中西方祭祀仪式的差异

On the Differences of Sacrificial Ceremony in China and the West

中西方祭祀仪式的差异

Abstract

Since different countries have different histories and cultures, there are a lot of differences in the habit of conducts and the sacrifice ceremony, especially between C hina and the West, the jokes and the mistakes caused by misunderstanding is not unusual. This shows that the understanding of the different religious cultures between Chinese and the Westerners is absolutely necessary. Sacrificial ceremony is part of social etiquette, in the office or social communication occasions, to understand each other?s custo ms and etiquette will be conductive to the exchanges between the countries. A person who understands others rituals and folk customs can be seen as respecting for others and can be easier to make a good impression on the other side. Along with the constant development of Chinese culture and Western culture, the Westerners have accepted the reasonable factors of heavy affection from Chinese culture. Chinese people have gradually accepted the advanced civilization of the Western culture and etiquette style. However, in real life, different sacrificial ceremony and social etiquette?s impact due to cultural differences between China and the West still exists. The paper explores the differences of sacrifice ceremony between China and the West to make Chinese communicate with the Westerners more easily, avoid and reduce the cultural conflict and misunderstanding as much as possible in cultural exchanges.

Key words：Culture difference; Sacrifice ceremony; Religious belief

摘要

由于各国的历史和文化底蕴不同，各国人民在进行交往时的行为习惯、祭祀礼仪有不少差异。特别是中西方之间，礼仪上的差异很大。因为不了解这些差异而引起的误会和笑话也不少见。由此可见了解中西方交往的习惯差异是很有必要的。在办公室或社交场合，了解对方客户有利于各国之间的交往。一个了解对方的礼仪和民俗习惯的人，是对对方的尊重而且很容易给对方留下好印象。随着中西方文化的不断发展，中西方的礼仪正在相互融合，西方人逐渐接受了中国文化中重情感等合理因素，中国人也逐渐接受了西方文化中先进文明的礼仪和交往方式。

在现实生活中，由于中西方文化的差异对礼仪产生的影响还很多，为此本文探讨并概述了中西方宗教祭祀礼仪的几点差异，使中西方人人们之间的交往更加容易,并在文化交流中尽量避免和减少文化冲突和文化误解。

关键词：文化差异；祭祀仪式；宗教信仰

Table of Contents

1 Introduction................................................................................... 错误！未定义书签。

2 The Important Embodiment of Sacrifice Ceremony Culture Between China

and the West (3)

2.1 China-The devotion of deities (3)

2.2 The West-The equality between human and god (5)

3 The Origin of Sacrifice Culture Differences in China and the West (6)

3.1 Political origin ..................................................................... 错误！未定义书签。

3.1.1 China- Unified political system ................................... 错误！未定义书签。

3.1.2 The West-Diversified political system (7)

3.2 Cultural origin (7)

3.2.1 China-The combination and absorption of foreign culture (7)

3.2.2 The West- Spread culture and cultural expansion (7)

3.3 Economic origin (8)

3.3.1 China-Traditional self-sufficient natural economy (8)

3.3.2 The West Industrial Revolution and “Industrial Economic Era” (9)

4 National Characteristics of Sacrifice Ceremony Cultural in China and the

West .............................................................................................. 错误！未定义书签。

4.1 Chinese-Advocate stabilization and harmonious socialism society (9)

4.2 Westerners-The development of individual will (10)

5 The Fusion and Conflict of Sacrifice Ceremony Culture Between China and

the West ........................................................................................ 错误！未定义书签。

5.1 The fusion ............................................................................ 错误！未定义书签。

5.2 The conflict and ways to avoid it (11)

6 Conclusion (12)

References ........................................................................................ 错误！未定义书签。Acknowledgement ................................................................................ 错误！未定义书签。

1 Introduction

Sacrificial ceremonies are human cultural activities such as sacrifice, worship, pray, and chanting, etc. Religious ceremony has the function to celebrate festivals, it has entangled into people?s social life, and it became a part of the folk culture. From the construction of the harmonious society's point of view, positive role of religious sacrificial ceremony and concepts embodied in the excitation of human goodness, meanwhile it enlighten human wisdom, establish self-confidence, purified human mind, enhancing human spirit, adjusting interpersonal relations and resolving social contradictions.

In modern society, it seems that the world is getting smaller and smaller, people are very active with frequent exchanges. Human decency plays the basic role of social ethics. The different sacrificial ceremonies combined with each other in various countries and people and it can be understand by people of different countries and nations. Sacrificial ceremony, as a part of social etiquette, can be shared by more and more people of different countries, because the social etiquette itself is a cultural phenomenon. Therefore, many countries are paying great attention to combining social etiquette with national sacrificial ceremony creatively. This means that the sacrificial ceremony and social etiquette in the Western and Chinese society are in a more appropriate location.

2 The Important Embodiment of Sacrifice Ceremony Culture in China and the

West

The essence of sacrificial ceremony is the method of dealing with people and the belief in ghosts and spirits. People consider that all things are controlled by the ghosts which can not be seen. Therefore, sacrificial ceremony is originated from the belief in ghosts and spirits, as well as a special form of belief in ghosts and spirits. Back to five thousand years ago, sacrificial ceremonies used to be the core of traditional culture. Some examples such as people lighting incense in temples, praying for a wonderful beautiful life or for a more fantastic future; In some areas such as Sichuan and Chongqing, people burn paper houses and neither imitation paper money, hoping to improve their deceased family?s living conditions; In tomb-sweeping day, people visit their ancestor?s graves and sweep away the dirt of the grave for remembering loved ones who have departed. These are examples in terms of sacrificial ceremonies.

Generally, any worship towards god is called "sacrificial ceremony"; it refers worshiping towards God, and it was regarded as organized religious activities.

Human beings are the most important part of religious beliefs and they are the supporter of religion activity. The most important condition is the relationship between human beings and god. This relationship is fulfilled with a few religious ceremonies, and they are the communicational channels between human and god. Therefore, there is a set of ceremony in worshiping God to express the relationship between human beings and God, human attempt to please God through sacrificing, worshiping, praying and chanting. They hope they can communicate with God and praying that God would bless all of them with a good future. Hence, the religious ceremony has appeared.

2.1 China-The devotion of deities

In China there is a set of religious sacrifice ceremony in worshiping god. Take Taoism?s example, according to observing and visiting a few Taoist temple, many people believe that humans can pleasing God through sacrificing, worshiping, praying and chanting.

In Taoism s major festivals, there are a few sacrificial ceremonies which are indispensable for the religious activities. Traditionally each of these ceremonies including these stages: purification, invocation for the deities, prayers, consecration and offerings, hymns, chanting and

dances, and perambulations.

The most important type of sacrificial ceremony stands for local communities. This kind of type includes ceremonies to install the religious space, ceremonies of fasting, of communion or offering, and to disperse the religious ceremonial space.

Ceremonies stands for the community can be extraordinarily expensive, and household donations and community leaders paid for it. Apart from the ceremonies themselves, there will also be plays, processions, military parades, and communal meals.

As for the performance of the sacrificial ceremonies themselves, no mistakes can be made; no step or recitation must falter. Apprenticed Taoist priest serve as musicians; more advanced trainees assist by lighting incense and reciting certain passages. The heart of the sacrificial ceremony is conducted by five Taoist priests: a Great Master and his four assistants. One of these assistants heads the intricate and complex processions and dances, and is responsible for knowing the entire sequence of ceremonies. Another prepares that is used during the course of the entire ceremony, and recites all of the invocations and consecrations, the texts of purification, elevation, and confession.

The Great Master is preparing for his role during much of the activities, he quietly murmuring secret formulas with his hands inside his sleeves. At times he picks up the incense burner and holds it as he breathes in and out, facing different directions, or he burns talismanic symbols or initials documents. Primarily, he enacts internally the actions spoken by the texts that are being recited by his assistant.

At a certain point, he rises and performs the "dance of the stars," dance towards the deities. Then he falls prostrate, in a fetal position with arms and legs under his body, face in hands, as the internally journeys to the Heavenly Assembly, locus of the Heavenly Worthies, accompanied by divine escorts. In this case, the master is the mountain, just as the incense burner and the altar are also the mountain. In ancient times, the altar was built upon a series of graduated steps, so that the master actually ascended the steps at this point in the ceremony, but these days the ascent is entirely internal.

There he presents the memorial that is the heart of the sacrifice ceremonial texts. The memorial is a petition to the gods, written in literary language, stating the name and purpose of the ceremony, its date and location, the names and addresses of the participants, and a vow — that is a request and a pledge on behalf of all the participants.

Standing again, the master burns the memorial and scatters the ashes, gathers his escorts, and returns. Afterward, there is more chanting and more music, but the main portion of the ritual has occurred. In breaking down the religious sacrificial space, all talismans, writs, and other markers of the ceremonial space are burned. Afterward there is a communal banquet, with plenty of food available for the orphan souls who cannot become ancestors.

Taoist sacrificial ceremonies are colorful, filled with music, incense, and stylized movements. Much of Chinese drama is influenced by Taoist ceremony.

Some forms of ceremonies involve trance, and the exorcism of demons. These usually occur during festivals, and are regarded as being of a lower order than the ceremonies of the Taoist priest. To communicate with the dead, a miniature sedan chair carried by two people may become the seat of a deity who will, through the movement of the chair, dictate a response to settle a conflict between dead and living family members.

Here is an example, the barefoot masters, like the Taoist priest, have their ceremonial texts, long epics that describe voyages to spirit realms. They often paint their faces in elaborate masks, like those of Chinese opera characters. They might enact a battle against the demons, with

swords and military music, and strike themselves with their weapons, drawing blood. The blood is regarded as protection against evil, and the act, a form of expiation for the sins of all. Tissues are applied to the wounds to soak up a bit of blood, and then taken home and stuck on doorframes to ward off evil.

About ceremonial activity in Taoism today, only Taoist priests are understood to be "Taoists." Daily involvement with Taoism on the part of the laity is not ritualized in any particular way. In immigrant communities, Taoism has been merged with other religions, and has integrated many popular practices.

Small voluntary contributions are sometimes given for this and other services, such as the healing of childhood fears and individual purifications. When children are brought, the parent will first explain the problem; then the Taoist priest will prepare a talisman, curse the demons who have caused the fear, and spit a mouthful of talisman water into the child's face. Depletion of energy in adults, the cause of many illnesses, will sometimes be treated by burning lamps representing the stars of the Dipper. The Taoist priest will also sometimes prescribe herbal medicines, perform acupuncture, or do an astrological reading, always in conjunction with a ceremonial cure.

In addition the Taoist priest will perform several self-cultivating practices on a regular basis. Among these might be gymnastic or breath-control exercises, special diets, meditation, etc. Visualization practices are common, such as visualizing the gods within the body or visualizing journeys to the celestial palaces. These exercises are performed on certain days, and at certain times of the day, establishing harmony with the celestial realms. Sometimes the Taoist priest will engage in retreats, long vigils during which sleep is forbidden, or fasts, during which they abstain from sexual activity and avoid certain foods.

The object of these sacrificial ceremonies is to "Keep the One," that is, to gather one's energies lest they become scattered, to worship and give the devotion of the deities, to remain in harmony with the natural rhythms and cycles of the cosmos, and to experience the "return" to cosmic unity.

2.1 The West-The equality between human and god

The western religious sacrifice ceremony has shows the equality between human and god. Sacrifices in western country were thus instructive as well as worshipful. They were accompanied by prayer, devotion, dedication and represented an acknowledgment on the part of the individual of his duty towards God, also a thankfulness to the Lord for his life and blessings upon the earth.

According to informative resources, in the West, sacrifices were varied and more complex, and a multitude of rules were given to govern the procedure. Under the law offerings made to God must be the offerer?s own property, properly acquired. Altar sacrifices were of three kinds: sin offerings, burnt offerings, and peace offerings.

In all the animal sacrifices there were six important acts: The presentation of the sacrifice at the sanctuary door by the sacrificer himself, as his personal act. The laying on of hands dedicated the animal to God and made it the sacrificer?s representative and substitute.They slaughter the animal, carried out actually the dedication to God that he had ceremonially expressed by the laying on of hands. A later custom was for the Levites or priests to slaughter the victims. The priest collected the blood of the animal in a vessel and applied it in various ways and places to make atonement, then burning the sacrifice on the altar. After the priest had properly prepared the sacrificial victim he offered it upon the altar of burnt offering.

The fundamental idea of the sin and trespass offerings was atonement, expiation. Atonement could be made for unconscious, unintentional sins; noncapital crimes (such as theft), after

punishment had been endured; crimes that a man voluntarily confessed, and for which he made compensation.

Trespass or guilt offerings were a particular kind of sin offering. Certain sins might be regarded as robbery, or a violation of right, or an injury, whether in relation to God directly, by neglecting some ceremonies and services, payments, and offerings. In either case these sins requiring compensation. This compensation was made ethically, by the trespass offering; materially, by making restitution.

The burnt offering got its name from the idea of the smoke of the sacrifice ascending to heaven. The characteristic ceremony was the burning of the whole animal on the altar. A burnt offering, called the continual burnt offering, was offered twice daily, morning and evening.

Peace offerings, as the name indicates, presupposed that the sacrificer was at peace with God; they were offered for the further realization and enjoyment of that peace. The characteristic ceremony was the sacrificial meal. A feast symbolized fellowship and friendship among all its partakers and providers, and also a state of joy and gladness.

The ceremony of the three different kinds of animal sacrifices was identical in regard to the presentation, the imposition of hands, and the slaughtering by the offerer himself. It was sprinkled against the veil seven times and put upon the horns of the altar of incense in the sin offerings of the high priest and the whole congregation. It was also sprinkled on the front of the mercy seat in the sin offering of the Day of Atonement. The remainder of the blood was poured out at the bottom of the altar of burnt offering. The blood of the trespass, burnt, and peace offering was sprinkled on the altar of burnt offering round about.

In the ceremony of the peace offering, the ceremonies of waving (the breast) and heaving should be noticed. It is noteworthy that when the three offerings were offered together, the sin always preceded the burnt, and the burnt the peace offerings. Thus the order of the symbolizing sacrifices was the order of atonement, sanctification, and fellowship with God.

Through the procedure of Western sacrificial ceremonies, it is not difficult to draw a conclusion that the relationship between human beings and God tend to be more equally. People have the right to choose weather or not they will offer sacrificial ceremonies to God and heaven.

3 The Origin of Sacrifice Culture Differences in China and the West

3.1 Political origin

3.1.1 China- Unified political system

In ancient time, since China has been unified by Qin Shihuang, the formal establishment of a centralized system of Despotism has been officially set up: the supreme ruler is the emperor .The establishment of the system of feudal society lasting in the late spring and autumn period, but it went collapse in Qing Dynasty. There is no doubt to say, the system of feudal society has a great influence on Chinese culture. System of feudal society has been accompanied by the autocratic monarchy system, and it also has far-reaching influence on Chinese ceremonial culture.

It has different effects in social and cultural aspects. The positive effects are to establish, multi-ethnic feudal state in consolidation and development, to safeguard national unity and territorial integrity. In a large extent, it forced the sacrificial ceremony of old China developed in a unique way. When it comes to sacrificial ceremony, the central-unified political system of Qin Dynasty takes the domination of the whole society. When Taoist planning sacrificial ceremony for worshiping heaven, it can effectively organize citizen and engaged in large-scale production of ceremonial activities. I t?s conducive to the integration of different kind of religions such as the Taoism, Confucianism and Buddhism in different ethnic groups, and also conducive to the

exchanges between sacrificial ceremony and political ruling system.

The characteristics of the political system in ancient China were from the Han to the Yuan dynasties, China's political system has gone through many changes, the on-going development leads to the autocratic centralization of the country. Local officials must obey their superiors, finally to the emperor. Then the emperor decides whether a sacrificial ceremony could be takes into practice for the sake of the future and prosperity of the country.

3.1.2 The West-Diversified political system

The western political system has a huge influence in the western social life, it has obvious difference from ancient Chinese political system. At the same time it has profoundly influence on western culture. It is totally different comparing to the monarchy in Chinese hereditary. As head of state president he often serves as the head of government, the president has administrative power and it finally became the executive power.

The political pattern emerged different religions, the same as different sacrificial ceremonies. The diversity of Western political system has a profoundly influence on religious culture. Different religions such as the Christian, Catholic, Roman Catholic, Jewish have different doctrines of its own religion and they have different procedures when it comes to sacrificial ceremonies. Moreover, political power control the mode of western government, they make the diversification in different racial and religious groups. The complexity of political structure makes the Westerners, in an extent, has different ethnical groups, different social and cultural etiquette, different religious beliefs and different sacrificial ceremony. In consequence, the complexity of western political system has a great influence in social and cultural religious ceremonies.

3.2 Cultural origin

3.2.1 China-The combination and absorption of foreign culture

The prosperous dynasties such as Han dynasty, Tang dynasty, Yuan dynasty, Mingqing dynasty best exemplified the open and inclusive spirit of Chinese culture .Those dynasties tolerated and absorbed elements from all cultures, leading to prosperity in all aspects of social life.

Firstly, is the cultural exchange with other countries. For instance, the Silk Road, the Silk Road refers to a transport route connecting ancient china with central Asia, West Asia, Africa, and the European continent. The Silk Road served as the main channel for ancient China to open up to the outside world, as well as for fresh impulses from other cultures to enter the country, which contributed a significant share to the shaping of Chinese culture.

Secondly, is the cultural combination of different religions. On one hand, there are three major Eastern religions in China—Taoism, Buddhism, and Confucianism. On the other hand, there are fifty ethnic minorities exist in China, some with their great antiquity, each with their own unique religions and unique sacrificial or folk ceremonies. The "Chinese religion" thus refers to a diverse and complex collection of many traditions. When Qin Shihuang unified the Chinese empire in 221 B.C.E, he standardized many elements of human culture; for example the size of bricks, the axle lengths of carts, administrative districts, and the written language. He established a pattern of unity within diversity that would become characteristic of Chinese civilization. Elements from earlier religions were preserved and integrated into the "three religions" when these were established, and sacrificial ceremony of the three co-exist with one another. At the same time, popular or folk religion in China continues to exist and exert an influence on the normal traditions. Chinese popular or folk religion has persisted through the ages and is a vital aspect of religion in China, the same as the sacrificial ceremony and rituals.

3.2.2 The West- Spread culture and cultural expansion

Western sacrifice ceremony has reflecting western spread culture and civilized expansion.

One of the salient features of Western civilization is the expansion. Since the early human civilization emerged, the expansion of western culture has spreading from the central region to the peripheral region. The population of western countries is relatively dense, therefore, the expansion to the surrounding area is not difficult to understand.

In recent years, western culture around the world has gained "crazy expansion". "Crazy expansion" is a kind of "cultural aggression towards the world ".

Western religions, including art and metaphysics, are the core of the spiritual civilization provides unlimited space and it gives full space to wisdom and effort. The concerns is conducive to the maintenance of human, human and nature, and it can balance human's relationship; Western rational civilization pay more attention to the material production and science and technology, so the core of western human wisdom resulting in conflict between people and nature, physically and mentally without concerns about themselves.

Western culture advocates the cultural creative and the spirit of Adventure. The expansion of the impulse of Western values initially shows on social competition and adventure.

In the history of development of Western civilization, from the great geographical discovery, the adventure of the world, world trade and travel around the world, all were reflected in the Western civilization and it coul dn?t restrain the expansion impulse. The Western Renaissance, religious reformation and enlightenment movements made the Western world fulfilled with global expansion. The attack instinct in western values stands for the political, economic, military, diplomatic and cultural aspects in terms of social etiquettes and sacrificial ceremonies, and expansion and competition is the live rules of western society. In this case, the adventure spirits is the western inherent value, which cannot be changed and cannot overcome.

3.3 Economic origin

3.3.1 China-Traditional self-sufficient natural economy

Natural economy, in a word, is traditional self-sufficient natural economy without any commodity exchange. It aims product in order to meet the demands of individual producer or economic organizations instead of the economic form of exchange. This kind of natural economic form took the dominance in primitive society, feudal society, capitalist society, semi-colonial and semi-feudal society. Natural economy in ancient society aims the productivity need to be extremely low. Natural economy is the powerful support of productive development in ancient time of China, the feature of it is self-sufficient with few commodity exchanges.

The economic form "economic enclosure" forbidden China communicated directly with Western countries. The developed self-sufficient natural economy in China blocked the economic communication and development between China and the West, moreover, it hindered the cultural exchange between China and the west. Hence Chinese sacrificial ceremony has its unique “enclosure” features, that is, self-conduct and self-sufficient.

China is a agricultural nation in generations to generations, objectively, the world people live is an absolute natural world, so people believes in heart that only natural offering can bring happiness. They think it is hard to obey natural rules, hence the thought of "harmony" has become the core in Chinese religion especially the Taoism. As an individual part of human beings, one can not choose what kind of environment he wanted to live, or affects the environment. This idea exists in people's mind, the same as the strong fatalism in traditional Chinese culture. It has laid a solid foundation for the religious ceremony, and it created the traditional sacrificial ceremony when people wish heaven will do them a good return. People praying, chanting, hire Taoist to making sacrificial ceremony and express their strongly hope that might be heard from heaven. Hence, the sacrificial ceremony in China, tend to be more self-conducted, self-sufficient and

unique.

3.3.2 The West Industrial Revolution and “Industrial Economic Era”

One important feature that caused the ceremonial difference between China and the West is “The Industrial Revolution” in Western world. The industrial revolution was a period in the late 18th and early 19th centuries when major changes in agriculture, manufacturing, and transportation had a profound effect on the socioeconomic and cultural conditions in Britain. The changes subsequently spread throughout Europe and North America and eventually the world, a process that continues as industrialization. The onset of the Industrial Revolution marked a major turning point in human society; almost every aspect of daily life was eventually influenced in some way. The effects spread throughout Western Europe and North America during the 19th century, eventually affecting most of the world. The impact of this change on society was enormous.

The Industrial Revolution is a long term which indicates the invention and appliance of various complicated machines rather than tools in production and variation from a rural agricultural and commercial society to a progressive rural industrial society. Old ideas were modified, and new ideas gradually took place. The revolution changed people?s life, social class structure, and cultural mind in every individual?s heart. Before the industrial revolution, people live in a world that was full of unknown questions, sacrificial ceremony is crucial in people?s mind, this is the same as part of ancient Chinese society. However, after the industrial revolution, with the advancement of high technology and knowledge-based economy, westerners created a new modern world. Somehow, the sacrificial ceremony is no longer a special and a crucial way to force a flourishing economy and it cannot enrich people?s real life, on the contrary, it became a indispensable cultural element in Western history.

4 National Characteristics of Sacrifice Ceremony Cultural in China and the West

The understanding and definition of creativity between China and Western culture may differ, traditional Chinese culture is more conservative while modern culture of the West is more liberal. But in terms of creativity, their influences are equally significant.

One characteristic of Western culture is the emphasis on individual contribution, which may be partially explained by Western history and religious. The mainstay of Western culture is individual-oriented. This trait is manifested in Western culture and creativity by making individual heroes, whose contributions are placed above collective effort. The advantage of this is that it can spur people on to greater heights. The flaw is that it results in self-centered individualism, which affects creativity indirectly.

4.1 Chinese-Advocate stabilization and harmonious socialism society

Religious sacrificial culture not only expresses people's feelings, thoughts and beliefs, but also reflects local political and cultural philosophy in different places. Today with the higher social productivity level, religious sacrificial culture embodies people?s idea and thinking model, it still plays a important role and can not be ignored in human society.

Chinese sacrificial ceremony culture implies social and cultural consciousness, Chinese advocates the overall stability and social harmony. Many Chinese would rather sacrifice their own interests to preserve the overall interest, and people tend to be more collectivism than individualism.

This is because in a relatively closed self-sufficient natural environment, Chinese people gradually become family-oriented, and their core values tend to be loyalty and filial piety.

This shows a unique feature in Taoism?s sacrificial ceremony. When the Taoist priest

preparing for the performance of the sacrificial ceremonies, no mistakes can be made; no step or recitation must falter. In a large extent, it manifested that the “harmony” and the collectivism take a very important proportion in people s heart. This also embodies in different characteristics in different periods, such as the Confucian moral values, the Taoist naturalism theory of value, the Moism universal love of utilitarianism, the legalist utilitarian values and so on.

But these values are not beyond the spirit Yin-Yang and the "unity of heaven and man ". Through constructing the harmonious society, maintaining social stability and social development, these values “unity of heaven and man”“harmony” has deeply influenced the Chinese ways of life and ways of thinking on the behave of sacrificial ceremony.

4.2 Westerners-The development of individual will

In the West, although we say that in the processing of long history, the social values of the west are full of complexity and diversity. Through the comparison of some sacrificial ceremonies between China and the west, we can draw a conclusion that individual will is more important in Western society. Apparently, Western society is an individual society, the value of people?s goals is the realization of the rights of the individual, which are not sacrosanct. Therefore, utilitarianism has always plays a leading role and occupied the main position in Western society.

In a certain extent, the ceremonies of West gives birth to the value orientation of Western society, it also arouse the initiative of the pursuit the individual in material interests, so as to promote the development of western economy and science, but they might looked down upon the righteous, which might easily lead to one-sided pursuit of material interests of Western society. People tend to consider more about material interests. In western history, utilitarianism and pragmatism constitute the mainstream of Western values, it leads to inviolability of private property into the everlasting credo of society. In real life, Westerners has good personality spirit about novelty, creativity and utilitarian. Concept of science and technology awareness wins support among people, and it becomes the very important factors of people?s personality. This also makes the Westerners tend to be more rational, lack of intuitive feelings but very good at logic thinking.

5 The Fusion and Conflict of Sacrifice Ceremony Culture Between China and the West 5.1 The fusion

As many people say, etiquette is a kind of culture, the same as the sacrificial ceremony, it both have vertical and horizontal fusion. Along with the accelerating pace of globalization, the background of high-speed fusion is among economy and culture. Chinese traditional religious ceremony is also shocked constantly by Western religious ceremony culture. How to protect traditional Chinese ceremony, and how to reasonably integrate with Western religious ceremonies becomes to the topic that people constantly think about nowadays.

Chinese and western religious ceremony, to an extent, has developed together. For example, more and more Chinese people now are Christian, baptism, worship, pray are the main ceremonies of Christianity. Chinese people strictly follow Christianity ceremony as soon as they choose Christ as their faith.

On one hand, in the United States, Canada and Australia and other countries, more and more people are interested in Chinese indigenous religion, Taoism, some of them choose Taoism as their religion. Taoist ceremony contains: light incense, chanting, praying, and so forth. Some westerners give Taoist ceremonies and Taoist ideas a positive agreement. Nowadays, many people came to China to study the Taoism ideas, which injected new vitality in Chinese Taoist culture.

On the other hand, there exists millions of Christianity in this world. The reason of this

phenomenon is not just the strong powerful economy of the West, but the highly identity and a profoundly consciousness of its culture. All mentioned above is related to the social foundation of Christianity, because of important religious ceremony activities and pious religious beliefs, Westerners accept education and edification of religious idea since their childhood.

In the processing fusion of Chinese and Western ceremonial cultures, some Chinese are too keen on Western culture, therefore they unconsciously falls into errors: they introduced Western Christianity ceremony to traditional Chinese Taoist ceremony. The Western religious ceremony was regarded as folk knowledge, if we study it like a flock of ducks, we will lose our national self-esteem, and the nation's traditional religious observance will be submerged.

5.2 The conflict and ways to avoid it

Through observe and summarize the differences of origins in sacrificial ceremonies between China and the West in many aspects, we can draw a conclusion that: first, with the comparison and contrast that mentioned above, the first conflict that might appeared in modern society is the relationship between righteousness and interpersonal profits. Generally speaking, Western tend to be more materialistic, however, Chinese prefer to choose justice or both moral and benefit. Chinese consciousness is the meaning of the word "righteousness", which can not be ignored. Someone thinks that various ancient ideas caused a cultural awareness of 5000 years. Relatively speaking, Westerners pay more attention to the profits and benefits of its culture. In the West, the sense of your-self, also known as not hypocritical, people seek truth from fact. In most Chinese? life, humility is a virtue, the righteousness and the harmony of the whole society is essential part of their life, but it might be different to westerners.

Second, is the problem between the whole and individual. China emphasizes holistic and integrated, but Westerners pay more attention to individuals. For instance, traditional Chinese medicine emphasizes the overall unity, it heals all aspects of human body. However, western medicine is not the same thing, they just heal part of human body. In this case, the difference between the overall thinking and individual thinking is also reflected in the exchanges between people?s interpersonal behaviors.

Third, is the difference in mind-thinking. Chinese cultures and the Western cultures have attached a great importance to interpersonal relationship. However, they are clearly different in exchanging ideas. Chinese are very warm and hospitable, being not seemed to be preserved. It is granted to understand the age, occupation, income, marital status, children and other issues with each other. The Westerners will generally not do like that. Chinese will ask the price of goods which is bought by others directly. In the eyes of Chinese people, the price is only for items or rank. It is said the quality of goods. In Westerners? eyes, if you do the same thing, it may be regarded as the inquiry of other?s economic conditions. It is also the privacy of the Westerners which should not be asked directly.

Fourth, is the difference in the expression of feelings between East-West. There are many problems on the differences between Chinese and Westerners. Here, the biggest problem is the difference between Chinese culture and Western culture. In the Western countries, the word …etiquette? used to mean “keep off the grass”. While in China, etiquette is equal to courtesy and ceremony.

In order to make Chinese communicate with Westerners more easily, avoid and reduce the cultural conflict and misunderstanding as much as possible in cultural exchanges, here are some options that can be followed by people who wants to understand different cultures and avoid social conflicts in cultural and etiquette exchanges.

First, make a fully understanding of western cultures, especially the etiquette part. Knowing

the religious beliefs and people?s thinking model as much as possible would be an essential way when learning different cultures. Spend some time reading relative books and searching useful information online may help those who want to learn something different about it.

Second, communicate with people come from different cultural regions. The knowledge from books might be different in real social life, and there are some customs that is always on changing in social life. So the most effectively way, is communicating with people from different cultural regions. You may communicate with people from different countries through online chatting or friendly face to face meeting. This is also a useful way to understand different cultural customs.

Third, try to respect others and be tolerant. As a Chinese student, we should bear in mind that all the people from the world are moral beings and that they do have different beliefs, live styles. In a word, in different culture, especially in religious beliefs, no matter how different or weird it seems to be, we should doing our utmost to respect it and understand it, this is because we may seems unusual to others in their eyes. Therefore, respect others and be tolerant is a good way to avoid unnecessary cultural misunderstand and conflicts.

Forth, be acceptable to different customs. We should accept the good and positive part of western culture as well as developing it in a wiser way. Similarly, Westerners will accept and study the elaborate and excellent part of Chinese culture.

With the modernization and globalization in this world today, we should remember that all human beings in the world are a family. Learning the good part of different culture will not merely for the sake of the future of the young generations but also for a wonderful and brilliant future for our common planet.

6 Conclusion

From the discussion of differences in Chinese sacrificial ceremony and the West, we can draw a conclusion that any ceremonies are based on different cultural etiquette. There are three main differences between Chinese etiquette and the Western etiquette.

The first, it shows different characters between Chinese and Western sacrificial ceremonies. Chinese sacrificial ceremonies tend to be more unique and expressed the full devotion and worship towards deities, while Western sacrificial ceremonies show the equality between human and God, it also balanced the power between nature and science. Second, there are different origins (political, natural and economic backgrounds) of Chinese etiquette and the Western etiquette. In China, etiquette is equal to courtesy and ceremony. In the West, the word etiquette used to mean “keep off the grass”. Third, is the difference of cultural reorganization. Chinese, more or less, tend to believe that the sacrificial ceremony has a huge influence on every aspects of people?s life, so some of them (especially the aged people) still put the sacrificial ceremonies into practice, they light incense and praying a good living conditions for their relatives who had already passed, sweeping tombs on festivals, etc. On the contrary, with the advancement and acknowledgment in science and technology, Westerners choose a wiser way to keep their different cultural ceremonies, that is, to remember it and record it in books instead of put it into practice every time. Therefore, many Westerners treat the sacrificial ceremonies as a symbol of cultural accumulation and customs restorations.

With the development of human society, differentiation, complex group multi-ethnic, trans-regional and cross cultural have appeared. At this time, a variety of religious beliefs and ceremony coexist, sometimes they tend to be exclusive to each other, which is not beneficial to China and the West for knowledge and cultural exchanges.

Understanding the ceremony of Western etiquette is a key to help us understand the cultural

life and daily customs of people all over the world, it enables us to understand and learn various national cultures around the world. Moreover, it helps us not merely make cultural exchange with people of all countries more smoothly but also reduces the cultural conflict and misunderstanding during communication between different countries.

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中西方交际礼仪的差异文档 前言语料：温馨提醒，公务文书，又叫公务文件，简称公文，是法定机关与社会组 织在公务活动中为行使职权，实施管理而制定的具有法定效用和规范体式的书面文 字材料，是传达和贯彻方针和政策，发布行政法规和规章，实行行政措施，指示答 复问题，知道，布置和商洽工作，报告情况，交流经验的重要工具 本文内容如下：【下载该文档后使用Word打开】 一、招呼语的差异 日常打招呼，中国人大多使用“去上班呀？”“吃了吗？”“上哪呢？”等等，这体现了人与人之间的一种亲切感。可是对西方人来说，这种打招呼的方式会令对方感到突然、尴尬，甚至不快，因为西方人会把这种问话理解成为一种“盘问”，感到对方在询问他们的私生活。在西方，这种问候他们只说一声“Hello”或按时间来分，说声“早上好！”“下午好！”“晚上好！”就可以了。 西方人最常用的问候语大多有两类：第一，谈天气。如英国人见面说：“今天天气不错呵！”这是因为英国终年西风带的影响，大西洋吹来的潮温气流使得天气无常，就连天气预报也没准，因此人们最关系天气。第二，谈近况。但只局限于泛泛而谈，不涉及隐私，可以说：“最近好吗？”初次见面总要说：“认识你很高兴”之类的客套话。 二、称谓的差异

在汉语里，一般只有彼此熟悉亲密的人之间才可以“直呼其名”。但在西方，“直呼其名比在汉语里的范围要广得多。 在西方，常用“先生“和”夫人“来称呼不知其名的陌生人。在英国，对十几或二十几岁的女子可称呼“小姐”，结婚了的女性可称“女士”或“夫人”等。 西方在称谓上似乎“不拘礼节”，习惯于对等式的称呼。[中?A励志网]如家庭成员之间，不分“上下长幼尊卑”，一般可互称姓名或昵称。在家里，可以直接叫爸爸、妈妈的名字。对所有的男性长辈都可以称“叔叔”，对所有的女性长辈都可以称“阿姨”。这在我们中国是不行的，必须要分清楚辈分、老幼等关系，否则就会认为你不懂礼貌，分不清上下长幼尊卑了。 对于家庭成员以外的称呼，中国人往往尊称对方为“李老师”、“陈师傅”，有时在姓后面加上此人当时所担任的职务，如“黄局长”、“王经理”等。但英美人除了几个传统习用的称呼?D?D博士、医生、法官、教授等之外，对“李老师”、“陈师傅”一类的称呼是不能容忍的。也很少听他们称呼别人为“黄局长”“王经理”等。因为这一类称呼还没有变为像“博士、医生、法官、教授”等一样成为传统习用的称呼。 三、告别语的差异 中西语言中有多种不同的告别语。如在和病人告别时，中国人常说“多喝点开水”、多穿点衣服“、”早点休息“之类的话，表示对病人的关怀。但西方人绝不会说“多喝水”之类的话，因为这样说会被认为有指手画脚之嫌。他们会说“多保重”或“希

中西方文化差异原因

1、思维模式的异同 中国人喜欢站在生命的更高处思考问题,跳出现实,重视对生命的思考,在对人和人之间,人和自然界之间,人的精神和肉体之间的关系都有深刻的思考. 西方人偏重于逻辑思维或者理性思维；中国人属于抽象思维或者感性思维.而西方人更注重于从物质世界入手,去探索和求证问题的本源. 2、对待个人利益与集体利益、国家利益的异同 中国人更看重集体利益,包括家族利益、国家利益,主张控制自己的欲望,反对极端个人主义和英雄主义,往往把个人利益和集体利益,国家利益联系在一起,富于爱国和献身精神.而西方人更重视个体利益,追求人权,崇尚自由,认为如果连个体利益都无法保障,更谈何集体利益,正是这样的思想认识,最终推动了西方民主政治的发展; 3、民主观念的异同 中国人注重精神的自由,把自由、民主看成是君主权贵的赏赐.所以我们的人民总在渴望青天,希望能有好官的出现为民谋利.而西方的民主政治认为,政出于民,一切的政权只是人民授予,让政府来行使的一种公权力. 4、科学观的异同 中国人更相信先人的经验和权威,相信古人甚至超过相信今人,迷信权威,缺乏创新和探索精神.而西方人重视实践和理论,富于探险精神,倡导理性思维.通过正规的学院式教育对科学成果进行普及和推广,极大的促进了科学的发展,也最终建立了完整的科学体系; 5、中西方的道德观是迥然不同的 西方强调个体本位,而中国人提倡群体本位.中西方道德观的不同,使中西方的伦理体系和道德规范具有了不同的特点：西方重契约,中国重人伦；西方重理智,中国重人情；西方伦理重于竞争,中国则偏重于中庸、和谐；西方的伦理道德是以人性恶为出发点,强调个体的道德教育,中国儒家是从人性善的观点出发,强调个体的道德修养. 6、法制观念的异同 中国人主张用礼、道德来约束,通过先贤的教诲和学习提高自己的修养,讲究克己复礼,导致了人格的缺陷,丧失了独立的人格；而西方人认为人的原欲是不应该被压制的,对于社会和个人的规范,主张用“法制”,通过制度,如三权分立的组织、政治机构来约束制约,道德则处于从属的地位. 7、在为人处世方面的异同 中国人内敛、自省,喜欢“每日三省吾身”,为的是合于先王之道,把修养身心看的很重,推崇中庸思想,导致思想的保守、缺乏创新和开拓进取精神.西方人更热心于公益事业,把服务社会当成自己的职责. 8 、经济制度不同 中国的传统经济是典型的自给自足的自然经济.人们比较安分保守.因为他们依靠一块土地可以活一辈子,文化比较内向.而且中国的古代文明,发源于大河流域,属于农业文明,“农业文明性格”造就了东方人注重伦理道德,求同求稳,以“和为贵,忍为高”为处世原则. 西方的古希腊文明,发源于爱琴海沿岸,属于海洋文明,况且欧洲的农耕远不像中国的农耕在古代社会那样重要,所以欧洲人喜欢向外探索,文化比较外向.而且西方国家经过工业革命很早就进入了工业经济时代,“工业文明性格”造就了西方人有较强的斗争精神和维护自身利益的法律意识,以独立、自由、平等为处世原则. 9、地理环境的不同 封闭的大陆型地理环境使中国人的思维局限在本土之内,善于总结前人的经验教训,喜欢“以史为镜”,而空间意识较弱.这种内向型思维导致了中国人求稳好静的性格,对新鲜事物缺乏好奇,对未知事物缺乏兴趣.

中西方节日文化差异比较解读

中西方节日文化差异比较 传统的民族节日形成是一个民族的历史文化的长期积淀。节日的由来原因与人们的生活有密切的联系, 它体现了人民丰富的情感 世界, 寄托了人民对生活的热爱。有这样一句名言: “每个民族的每个节日, 正是反映这个民族文化最真实的一面”。可见, 要了解一个民族的文化底蕴, 必须从他们的传统节日入手, 才能了解到他们的 文化特色与民族特点。 一、中西节日的起源与形成差异 中国长期以来处于封建自给自足的农业社会和自然经济中, 其传统 节日具有浓厚的农业色彩,包含了农耕文明的社会特征, 主要是从岁时节令转换而来的。我国古代长期以农为本, 在生产力和农业技术不发达的情况下, 十分重视气候对农作物的影响。在春种、夏长、秋收、冬藏的过程中认识了自然时序的复杂规律, 总结出四时、二十四节气,形成了以节日为主的传统节日。勤劳的中国人民为了更好地生存, 必须大力发展农业, 而农业的发展离不开天气的关照。古人云“春雨贵如油”、“清明忙种麦, 谷雨种大田”。在古代, 春节、清明节( 古代称三月节) 等都是重要的农事节日。 西方文化由于长久受基督教的影响, 其传统节日起源带有浓厚的宗 教色彩, 如情人节( 纪念名叫瓦丁的基督教殉难者) 、复活节( 基督教纪念耶稣复活) 、万圣节( 纪念教会所有圣人) 、圣诞节( 基督教纪念耶稣诞生) , 这些节日的起源大多与宗教有关系。当然, 西方节日中也有和农业有关的节日, 但他们以农业为主的节日的历史不如

中国漫长。 二、中西节日庆祝方式差异 中国的传统节日, 基本是封建社会时期形成的, 不可避免地留下封建社会的痕迹: 等级制、家族式, 节日无不以家族内部活动为中心。西方的传统节日就不同了, 更多的是表现出人们的互动性、集体性和狂欢性, 以自我为中心, 崇尚个性张扬。这与中国节日的家族性恰好相反, 体现了西方文化的群体性, 反映了人们渴望互相交流、群体参与的愿望,体现了人人平等、自由表现自我的特点。这里试举两例说明。 ( 1) 春节与新年。作为新一年的开始, 中西方有着极大差异的庆祝方式。春节作为中国最重要的传统节日, 源于秦朝, 定于每年农历的一月一日, 从农历12月23日开始, 人民开始开展各种庆祝方式, 一直持续到元宵节。春节的习俗繁多, 如大扫除、吃团圆饭拜年、放鞭炮, 舞狮子等。总之, 不论是大街小巷, 都笼罩着一股浓浓的喜庆气氛。而西方, 他们崇尚的是过公历新年, 即元旦。相比之下他们过年的方式就浪漫多了, 在12月31日晚, 各地区的人民涌上街道,进行盛大的狂欢, 到了深夜接近零时时, 数十万人会聚集于一起, 诚心地祈祷, 为新的一年的到来倒计时。当大钟敲响12下, 顿时, 优美的乐曲奏响, 揭开了华丽舞会的序幕, 人们通宵达旦地庆祝。 可见, 春节与新年各有千秋: 春节, 充满浓厚的传统气息和独有的魅力; 新年, 体现时代的气息和潮流的感觉, 更贴近现代生活。( 2) 万圣节与中元节。万圣节作为西方的重要节日之一, 颇受人民

中西方文化差异及原因

中西方文化差异的根源 不同文化之间的差异是由于各自民族的文化历史背景、审美心理的不同而产生的，是在社会的发展、历史的沉淀中约定俗成的，是一种永久性的文化现象。我们应了解不同地域、不同民族的文化背景知识以及社会风俗习惯。在信息技术飞速发展的今天，人们居住的世界变得越来越小，不同文化背景的人交流越来越多。了解不同文化差异，提高文化适应性，对于现代人来说具有十分重要的意义。学习了解中西方文化的差异，有利于我们实现从感性到理性质的飞跃，排除东方思维负迁移的影响，进而使我们的跨文化交际更有效，更顺畅。 一、中西文化差异表现 （一）思维模式的异同。中国人喜欢站在生命的更高处思考问题，跳出现实，重视对生命的思考，在对人和人之间，人和自然界之间，人的精神和肉体之间的关系都有深刻的思考。西方人偏重于逻辑思维或者理性思维；中国人属于抽象思维或者感性思维。而西方人更注重于从物质世界入手，去探索和求证问题的本源。 （二）对待个人利益与集体利益、国家利益的异同。中国人更看重集体利益，包括家族利益、国家利益，主张控制自己的欲望，反对极端个人主义和英雄主义，往往把个人利益和集体利益，国家利益联系在一起，富于爱国和献身精神。而西方人更重视个体利益，追求人权，崇尚自由，认为如果连个体利益都无法保障，更谈何集体利益，正是这样的思想认识，最终推动了西方民主政治的发展。 （三）民主观念的异同。中国人注重精神的自由，把自由、民主看成是君主权贵的赏赐。所以我们的人民总在渴望青天，希望能有好官的出现为民谋利。而西方的民主政治认为，政出于民，一切的政权只是人民授予，让政府来行使的一种公权力。 （四）科学观的异同。中国人更相信先人的经验和权威，相信古人甚至超过

浅谈中西方社交礼仪的差异

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中西方社交礼仪差异 摘要：随着全球经济,科技和交通的快速发展,来自不同文化国家的人在接触的 同时也不可避免地会遇到各种问题,从而导致在跨文化交际中的误解和冲突。所以,我们有必要了解其文化差异,以实现跨文化交际。本文着重从中西方称谓、问候语、告别语方面的差异，中西方致谢与致歉的差异和中西方餐桌礼仪的差异三个方面论述关于中西方社交礼仪差异问题。 关键词：社交礼仪、差异、中国、西方国家 随着中国逐步走向国际化，中国与西方国家在政治、经济和文化方面的联系变得越来越紧密。了解西方文化礼仪，了解西方国家人民的日常生活方式及日常行为并掌握和得体的运用它们是非常重要的。 一、称谓、问候语和告别语方面的差异 （一）、称谓 西方人的称呼通常是比较笼统的，通常一个称呼可以涵盖中国的很多个称呼。例如西方人称呼男的为先生，称呼女的为女士或者小姐。而“先生”一词在我国各类词典中的第一解释就是“教师”，是对教师最古老、最悠久的称谓，已经流传了几千年。我们在建国后熟人称呼经常在其姓名后面加上“同志”一词，比如，开会的时候，某某领导讲话，“向某某志学习”等诸如此类的言语就不必细说了。但是，在当今生活中，随着改革开放，现在“先生”成为社会上最流行的尊称口语。 （二）、问候语 中国人见面常说: “吃饭了吗?”“上哪儿去啊?”这些语言形式的功能都是表示友好的问候, 打招呼。而西方人听到后惊讶, 甚至很反感。因为被问“Have you eaten your meal? ”好像是被邀请吃饭或约会，他们会抱怨说: “我有钱, 我不要他们请我吃饭。”而被问“where are you going ?”则好像自己要去一个不该去的地方, 感觉受到侮辱。因为根据英语交际的习俗文化, 这类句子只能被认为是询问, 而非问候。这就干涉了受话人的自由。这种词典意义上的理解在言语交际环境中是远远不够的。交际中犯文化相关的错误比犯语法的错误更难使人宽容。中国式礼貌问候比起西方式的要随意些。基本上遵循贬己尊人准则。而西方人却有自己一套的寒暄技巧。中国成年人见面寒暄通常是：“最近忙什么呢？家里可好啊？孩子怎么样？”这些都不可直接译为“what are you busy in? How about your kids?”如果直译，会显得很突兀，西方人也觉得不知所云，甚至会引起困惑和误解。不了解中方文化习俗的外国人并不会认为这是一种起交际作用的问候语，相反，他们会认为对方在探究自己的隐私，引起不快，所以西方人对这种寒暄反应极有可能是：“It’s none of your business.”英美人的问候一般用“Good morning ／ afternoon ／ evening. How do you do? How are you doing?”在寒暄问候的过程中，我们需要注意有些话题。西方人不喜欢谈及自己的年龄、地址、工作单位、收入、婚姻、家庭情况、信仰等话题。所以中国人要特别留意。天气的状况是西方人寒暄最频繁的话题。如“It’s sunny。”

中西方文化差异的几个显著现象及其原因分析

M A S T E R 045 中西方文化差异的几个显著现象及其原因分析 齐 艳 摘　要：学习一种语言，不仅要掌握语音、语法、词汇和习语，而且还要知道操这种语言的人如何看待事物，观察世界；要了解他们的社会文化。英语是国际交流的一种主要语言，在英语学习过程中，中西方文化差异和冲突日渐凸现。中西方文化的差异体现在方方面面，本文主要从词汇、亲属关系和法律等三个方面对中西方文化进行比较，究其根源，试图找出一条途径以期形成有效交流。 关键词：中西方文化　文化差异　词汇　亲属关系　法律 众所周之，英语是国际交流的一种主要语言。在知识全球化与通讯技术日趋发达的今天，在中西方文化不断融合的同时，中西方文化的差异和冲突也不容忽视。本文主要从以下几个方面来阐述其差异。 一、中西方文化的几点差异（一）词汇 课程认定为纯粹的技能型课程。同时，作为音乐教师和音乐传承人的目标培养，课程设置应该强化基础性、综合性、民族性和实用性，一些高深的理论课程如复调、和声学应该设置为选修课，供有兴趣的学生和需要加深专业学习的学生选修；专业基础性课程的内容要加大对中国民族民间音乐介绍和对该项课程作出如下设置。 （1）必修课：音乐教育学、教育心理学、音乐教育理论与方法、中国汉族音乐概论、中国少数民族音乐概论、土家族苗族侗族音乐鉴赏、外国音乐史、基本乐理与视唱练耳、歌曲写作与配器。 （2）选修课：音乐美学、教师口语、音乐学概论、舞蹈名作赏析、中国民族经典音乐赏析、西方经典音乐作品赏析、中外音乐教育比较、中小学新课标新教材解析、声乐教学法、钢琴教学法、管弦乐器教学法、中国少数民族音乐文化、曲式与音乐作品分析、和声学、复调。 （二）专业技能课程 专业技能课设置按照必修主修技能课、必修辅修技能课和选修技能课，为体现学科特性，强化民族音乐教育，课程可以明确规定为：必修主修技能课每人确立一门专业主修课（如：声乐、钢琴、器乐、舞蹈），必修辅修技能课则必须确立为非主修技能课（主修为声乐的辅修必修钢琴、器乐、舞蹈），而且非主修技能课必修涉及有少数民族音乐课程；同时，选修课程中必修有一门为少数民族音乐艺术课程。 （1）必修课：专业主修课（声乐、钢琴、舞蹈、民族器乐、西洋器乐，开课学期为8学期）、专业辅修课（声乐、钢琴、舞蹈、民族器乐、西洋器乐，开课学期为4—6学期）、即兴伴奏（128学时）、合唱与指挥（64学时）、计算机音乐制作与合成 （64学时）； （2）选修课：中国少数民族音乐模唱、中国少数民族舞蹈编排、中国民族器乐、音乐教学课件制作。 （三）专业实践与考察课程 专业实践性课程使学生对所学专业理论和专业技能以及学生综合素养的应用，是锻炼学生实际工作能力的重要途径和方法，使学生从学校走向社会的桥梁，也是教师基础教学和学生学习的根本体现。专业实践课程主要包含三大类：一是专业实践课程，有毕业论文和毕业汇演、学年度音乐会等，通过专业实践课程整合音乐专业学科知识，强化音乐表现力和情感体验，重视动手的实际操作能力训练；二是教育实践课程，主要有教育教学实习、教育教学见习与课堂教学模拟等，通过教育实践型课程，使学生了解基本的日程教学的备、教、辅、改、考、评等基本环节，课堂教学的基本结构，了解学生和管理学生的能力；三是艺术考察与采风、基础教育调查等，通过这类课程，主要使学生了解地域特性或民族特性的音乐文化形态和音乐传承方式，为毕业论文或毕业汇演积累素材，收集资料，强化生活体验，也为今后的教学提供更为有效的经验储备；作为民族院校音乐学专业的考察类课程要侧重于对我国少数民族地区的音乐文化和教育现状展开调查，获取第一手的材料，使学生关注我国少数民族地区音乐文化的发展与传承，投身于我国少数民族的音乐教育。 专业实践必修课程：实习、毕业论文、毕业汇演、学年度音乐会、中国少数民族音乐考察、教育考察与模拟教学、武陵地区音乐文化考察。 （康晓蕴：湖北民族学院艺术学院，讲师。研究方向：中国少 数民族艺术与音乐教育。） 词汇是语言学习的一个重要基础。每个语言学习者要想熟悉使用这种语言，一个重要前提条件是掌握大量的词汇。学习英语词汇不仅要了解其读音、意义，更要了解其文化内涵。 １、elephant（大象） 有这样一则报道：某电池厂生产的“白象”电池在国内畅销，但相同的产品（包装上英文名为“white elephant”）出口到国外销路并不好。原来产品英文名处理不当。古泰国盛产白象，由于其体形庞大，性情温顺，毛色好看，而数量不多，所以被看成一种罕物，仅养于宫中，作为国王的宠物。国王为处罚失宠的大臣，就把食量惊人的白象赏赐给大臣。很快大臣的家当被吃个精光。但因为大象是国王所赐之物，大臣不敢随意处置，只得硬撑，直到一贫如洗。所以在英语里，也难怪以此命名的产品在欧洲市场不受欢迎。如果弄清中英两种语言的文化差异就不会造成如此重大失误和损失。 2、称呼意义的区别 字面意义和涵义字面意义就是基本的或明显的意义。词的

中西社交礼仪的差异

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中西社交礼仪的差异 作者：张燕 作者单位：广州大学松田学院,外语系,广州,增城511370 刊名： 赤峰学院学报（哲学社会科学版） 英文刊名：JOURNAL OF ZHAOWUDA MONGOLIAN TEACHERS COLLEGE 年，卷(期)：2009,30(6) 参考文献(5条) 1.王元玲;#李瑾英语学习与东西方交际文化的差异 1997(04) 2.黄艳丽中西方文化差异与社交礼仪[期刊论文]-邵阳学院学报(社会科学版) 2005(03) 3.邓炎昌;刘润清语言与文化 1989 4.陈安萍The function social etiquette among people[期刊论文]-安徽工业大学学报（社会科学版）2003(02) 5.Dorothea Johnson The Little Book of Etiquette Proto-col School of Washington 本文读者也读过(9条) 1.吴爱宁中西礼仪文化差异探析[期刊论文]-理论导刊2007(8) 2.张爱苗.ZHANG Ai-miao浅析中西方社交礼仪的差异[期刊论文]-湖北函授大学学报2008,21(2) 3.黄艳丽.HUANG Yan-li中西方文化差异与社交礼仪[期刊论文]-邵阳学院学报（社会科学版）2005,4(3) 4.程远芳浅谈中西方礼仪文化[期刊论文]-黑龙江史志2008(16) 5.张双江中西礼仪文化在日常交际方面的差异及启示[期刊论文]-科技信息2008(31) 6.张瑞芳中西文化差异和跨文化交际[期刊论文]-文教资料2008(24) 7.林逸.Lin yi英语学习中的中西礼仪差异[期刊论文]-科技信息2008(23) 8.李晓军中西礼仪文化的差异与融合[期刊论文]-内江科技2007,28(3) 9.陈欣传统礼仪与中英文化差异[期刊论文]-江西社会科学2005(12) 本文链接：https://www.wendangku.net/doc/bb10824500.html,/Periodical_zwdmzszxb200906051.aspx

中西方的文化差异表现在诸多方面

中西方的文化差异表现在诸多方面： 一、中西方言谈的差异 在中国，对别人的健康状况表示关心是有教养、有礼貌的表现。但对西方人的健康表示关心，就不能按中国的传统方式了。一个中国学生得知其美籍教师生病后，会关切地说“you should go to see a doctor！（你应该到医院看看）。”不料，这句体贴的话反而使这位教师很不高兴。因为在这位教师看来，有病看医生这种简单的事情连小孩都知道，用不着任何人来指教。如果就某种小事给人以忠告，那显然是对其能力的怀疑，从而大大伤害其自尊心。中国人在饭桌上的热情好客经常被西方人误解为不文明的行为。因西方人认为：客人吃多吃少完全由自己决定，用不着主人为他加菜添酒，而且饮食过量是极不体面的事情，因此客人吃饭后，主人不必劝他再吃。一位美国客人看到中国主人不断地给他夹菜很不安，事后他抱怨说“主人把我当猪一样看待。” 中国人路遇熟人时，往往会无所顾忌地说：“啊呀，老兄，你近来又发福了！”或者以关切的口吻说：“老兄，你又瘦了，要注意身体啊！”而西方人若听你说“you are fat（你胖了）”或“you are so thin（你又瘦了)”, 即使比较熟悉，也会感到尴尬和难以作答。 二、价值观与道德标准的差异 1.个人荣誉感与谦虚谨慎 西方人崇拜个人奋斗，尤其为个人取得的成就自豪，从来不掩饰自己的自信心、荣誉感，以及在获得成就后的狂喜。相反，中国文化不主张炫耀个人荣誉，而是提倡谦虚。中国人反对王婆卖瓜式的自吹自擂，然而中国式的自我谦虚或自我否定却常常使西方人大为不满。“Your English is very good（你的英文很好）,” “No, no, my English is very poor（不，我的英文很差）”；“You’ve done a very good job（你的工作做的很好）,” “No, I don't think so. It's the result of joint efforts（不，这是大家共同努力得结果）.” 这种谦虚，在西方人看来，不仅否定了自己，还否定了赞扬者的鉴赏力。这种中国式的谦虚在资本主义的竞争市场是行不通的。 2.自我中心与无私奉献 西方人自我中心意识和独立意识很强，主要表现在:(1)自己为自己负责。在弱肉强食的