工科英文论文及其中文翻译

International Journal of Minerals, Metallurgy and Materials

Volume 17, Number 4, August 2010, Page 500

DOI: 10.1007/s12613-010-0348-y

Corresponding author: Zhuan Li E-mail: li_zhuan@https://www.wendangku.net/doc/b615003103.html,

? University of Science and Technology Beijing and Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2010 Preparation and properties of C/C-SiC brake composites

fabricated by warm compacted-in situ reaction Zhuan Li, Peng Xiao, and Xiang Xiong

State Key Laboratory of Powder Metallurgy, Central South University, Changsha 410083, China

(Received: 12 August 2009; revised: 28 August 2009; accepted: 2 September 2009)

Abstract: Carbon fibre reinforced carbon and silicon carbide dual matrix composites (C/C-SiC) were fabricated by the warm compacted-in

situ reaction. The microstructure, mechanical properties, tribological properties, and wear mechanism of C/C-SiC composites at different

brake speeds were investigated. The results indicate that the composites are composed of 58wt% C, 37wt% SiC, and 5wt% Si. The density

and open porosity are 2.0 g·cm–3 and 10%, respectively. The C/C-SiC brake composites exhibit good mechanical properties. The flexural

strength can reach up to 160 MPa, and the impact strength can reach 2.5 kJ·m–2. The C/C-SiC brake composites show excellent tribological

performances. The friction coefficient is between 0.57 and 0.67 at the brake speeds from 8 to 24 m·s?1. The brake is stable, and the wear rate

is less than 2.02×10?6 cm3·J?1. These results show that the C/C-SiC brake composites are the promising candidates for advanced brake and

clutch systems.

Keywords: C/C-SiC; ceramic matrix composites; tribological properties; microstructure [This work was financially supported by the National High-Tech Research and Development Program of China (No.2006AA03Z560) and the

Graduate Degree Thesis Innovation Foundation of Central South University (No.2008yb019).]

温压-原位反应法制备C / C-SiC刹车复合材料的工艺和性能

李专，肖鹏，熊翔

粉末冶金国家重点实验室，中南大学，湖南长沙410083，中国（收稿日期：2009年8月12日修订：2009年8月28日;接受日期：2009年9月2日）

摘要：采用温压?原位反应法制备炭纤维增强炭和碳化硅双基体(C/C-SiC)复合材

料。本文研究了在不同的制动速度下C / C-SiC复合材料的显微组织，力学性能，摩擦磨损性能，以及磨损机理。结果表明，由58wt％的C，37wt％的SiC，和5wt％的Si组成的复合材料的密度和开孔隙率分别是是2.0g·cm3-和10％。 C / C-SiC 制动复合材料具有良好的机械性能。其抗弯强度可达到160兆帕，冲击强度可以达到2.5 kJ·M-2。C / C-SiC的制动复合材料表现出优异的耐磨损能力。在8到24 m·s-1的制动速度之间的摩擦系数是0.57和0.67。这种制动是稳定的且磨损率小于2.02×10-6cm3·J-1。这些结果表明，对于先进的制动离合器系统C / C-SiC 的制动复合材料是极具潜力的。

关键词：C / C-碳化硅；陶瓷基复合材料；摩擦磨损性能；显微结构

1、引言

目前，粉末冶金（PM）和碳/碳（C / C + +）的摩擦垫或衬板是两种被用在先进的制动系统里的材料。PM制动器的优点是成熟的开发材料，低的成本，而其主要缺点是密度高（7.8为2g·cm-3），在高温下性能较差[1-2]。与PM刹车相比，C / C刹车克服了PM刹车的缺点。C/C刹车具有明显的优势，例如优良的机械性能和较低的重量。然而，C / C刹车也承受由湿度引起的摩擦系数稳定性不足的缺点。此外，在高于400℃的温度下C / C 复合材料容易氧化和高的成本，这阻止了制动复合材料在客运汽车和火车或紧急制动的电梯和起重机中的广泛使用[3-5]。

C / C-SiC复合材料是随着PM材料和C/C复合材料的开发而研制的一种新型的高性能制动材料。在组合中密度较低（约2.0g·cm-3的），高抗热震性，使用寿命更长，特别是降低对周围环境和温度的敏感性，碳化硅份额至少占20wt％，未来，在先进的摩擦材料中，C / C-SiC复合材料是极具潜力的[2，6-7]。几个机构和行业一直在研究C / C-SiC的复合材料作为摩擦材料在制动垫和磁盘中的应用[8-10]。例如，斯图加特大学的研究人员，德国航空航天中心已经将C / C-SiC 复合材料应用在摩擦领域，自从20世纪90年代中期，C / C-SiC刹车衬片被开发应用在新款911 Turbo保时捷与奥迪A8汽车。

目前，主要制备C / C-SiC复合材料的方法如下：（1）气体相途径，也称为作为化学气相渗透（CVI）；（2）液体相途径，包括聚合物的浸渍/高温分解（PIP）和液体渗硅（LSI），这也被称为（无功）熔渗（RMI或MI）进程；（3）陶瓷途径，即在高温度和高压力，通过技术结合用浆料浸渍加固步骤和烧结步骤，也简称为高压烧结过程（HP-烧结）。前面的每一个途径都同时显示了优点和不足之处。 CVI 和PIP的长期准备过程主要是为航天制造热结构的C / C-SiC复合材料[11?13]RMI易成型和制造周期短，但原始素坯成本很高[14-15]。 HP-烧结不损害纤维，并进一步影响复合材料的性能。

当前工作的目的是建立一个改良的技术以减少处理，并使C / C-SiC的制动复合材料实际应用在更多的工业中。温压 - 原位反应法适合用于制作复合材料。对其显微组织，力学性能，和C / C-SiC制动复合材料摩擦磨损特性进行了研究。

2、实验过程

2.1、复合材料的制造

采用日本东丽短切碳纤阶级维（PAN，T700）为增强相，长度为3和10毫米。在C / C-SiC复合材料的碳基体来源于酚醛树脂和石墨粉末。硅粉末的纯度和粒度分别为99.0%和30-50微米，根据提供的信息，从中国北京的制造商大泽林硅有限公司获得材料。温压 - 原位反应法的处理包括三个主要步骤，如图1所示。

图1、温压-原位反应示意图

首先，涉及在温和温度和压力下的混合C / C-Si原始素坯，随后的固化是在160和200℃温度下进行。常压下进行固化，产品固化促进挥发物的逸出反应，从而产生一个密集的矩阵与一个最小的封闭的孔隙。固化后的C / C-Si原始素坯测得其封闭孔隙度的平均比重约为体积的5％。第二步骤中C / C-Si原始素坯高温分解转换成酚醛树脂，作为碳矩阵组成部分中的树脂碳的温度范围为200-650°C。因此，该树脂是从200℃加热到650℃的热解过程中，通过矩阵的挥发性慢慢地扩散分解的产物，而不破坏复合材料的完整性。最后是C / C-Si原始素坯件在1500-1750°C之间高温处理的原位反应过程（HTT）。由此，硅与碳矩阵形成SiC矩阵。其所得的C / C-SiC复合材料的密度约为2.0g·cm-3，其开孔隙率约为10％。结论是较之传统的路线温压—原位反应具有许多优点，如简单的技术，大范围内的原料的选择和低的制造成本。

2.2、测试方法

样品的密度和开口孔隙率分别通过阿基米德法测定。测定抗弯强度和弯曲弹性模量使用三点弯曲加工方法，用4毫米×10毫米×55毫米的样品，以及0.5mm·min-1的加载速率。测定抗压强度和抗压弹性模量的样品为10mm×10mm×10mm，并且加载速率为0.5 mm·min-1。所有的测试在室温下由CSS-44100移动设备进行。

在QDM150摩擦试验机上进行测试C / C-SiC制动材料的摩擦磨损性能，同时将C /C-SiC复合材料的静态板和相应的30CrMoSiVA（HRC 50）板作为移动的钢盘。试样和相应的钢盘尺寸分别为25mm×25mm×10mm和φ300mm。在所需的摩擦测试干燥条件下，制动压力为1.0 MPa时，制动器2000圆（即，1884米）恒定的制动速度分别是8，12，16，20，和24m·s-1。

制动速度，制动力矩，刹车距离以及转化而来的制动力矩分别由计算机记录。磨损性能由体积磨损率进行了评价。体积磨损率的计算是样品前和后的重量差除以测试制动速度。

2.3、微观组织的观察和分析

通过扫描电子显微镜（SEM，JSM-6360LV）对C / C-SiC的制动复合材料微观结构形态的表面磨损，和磨损碎片进行分析。通过X-射线衍射（XRD，日本理学-3014）对各个阶段，以及在SiC多型体进行研究。

3、结果与讨论

3.1、相及结构

C / C-SiC材料的XRD图，示于图2中。相分析表明，C / C-SiC复合材料包括残留的硅，碳，和碳化硅。通过重量分析，以确定C / C-SiC复合材料中碳，残余硅，以及SiC的含量。通过90vol％的硝酸和10vol％的氢氟酸的水溶液在室温下侵蚀C / C-SiC的试样48小时以除去残留的硅，而碳纤维和树脂的碳基体的含量是通过在700℃下在空气中燃烧10小时测量。因此，各组分的含量可被计算。结果表明，C / C-SiC复合材料由58wt％的C，37wt％的SiC，和5wt％的Si组成。

C / C-SiC复合材料的显微结构显示在图3中。可以看出，碳纤维和基体交替地分布在平行的方向上，它垂直于温压的方向（如所示的图。图3（a））。酚醛树脂的分解产物通过矩阵弥漫，所以碳化过程中在基体中有一些微裂纹和孔。在X-射线能量色散分析（EDAX）仪的帮助下，很明显，圆形和丝状成分是碳纤，明亮的白质是SiC和残留的Si，灰色区域是石墨和树脂的碳矩阵。

图2、C / C-SiC的复合物的XRD图形。

图3、C / C-SiC复合材料：（a）横截面的显微组织（b）光学显微照片

3.2、机械性能

C / C-SiC的制动复合材在温压原位反应中表现出良好的机械性能。抗弯强度和冲击强度的值分别可以达到160 MPa和2.5KJ·m-2，垂直压缩和并行压缩的值分别可以达到112和84兆帕。经压缩破坏后的C / C-SiC复合材料的断面的荷载- 位移曲线和扫描电镜照片分别示于图4和5。断裂表面上被拉出的纤维量较高的垂直方向上的压缩破坏行为表现出韧性（图5（a）），这意味着在纤维和矩阵之间有一个弱粘结。在初始阶段，平行的压缩破坏行为展示了弹性响应，其次是随着压力的增加表现的非弹性行为。在压力增加到其最大值后，然后迅速减小。这是

试件呈脆性破坏的原因。观察压缩失败后被剪切的基质的断面。

图4、典型的载荷 - 位移曲线下的C / C-SiC的的压缩负载

图5、典型的压缩试验后的样品的SEM照片：（一）垂直压缩（二）平行压缩

3.3、摩擦学性能

制动速度，摩擦系数，和磨损率之间的关系示于图6。显然，在8米/秒时摩擦系数为0.57，随着制动速度的增加，在16米/秒时达到最大值0.67，这之后制动速度在24米/秒时摩擦系数减小至0.61。随着制动速度增加，磨损速率先增加

后减小，但最高值2.02×10-6cm3·J-1出现在20米/秒。稍后将要讨论的摩擦学现象。

图6、摩擦性能和刹车之间的关系

C / C-SiC复合材料的制动速度。典型的C / C-SiC复合材料在不同的制动速度下的制动曲线示于图7。从图中可以看出，曲线的形状基本上是相似的，并且随着制动速度的增加曲线趋于稳定。在现有的制动阶段曲线上，摩擦系数急剧上升并有轻微的‘预峰’。‘预峰’后，当制动速度稳定时它慢慢地减小并相对平滑的。这种现象的原因在下面磨损表面和磨损的碎片分析的部分将要被讨论。

图7、C / C-SiC复合材料在不同制动速度的制动曲线制动是两个具有相互影响的关系的相对的运动的表面磨损，这样的摩擦学特性通常由一定制动条件的复合材料。在各种制度速度下实验后，C / C-SiC复合

材料样品表现出不同的摩擦表面。典型的摩擦面示于图中8。

在制动样品C / C-SiC材料的表面有大量的微峰，包括硬盘上的SiC，树脂碳，和第二硬质相的Si。这些微峰相互啮合，从而导致变形，剪切，和断裂，从而导致在每个制动的早期阶段的摩擦系数上升，显示了磨粒磨损机制。在同一时间，作为破坏微峰值翻耕的摩擦表面的结果，大量的磨料颗粒被产生（如图中所示图8（a））。制动速度越高，磨料颗粒也越多。因此，摩擦系数和磨损率在速度是12米/秒时高于那些速度在8米/秒的，如示于图8（a）和（b）中，因为的碎片翻耕，C / C-SiC样本表面留下了一些凹槽。

随着制动速度的增大，制动能量相应地增强达到使磨粒变形的值，并在制动压力下使C / C-SiC的制动样品的表面充满微裂纹以形成摩擦膜覆盖的摩擦面。因此，制动速度达到16和20米/秒时，有摩擦薄膜覆盖磨损表面（如示于图8的（c）和（d）），且在20米/秒的速度时更多。摩擦膜导致C / C-SiC复合材料样品和相应的钢磁盘之间的真实摩擦表面提高，且摩擦系数和磨损率相应增加。

当制动速度达到24米/秒，摩擦膜的摩擦表面变得更加连续（如所示的图8（e））。同时，随着制动速度的增加，C / C-SiC复合材料的摩擦表面的温度快速上升。对于热膨胀系数不同的各种组件，摩擦产生的热可能会在C / C-SiC材料的表面导致一个不稳定的温度场。这种现象导致摩擦表面和地下之间的热膨胀率不同，以及表面受摩擦的区域不同。同时，制动压力使C / C-SiC复合材料样品表面的压力场不稳定且摩擦表面凹凸不平。摩擦表面上的微裂纹多是由不稳定的温度和压力场造成（如示于图8（f）），他们与相应的钢盘反复摩擦就会容易脱落，成为片状磨屑。

图8，C / C-SiC复合材料在不同制动速度下的表面磨损（A）8米/秒（B）12米/秒（C）16米/秒的扫描电镜图像（D）20米/秒（E）24米/秒（F）24米/秒

4、结论

（1）温压 - 原位反应为C / C-SiC刹车复合材料的制造提供了一个潜在的

方法。C / C-SiC材料是由58wt％，37wt％SiC，以及5wt％的Si组成。

（2）C / C-SiC的制动复合材料具有良好的机械性能，特别是优异的韧性，以避免灾难性脆性断裂的优点。

（3）在不同的制动速度下，C / C-SiC制动复合材料表现出优异的摩擦磨损性能，包括制动器具有良好的稳定性和较高的摩擦系数介于0.57和0.67之间，小于2.02×106-cm3·J-1的组合磨损率。

（4）具有低的密度2.0g·cm-3，良好的机械性能，优秀的摩擦性能，以及良好的耐摩耗性，可以得出结论，C / C-SiC刹车复合材料是有极具潜力的先进的制

动和离合器系统材料。

References

[1] P.P. Yao, H.C. Sheng, X. Xiong, and B.Y. Huang, Worn surface characteristics of Cu-based powder metallurgy bake materials for aircraft, Trans. Nonferrous Met. Soc. China,17(2007), No.1, p.99.

[2] W. Krenkel, B. Heidenreich, and R. Renz, C/C-SiC compositesfor advanced friction systems, Adv. Eng. Mater. 4(2002),No.7, p.427.

[3] C. Blanco, J. Bermejo, H. Marsh, and R. Menendez, Chemical and physical properties of carbon as related to brake performance, Wear, 213(1997), p.1.

[4] J.D. Chen, J.H.C. Chern, and C.P. Ju, Effect of humidity on the tribological behavior of carbon-carbon composites, Wear, 193(1996), p.38.

[5] B.K. Yen, Influence of water vapor and oxygen on the tribology

of carbon materials with sp2 valence configuration,Wear, 192(1996), p.208.

[6] S. Vaidyaraman, M. Purdy, T. Walker, and S. Horst, C/SiC material evaluation for aircraft brake applications, [in] The 4th International Conference on High Temperature Ceramic Matrix Composites (HT-CMC4) Proceedings, Munich, 2001,p.802.

[7] W.R. Jones and M.J. Jansen, Tribology for space applications,Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Part J, 222(2008), No.8, p.997.

[8] R. Gadow, Current status and future prospects of CMC brake composites and their manufacturing technologies, Ceram.Eng. Sci. Proc.21(2000), No.3, p.15.

[9] Z. Stadler, K. Krnel, and T. Kosmac, Friction behavior of sintered metallic brake pads on a C/C-SiC composite brake disc,J. Eur. Ceram. Soc.27(2007), No.2-3, p.1411.

[10] Z. Li, P. Xiao, X. Xiong, and S.H. Zhu, Tribological characteristics of C/C-SiC braking composites under dry and wet conditions, Trans. Nonferrous Met. Soc. China, 18(2008),No.5, p.1071.

[11] R. Naslain, CVI composites, [in] Ceramic Matrix Composite,Chapman and Hall, London, 1992, p.199.

[12] X.H. He, B. Ye, X.H. Qu, C.R. Zhang, and X.G. Zhou, Processing and characterization of Cf/SiC composites, J. Univ. Sci.Technol. Beijing, 12(2005), No.5, p.460.

[13] Y.W. Kim, J.S. Song, S.W. Park, and J.G. Lee, Nicalon fiber reinforced silicon carbide composites via polymer solution infiltration and chemical vapor infiltration, J. Mater. Sci.28(1993), p.3866.

[14] W. Krenkel, Cost effective processing of CMC composites by melt infiltration (LSI-Process), Ceram. Eng. Sci. Proc.22(2001), No.3, p.443.

[15] W.B. Hillig, Making ceramic composites by melt infiltration, Am. Ceram. Soc. Bull.73(1994), No.4, p.56

关于力的外文文献翻译、中英文翻译、外文翻译

五、外文资料翻译 Stress and Strain 1.Introduction to Mechanics of Materials Mechanics of materials is a branch of applied mechanics that deals with the behavior of solid bodies subjected to various types of loading. It is a field of study that i s known by a variety of names, including “strength of materials” and “mechanics of deformable bodies”. The solid bodies considered in this book include axially-loaded bars, shafts, beams, and columns, as well as structures that are assemblies of these components. Usually the objective of our analysis will be the determination of the stresses, strains, and deformations produced by the loads; if these quantities can be found for all values of load up to the failure load, then we will have obtained a complete picture of the mechanics behavior of the body. Theoretical analyses and experimental results have equally important roles in the study of mechanics of materials . On many occasion we will make logical derivations to obtain formulas and equations for predicting mechanics behavior, but at the same time we must recognize that these formulas cannot be used in a realistic way unless certain properties of the been made in the laboratory. Also , many problems of importance in engineering cannot be handled efficiently by theoretical means, and experimental measurements become a practical necessity. The historical development of mechanics of materials is a fascinating blend of both theory and experiment, with experiments pointing the way to useful results in some instances and with theory doing so in others①. Such famous men as Leonardo da Vinci(1452-1519) and Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) made experiments to adequate to determine the strength of wires , bars , and beams , although they did not develop any adequate theo ries (by today’s standards ) to explain their test results . By contrast , the famous mathematician Leonhard Euler(1707-1783) developed the mathematical theory any of columns and calculated the critical load of a column in 1744 , long before any experimental evidence existed to show the significance of his results ②. Thus , Euler’s theoretical results remained unused for many years, although today they form the basis of column theory. The importance of combining theoretical derivations with experimentally determined properties of materials will be evident theoretical derivations with experimentally determined properties of materials will be evident as we proceed with

七年级下册英语短文带中文翻译(1-12单元)

Unit 1 (sectionB 3a) Dear Student, My name is Bob . I live in Toronto , Canada , and I want a pen pal in China . I think China is a interesting country . I’m 14 years old and my brithday is in November . I can sperk English and a littie Frenth . I have a brother , Paul , and a sister , Sarah . They have pen pals in the United Kingdom and Australia . I like going to the movies with my friends and playing sports . My favorite subject in school is P.E . It’s fun . But I don’t like math. It’s too difficult! Can you wtite to me soon? Bob 亲爱的同学， 我的名字叫鲍勃，我住在加拿大的多伦多。我想在中国找个笔友。我认为中国是个非常有趣的国家。我十四岁，我的生日在九月。我能说英语和一点法语。我有一个哥哥 Paul, 和一个姐姐Sarah。他们在英国和澳大利亚有笔友。我喜 欢和我的朋友们看电影和做运动。在学校我最喜欢的科目是体育。它很有趣。但我不喜欢数学。它太难了。你能尽快给我写信吗 Bob 3b PEN PAL WANTED My name is Tom King . I’m 14 years old and I’m from Australia . I sperk English . I have a brother , Sam , and a sister , Lisa . I play soccer on weekengs . It’s my favorite sport . I like music at school . It’s fun! My favorite movte is The Long Weekend . Do you know it ? It’s an action movie . Please write and tell me about yoursrlf. 征集笔友 我的名字是汤姆~金。我14岁,我来自澳大利亚。我讲英语。我有一个哥哥, 萨姆,和一个妹妹,莉莎。我在周末踢足球，那是我最喜欢的运动。我喜欢学校的音乐课。它是有趣的!我最喜欢的电影是《这个长周末》。你知道它吗?它是一部动作片。 请写信给我,告诉我有关你的一些情况。 Unit 2 (sectionB 3a) Welcome to the Garden District Turn left on First Avenue and enjoy the city’s quiet streets and smail parks . Take a walk through the park on Center Avenue . Across from the park is an old hotel . Next to the hotel is a small house with an interesting garden . This is the benginning of the garden tour. 欢迎来到这个花园区 在第一大街左转并享受这个城市的安静街道和小公园。在中心大道上散步穿过这个公园。在公园对面是一个老旅馆。紧靠这个旅馆旁边是一个带着有趣花园的小房子。开始游历这个花园。

英语美文(带翻译)

Always will I seek the seed of triumph in every adversity 在困境中寻找成功的希望 1．There is no better school than adversity. Every defeat, every heartbreak, every loss, contains its own seed, its own lesson on how to improve my performance next time. Never again will I contribute to my downfall by refusing to face the truth and learn from my past mistakes. Because I know: gems cannot shine without polish, and I cannot perfect myself without hardship. 2．Now I know that there are no times in life when opportunity, the chance to be and do, gathers so richly about my soul as when it has to suffer cruel adversity. Then everything depends on whether I raise my head or lower it in seeking help. Whenever I am struck down, in the future, by any terrible defeat, I will always inquire of myself, after the first pain has passed how I can turn that adversity into good. What a great opportunity that moment might present… to take the bitter root I am holding and transform it into a fragrant garden of flowers. 3．Always will I seek the seed of triumph in every adversity. 1．逆境是一所最好的学校每一次打击、每一次损失。都蕴含着成功的萌芽。都教会我在下一次有更出色的表现。我再也不会逃避现实，也不会拒绝从以往的错误中获取经验，我不再因此促成自己的失败。因为我我知道，宝玉不经磨砺就不能发光，没有磨练，我也不完善自我。 2．现在我知道，灵魂倍受煎熬的时刻，也正是生命中最多选择与机会的时刻。任何事情的成败取决于我在寻求帮助时是抬起头还是低下头。无论何时，当我被可怕的失败击倒，在最初的阵痛过去之后，我都要想方设法将苦难变成好事。伟大的机遇就在这一刻闪现——这苦涩的根本必将迎来满园芬芳！ 3．我将一直在困境中寻找成功希望。 Hold Fast to Dreams 紧紧抓住梦想 1．We all have dreams. We all want to believe deep down in our souls that we have a special gift, that we can make a difference, that we can touch others in a special way, and that we can make the world a better place. 2．At one time in our lives, we all had a vision for the quality of life that we desire and deserve. Yet, for many of us, those dreams have become so shrouded in the frustrations and routines of daily life that we no longer even make an effort to accomplish them. For far too many, the dream has dissipated and with it, so has the will to shape our destinies. Many have lost that sense of certainty that creates the winner’s edge.

平面设计中英文对照外文翻译文献

(文档含英文原文和中文翻译) 中英文翻译 平面设计 任何时期平面设计可以参照一些艺术和专业学科侧重于视觉传达和介绍。采用多种方式相结合，创造和符号，图像和语句创建一个代表性的想法和信息。平面设计师可以使用印刷，视觉艺术和排版技术产生的最终结果。平面设计常常提到的进程，其中沟通是创造和产品设计。 共同使用的平面设计包括杂志，广告，产品包装和网页设计。例如，可能包括产品包装的标志或其他艺术作品，举办文字和纯粹的设计元素，如形状和颜色统一件。组成的一个最重要的特点，尤其是平面设计在使用前现有材料或不同的元素。 平面设计涵盖了人类历史上诸多领域，在此漫长的历史和在相对最近爆炸视觉传达中的第20和21世纪，人们有时是模糊的区别和重叠的广告艺术，平面设计和美术。毕竟，他们有着许多相同的内容，理论，原则，做法和语言，有时同样的客人或客户。广告艺术的最终目标是出售的商品和服务。在平面

设计，“其实质是使以信息，形成以思想，言论和感觉的经验”。 在唐朝（ 618-906 ）之间的第4和第7世纪的木块被切断打印纺织品和后重现佛典。阿藏印在868是已知最早的印刷书籍。 在19世纪后期欧洲，尤其是在英国，平面设计开始以独立的运动从美术中分离出来。蒙德里安称为父亲的图形设计。他是一个很好的艺术家，但是他在现代广告中利用现代电网系统在广告、印刷和网络布局网格。 于1849年，在大不列颠亨利科尔成为的主要力量之一在设计教育界，该国政府通告设计在杂志设计和制造的重要性。他组织了大型的展览作为庆祝现代工业技术和维多利亚式的设计。 从1892年至1896年威廉?莫里斯凯尔姆斯科特出版社出版的书籍的一些最重要的平面设计产品和工艺美术运动，并提出了一个非常赚钱的商机就是出版伟大文本论的图书并以高价出售给富人。莫里斯证明了市场的存在使平面设计在他们自己拥有的权利，并帮助开拓者从生产和美术分离设计。这历史相对论是，然而，重要的，因为它为第一次重大的反应对于十九世纪的陈旧的平面设计。莫里斯的工作，以及与其他私营新闻运动，直接影响新艺术风格和间接负责20世纪初非专业性平面设计的事态发展。 谁创造了最初的“平面设计”似乎存在争议。这被归因于英国的设计师和大学教授Richard Guyatt，但另一消息来源于20世纪初美国图书设计师William Addison Dwiggins。 伦敦地铁的标志设计是爱德华约翰斯顿于1916年设计的一个经典的现代而且使用了系统字体设计。 在20世纪20年代，苏联的建构主义应用于“智能生产”在不同领域的生产。个性化的运动艺术在俄罗斯大革命是没有价值的，从而走向以创造物体的功利为目的。他们设计的建筑、剧院集、海报、面料、服装、家具、徽标、菜单等。 Jan Tschichold 在他的1928年书中编纂了新的现代印刷原则，他后来否认他在这本书的法西斯主义哲学主张，但它仍然是非常有影响力。 Tschichold ，包豪斯印刷专家如赫伯特拜耳和拉斯洛莫霍伊一纳吉，和El Lissitzky 是平面设计之父都被我们今天所知。 他们首创的生产技术和文体设备，主要用于整个二十世纪。随后的几年看到平面设计在现代风格获得广泛的接受和应用。第二次世界大战结束后，美国经济的建立更需要平面设计，主要是广告和包装等。移居国外的德国包豪斯设计学院于1937年到芝加哥带来了“大规模生产”极简到美国;引发野火的“现代”建筑和设计。值得注意的名称世纪中叶现代设计包括阿德里安Frutiger ，设计师和Frutiger字体大学;保兰德，从20世纪30年代后期，直到他去世于1996年，采取的原则和适用包豪斯他们受欢迎的广告和标志设计，帮助创造一个独特的办法，美国的欧洲简约而成为一个主要的先驱。平面设计称为企业形象;约瑟夫米勒，罗克曼，设计的海报严重尚未获取1950年代和1960年代时代典型。 从道路标志到技术图表，从备忘录到参考手册，增强了平面设计的知识转让。可读性增强了文字的视觉效果。 设计还可以通过理念或有效的视觉传播帮助销售产品。将它应用到产品和公司识别系统的要素像标志、颜色和文字。连同这些被定义为品牌。品牌已日益成为重要的提供的服务范围，许多平面设计师，企业形象和条件往往是同时交替使用。

英语背诵美文30篇(翻译)

生而为赢（中文翻译） ——新东方英语背诵美文30篇 目录： ·第一篇：Y outh 青春 ·第二篇：Three Days to See(Excerpts)假如给我三天光明（节选） ·第三篇：Companionship of Books 以书为伴（节选） ·第四篇：If I Rest, I Rust 如果我休息，我就会生锈 ·第五篇：Ambition 抱负 ·第六篇：What I have Lived for 我为何而生 ·第七篇：When Love Beckons Y ou 爱的召唤 ·第八篇：The Road to Success 成功之道 ·第九篇：On Meeting the Celebrated 论见名人 ·第十篇：The 50-Percent Theory of Life 生活理论半对半 ·第十一篇What is Y our Recovery Rate? 你的恢复速率是多少？ ·第十二篇：Clear Y our Mental Space 清理心灵的空间 ·第十三篇：Be Happy 快乐 ·第十四篇：The Goodness of life 生命的美好 ·第十五篇：Facing the Enemies Within 直面内在的敌人 ·第十六篇：Abundance is a Life Style 富足的生活方式 ·第十七篇：Human Life a Poem 人生如诗 ·第十八篇：Solitude 独处 ·第十九篇：Giving Life Meaning 给生命以意义 ·第二十篇：Relish the Moment 品位现在 ·第二十一篇：The Love of Beauty 爱美 ·第二十二篇：The Happy Door 快乐之门 ·第二十三篇：Born to Win 生而为赢 ·第二十四篇：W ork and Pleasure 工作和娱乐 ·第二十五篇：Mirror, Mirror--What do I see镜子,镜子,告诉我 ·第二十六篇：On Motes and Beams 微尘与栋梁 ·第二十七篇：An October Sunrise 十月的日出 ·第二十八篇：To Be or Not to Be 生存还是毁灭 ·第二十九篇：Gettysburg Address 葛底斯堡演说 ·第三十篇：First Inaugural Address(Excerpts) 就职演讲（节选） 1．青春-------------------------------------------------------------------------- 青春不是人生的一个阶段，而是一种心境；青春不是指粉红的面颊、鲜艳的嘴唇、富有弹性的膝盖，而是指坚定的意志、丰富的想象、充沛的情感；青春，它是清新的生命之泉。 青春是一种气质，勇敢胜过怯弱，渴求冒险而不贪图安逸。这样的气息60老者常常有，20青年恰恰无。年岁增添，未必使人垂老；理想不再，终于步入暮年。 岁月悠悠，衰微只及肌肤；热忱抛却，颓废必致灵魂。忧烦、惶恐、自卑，使人心灵扭曲，心灰意冷。 无论60还是16岁，人人心中都怀着对新奇事物的向往，象孩童般对未来充满憧憬，此情永不消退，在生活的游戏中汲取快乐。在你我的内心深处都有一座无线电台，只要它接收到人间和上帝发出的美好、希望、欢乐、勇气和力量的信号，你就会青春永驻。

10kV小区供配电英文文献及中文翻译

在广州甚至广东的住宅小区电气设计中,一般都会涉及到小区的高低压供配电系统的设计.如10kV高压配电系统图,低压配电系统图等等图纸一大堆.然而在真正实施过程中,供电部门(尤其是供电公司指定的所谓电力设计小公司)根本将这些图纸作为一回事,按其电脑里原有的电子档图纸将数据稍作改动以及断路器按其所好换个厂家名称便美其名曰设计(可笑不?),拿出来的图纸根本无法满足电气设计的设计意图,致使严重存在以下问题:(也不知道是职业道德问题还是根本一窍不通) 1.跟原设计的电气系统货不对板,存在与低压开关柜后出线回路严重冲突,对实际施工造成严重阻碍,经常要求设计单位改动原有电气系统图才能满足它的要求(垄断的没话说). 2.对消防负荷和非消防负荷的供电(主要在高层建筑里)应严格分回路(从母线段)都不清楚,将消防负荷和非消防负荷按一个回路出线(尤其是将电梯和消防电梯,地下室的动力合在一起等等,有的甚至将楼顶消防风机和梯间照明合在一个回路,以一个表计量). 3.系统接地保护接地型式由原设计的TN-S系统竟曲解成"TN-S-C-S"系统(室内的还需要做TN-C,好玩吧?),严格的按照所谓的"三相四线制"再做重复接地来实施,导致后续施工中存在重复浪费资源以及安全隐患等等问题.. ............................(违反建筑电气设计规范等等问题实在不好意思一一例举,给那帮人留点混饭吃的面子算了) 总之吧,在通过图纸审查后的电气设计图纸在这帮人的眼里根本不知何物,经常是完工后的高低压供配电系统已是面目全非了,能有百分之五十的保留已经是谢天谢地了. 所以.我觉得:住宅建筑电气设计,让供电部门走!大不了留点位置,让他供几个必需回路的电,爱怎么折腾让他自个怎么折腾去.. Guangzhou, Guangdong, even in the electrical design of residential quarters, generally involving high-low cell power supply system design. 10kV power distribution systems, such as maps, drawings, etc. low-voltage distribution system map a lot. But in the real implementation of the process, the power sector (especially the so-called power supply design company appointed a small company) did these drawings for one thing, according to computer drawings of the original electronic file data to make a little change, and circuit breakers by their the name of another manufacturer will be sounding good design (ridiculously?), drawing out the design simply can not meet the electrical design intent, resulting in a serious following problems: (do not know or not know nothing about ethical issues) 1. With the original design of the electrical system not meeting board, the existence and low voltage switchgear circuit after qualifying serious conflicts seriously hinder the actual construction, often require changes to the original design unit plans to meet its electrical system requirements (monopoly impress ). 2. On the fire load and fire load of non-supply (mainly in high-rise building in) should be strictly sub-loop (from the bus segment) are not clear, the fire load and fire load of non-qualifying press of a circuit (especially the elevator and fire elevator, basement, etc.

四字格的翻译

中口历年真题： 高尔基说过：“书籍是人类进步的阶梯。”0103 Gorgy once said, “Books are steps toward human progress.” 廉政建设0203 building of an honest and clean government 全神贯注0203 with rapt attention; concentrate on 改革开放0303 the reform and opening-up policy 远见卓识0303 foresighted, foresight 扩大内需0309 expand the domestic need 以邻为伴、与人为善0403 making partnership and being friendly to the neighboring countries 友好合作0403 friendly cooperation 艰辛努力0403 arduous efforts 名列前茅0503 rank among the best 携手前进0509 j oin hands and advance together 相知无远近，万里尚为邻0509 Distance can never separate real friends. 多姿多彩0603colorful 色彩斑斓0603 colorful 日新月异0603change dramatically with each passing day 光芒四射0603 shining; brilliant 鲜艳夺目0603shining; brilliant 安居乐业0603live and work in peace and happiness/contentment 朝气蓬勃，充满活力0603 dynamic; vigorous; energetic 莘莘学子0609(many) students 青春洋溢0609young 书香浓郁0609 academic/cultural atmosphere 息息相关0703 be closely related to/ concern sth. 坚定不移0709 persists unswervingly in 独立富强，民生幸福0709 an independent and prosperous country, and a comfortable and happy life for the people 孜孜以求0709 assiduously (seek) 自主创新0803 independence and innovation, independent and innovative 情投意合0809have an affinity for each other 不虚此生0903 make our life meaningful 附庸风雅0909 mingle with men of letters and p ose as lovers of culture 暗自窃笑0909 titter 翩然而至1003 advent/ arrival 此起彼伏1003(ring) one after another, echo each other 中流砥柱1003play the backbone role 力挽狂澜1003turn the tide 攻坚克难1003overcome the current difficulties 柳暗花明1003have bright prospects 华洋杂居1009co-inhabited by Chinese locals and foreign nationals 生活百态1009 all aspects of people’s life 丰富多彩1009 colorful

英语美文欣赏带翻译

Friends or 'Enemies?' When I was younger, my Dad used to tell me: "Boys don't want to be your friend." He then left the rest to my imagination. At the time, I didn't agree. I thought: I can crack a good joke, I know how to shoot a hoop, and I'm a cheerful person (but not in an annoying way). What kind of boy wouldn't want to be around that kind of girl? Turns out, my Dad was right. Not to be all "Samantha Brick" about it, but in my experience, single, heterosexual men aren't actively looking for an exclusively platonic relationship with a woman they find sexually attractive. This of course is not a revolutionary concept. In fact, it seems pretty natural to me. Now, I will be the first to say that it is really and truly the most wonderful thing in the world if the attraction is mutual. But the Powers That Be seem to like to play these complicated little mating games with humans where the guy we want to re-enact scenes from 9? Weeks with sees our attractiveness level as akin to that of a discarded dishcloth, and the most physical we could see ourselves being with the guy who actually likes us is a game of ping pong over an especially long table. All of which means that someone usually ends up getting rejected. I'm sure I'm not alone when I say I have struggled with the scenario where I am not interested in a man romantically, but I want to keep him as a friend because he is funny and I enjoy his company, or he has shown himself to be that rare specimen known as "a nice, genuine person, " or he simply doesn't mention his therapist in every other sentence. Rather than string him along and give him hope, I feel compelled to somehow communicate to him sooner rather than later that we'll just be staying friends, nothing more. Otherwise, I think I am being unfair to him. Why should he waste his romantic stamina on me when there are loads of other single women out there who might fall instantly in love with him? The thing is, it can sometimes be tricky to reject a man and keep him as a friend. If the operation is not executed carefully, you may end up creating a "menemy." It requires a certain amount of skill to be able to turn down a man's sexual advances or romantic gestures and then get him to agree to meet you for blueberry pancakes the following weekend and chat about the latest Woody Allen film. Some men aren't satisfied with just that. I'm not clear why. What's so bad about friendship? Everyone needs buddies. But I've seen men react poorly or simply fall off the face of the earth. I get it -- their feelings are hurt. None of us likes getting rejected. But in my experience, some men find it especially soul-crushing. I am only bringing all of this up because I recently had to go through this scenario again. I had spent some time cultivating a friendship with a man who, in my defense, I thought was gay. So I didn't see the harm in him buying me the occasional falafel, or accepting an invitation to see a film with him. Isn't that what friends are for? But a mutual friend shed light on his sexual orientation (straight) and suggested that his intentions -- and attentions -- weren't platonic. He had never "made the moves" but now it was all crystal clear -- that explains the way he had looked at me that time the tahini sauce dribbled down my chin! Since he had clearly been too timid to express his feelings, I thought I would be clever this time and subtly mention the dates I had been going on, focusing on the one guy I was kind of keen on, so that he would know that I was "unavailable" for heavy petting and those sorts of activities, but that I was available for things like roller skating, falafel-eating and shooting the breeze. Doesn't that sound nice? That way, he would known not to try to lean in for a kiss, and I wouldn't have to pull the Stevie Wonder dance and dodge him went he went for it. It was like pre-rejection, yet I was sparing his feelings because he didn't even have to put himself out there! I really thought I was being brilliant. It backfired, of course. Said man ended up sending me an email rant accusing me of being insensitive by talking about other men when he had "feelings for me." As if I am psychic, by the way, just because I am a woman! How was I supposed to know that? I think in his mind we were dating. In my mind, he was my new gay BFF. In the end, I got mad at him for getting mad at me, and now the friendship has ended. And I have created yet another "menemy." Look, I have also tried the direct thing: "I really like you, but only as a friend, " but you can only do that when the guy has made his intentions clear, and in my experience, they either cope okay (though rarely do I feel much enthusiasm for friendship after that), or they really don't cope well. I also tried the thing where you make them think they are rejecting you, but it gets quite confusing and only works if the guy isn't very sharp, and why would I -- or you -- be hanging out with someone not that sharp in the first place? As we all remember, Billy Crystal's character says men and women can't be friends in When Harry Met Sally because the sex stuff gets in the way. I do have single, male, heterosexual friends with whom I have an easy, non-romantic rapport, but I honestly don't know if they would walk away if I was sprawled naked on a bed calling out to them. I may not be everybody's cup of tea, but sometimes, I wonder if they wonder. And they may wonder if I wonder. If so, I hope they'll keep it to