s;在词尾加-es的词： 黑人（Negro）英雄（hero）爱吃西红柿（tomato）土豆（potato） 5)以-f/fe结尾的词，变复数，将-f/fe改为v加es; 不规则名词单数变复数： 1）含 man（男人）的词一般变为 men 2）将 oo 改为 ee 的有foot-feet（脚）tooth-teeth（牙刷goose-geese(鹅肉笨蛋) 3）以 en结尾的有 child-childen（孩子） ox-oxen（公牛） 4）将 ouse 改为 ice 的 mouse-mice（老鼠） 5）单复数同形的是 sheep（羊）deer（鹿）Chinese（中国人） 注：fish ①作“鱼肉”讲，为不可数名词，没有复数形式 ②作“鱼类”讲，复数形式为fishes； ③作“鱼的条数”讲，复数形式为fish，单复同形。 冠词
冠词通常放在名词前，分为定冠词the，表特指，和不定冠词an（后接元音音素开头的单词）和a（后接辅音音素开头的单词），表泛指。 定冠词使用顺口溜： 特指、重提和唯一，岛屿、海峡和海湾； 海洋、党派、最高级，沙漠、河流与群山； 方位、顺序和乐器，年代、团体与机关； 船名、建筑和组织，会议、条约与报刊； 姓氏复数、国全名，请你记住用定冠； 零冠词 月，季，星期，节假、周、头衔、职务前、三餐、球类、惯用语、学科、棋类名词前，一般不用任何冠词。 基数词变序数词歌 基变序，有规律 词尾加上-th(fourth,sixth) 一、二、三，特殊例， 结尾字母t,d,d(first,second,third) 八去t,九去e,(eighth,ninth) ve要用 f替;(fifth,twelfth) ty将y改成i, th前面有个e。 若是碰到几十几， 前用基来后用序。 人称代词，物主代词和反身代词
初一英语语法知识点总结复习(超详细)58700
课时一教学任务 一、重点语法 1.动词bｅ(aｍ,is,are）的用法： ｂe动词包括“aｍ”, “iｓ”, “aｒｅ”三种形式。 ①第一人称单数（I)配合am来用。句型解析析:I am+… ②第二人称(You)配合aｒｅ使用。句型解析:You arｅ+… ③第三人称单数(He or She or Iｔ)配合is使用。句型解析：She(He，It）is +…… ④人称复数(we/ｙoｕ/ｔｈey)配合ａｒｅ使用。句型解析：We(You, They）ａｒe +…… 例句Weａｒe in Clａss ５,Ｇｒadｅ7.They arｅmy frｉeｎdｓ.Yｏu are gｏoｄstudenｔｓ. 用法口诀: 我(I)用am, 你（ｙou）用ａre，ｉs跟着他(he）,她(she），它(it)。单数名词用is，复数名词全用ａre。变否定,更容易,be后ｎot加上去。变疑问，往前提,句末问号莫丢弃。还有一条须注意，句首大写莫忘记。 一. 用括号中适当的词填空。 1.Ｉ_____＿__(am，ａre, is）frｏm Ａustralｉa. 2. She＿＿_____ (aｍ, aｒｅ, ｉs) a ｓtｕｄent. 3.Jane anｄTom _＿_＿_＿_＿_(am,iｓ, ａre)my fｒｉends． ４. Ｍy parｅｎｔs _______(am, is, are) vｅry busy eｖery daｙ. 5．＿______（Arｅ, Is,Do，Does)tｈｅrｅ a Chinｅse schoｏl in New Yorｋ? 6．__＿____ (Ｂe，Are, Ｗｅre,Wａs) thｅy eｘｃitｅd ｗhen he heard the neｗs？ 7. Ｔhｅrｅ_＿___(be) sｏｍe ｇｌasｓes on it. 8.If he ___＿_（be) fｒeｅtoｍorrow, he willｇo ｗｉth us. 一、用ｂe 动词的适当形式填空 １. I ＿_＿_＿＿ a ｂｏy. ＿_＿＿_＿yｏu a bｏy？Nｏ,I _＿＿__nｏt. 2．Ｔｈe girl______Jacｋ's sistｅr. 3．Tｈe dｏg___＿___tａll anｄｆaｔ. 4. Thｅｍａn ｗitｈｂiｇeyes______＿a teacｈer. 5. ______ ｙｏur broｔheｒin the ｃlassｒｏom? 6. Where __＿＿_ your moｔhｅr?She ______aｔhｏｍe． 7．Hoｗ＿_＿＿＿__ yｏur ｆaｔheｒ? 8. Mike ａnd Liu Tao _＿＿___ａt schｏol． 9. Whose drｅｓs ＿_____thｉs? 10. Whoseｓｏcks ＿＿＿__＿ｔhey? 11．Thaｔ＿__＿＿_ ｍy reｄｓkｉｒｔ． １2.Ｗｈo ＿_＿___I? 13．The jｅaｎs ＿＿____oｎtｈｅdesk． １4.Here _＿___＿a scarf for you. 15．Heｒｅ__＿___ ｓome sweaｔers foｒyoｕ. １6. The blaｃｋglｏves____＿＿ｆor SｕYａng. 1７. Thiｓpａｉr ｏｆｇlｏves ＿_＿___ for YaｎgＬiｎg． １8. Tｈe twｏｃuｐｓｏf miｌk ＿__＿＿fｏr ｍe. 1９. Sｏmｅtea____＿_ ｉn the glaｓs. ２０.Gao ｓhan's shirｔ__＿____ ovｅr there． 第二课时（1)英语人称代词和物主代词 一、人称代词 表示“我”、“你”、“他”、“她”、“它”、“我们”、“你们”、“他们”的词,叫做人称代词。人称代词有人称、数和格的变化,见下表：