二语习得复习汇总
A General Review
Ⅰ. Short & Long answers
1.what is the difference between monolingual and multilingual communicative competence?
Differencese between monolingual and multilingual communicative competence are due in part to the different social functions of first and second language learning, and to the differences between learning language and learning culture. The differences of the competence between native speakers and nonative speakers include structural differences in the linguisitc system, different rules for usage in writing or conversation, and even somewhat divergent meanings for the “same” lexical forms. Further, a multilingual speaker’s total communicative competence differs from that of a monolingual in including knowledge of rules for the appropriate choice of language and for switching between languages, given a particular social context and communicative purpose.
2.what are the microsocial factors that affect SLA?
a)L2 variation b) input and interaction c) interaction as the genesis of language
3.What is the difference between linguistic competence & communicative competence (CC)?
Linguistic competence- It was defined in 1965 by Chomsky as a speaker's underlying ability to produce grammatically correct expressions. Linguistic competence refers to knowledge of language. Theoretical linguistics primarily studies linguistic competence: knowledge of a language possessed by “an ideal speak-listener”.
Communicative competence- It is a term in linguistics which refers to “what a sp eaker needs to know to communicate appropriately within a particular language community”, such as a language user's grammatical knowledge of syntax , morphology , phonology and the like, as well as social knowledge about how and when to use utterances appropriately.
4.Why is CC in L1 different from L2?
L1 learning for children is an integral part of their sociolization into their native language community. L2 learning may be part of second culture learning and adaptation, but the relationship of SLA to social and cultural learning differs greatly with circumstances.
5.What is Accommodation Theory? How does this explain L2 variation?
Accommodation theory: Speakers (usually unconsciously) change their pronunciation and even the grammatical complexity of sentences they use to sound more like whomever they are talking to. This accounts in part for why native speakers tend to simply their language when they are talking to a L2 learner who is not fluent, and why L2 learners may acquire somewhat different varieties of the target language when they have different friends.
6.Discuss the importance of input & interaction for L2 learning. How could this affect the feedback provided
to students?
. a) From the perspective of linguistic approaches: (1) behaviorist: they consider input to form the necessary stimuli and feedback which learners respond to and imitate; (2) Universal Grammar: they consider exposure to input a necessary trigger for activating internal mechanisms; (3) Monitor Model: consider comprehensible input not only necessary but sufficient in itself to account for SLA;
b) From the perspective of psychological approaches: (1) IP framework: consider input which is attended to as essential data for all stages of language processing; (2) connectionist framework: consider the quantity or frequency of input structures to largely determine acquisitional sequencing;
c) From the perspective of social approaches: interaction is generally seen as essential in providing learners with the quantity and quality of external linguistic input which is required for internal processing.
ⅱ. Other types of interaction which can enhance SLA include feedback from NSs which makes NNs aware that their usage is not accept able in some way, and which provides a model for “correctness”. While children rarely receive such negative evidence in L1, and don’t require it to achieve full native competence, corrective feedback is common in L2 and may indeed be necessary for most learners to ultimately reach native-like levels of proficiency when that is the desired goal.
7.Explain ZPD. How would scaffolding put a student in ZPD?
Zone of Proximal Development, this is an area of potential development, where the learner can achieve that potential only with assistance. Mental functions that are beyond an individual's current level must be performed in collaboration with other people before they are achieved independently. One way in which others help the learner in language development within the ZPD is through scaffolding. Scaffolding refers to verbal guidance which an expert provides to help a learner perform any specific task, or the verbal collaboration of peers to perform a task which would be too difficult for any one of them individually. It is not something that happens to learners as a passive recipient, but happens with a learner as an active participant.
8.Explain why some learners are more successful than others from the perspective of S-C theory?
The S-C framework supports the view that some learners may be more successful than others because of their level of access to or participation in a learning community, or because of the amount of mediation they receive from experts or peers, and because of how well they make use of that help.
9.What are the macrosocial factors that influence SLA?
(1)Global and national status of L1 and L2 (2)Boundaries and identities
(3)Institutional forces and constraints (4)Social categories (5)Circumstances of learning
10.What are the advantages of young learners and old learners respectively?
Young L2 learners are more likely to acquire the language in a naturalistic setting; they are more likely to use the L2 in highly contextualized face-to-face situation. Older learners succeed in SLA t o the level of being able to “pass” for a native speaker when social motivation is strong enough.
11.What are the similarities and differences between linguists, psycholinguist, sociolinguists and social
psycholinguists?
（1）Linguists emphasize the characteristics of the differences and similarities in the languages that are being learned, and the linguistic competence (underlying knowledge) and linguistic performance (actual production) of learners at various stages of acquisition.
（2）Psychologists and psycholinguists emphasize the mental or cognitive processes involved in acquisition, and the representation of languages in the brain.
（3）Sociolinguists emphasize variability in learner linguistic performance, and extend the scope of study to communicative competence (underlying knowledge that additionally accounts for language use, or pragmatic competence).
（4）Social psychologists emphasize group-related phenomena, such as identity and social motivation, and the interactional and larger social contexts of learning.
12.What are the differences between second language, foreign language, library language and auxiliary
language?
（1）A second language is typically an official or societally dominant language needed for education, employment, and other basic purposes. It is often acquired by minority group members or immigrants who speak another language natively. In this more restricted sense, the term is contrasted with other terms in this list.
（2）A foreign language is one not widely used in the learners' immediate social context which might be used for future travel or other cross-cultural communication situations, or studied as a curricular requirement or elective in school, but with no immediate or necessary practical application.
（3）A library language is one which functions primarily as a tool for future learning through reading, especially when books or journals in a desired field of study are not commonly published in the learners' native tongue.
（4）An auxiliary language is one which learners need to know for some official functions in their immediate political setting, or will need for purposes of wider communication, although their first language serves most other needs in their lives.
13.Why are some learners more (or less) successful than others?
The intriguing question of why some L2 learners are more successful than others requires us to unpack the broad label “learners” for some dimensions of discussion. Linguistics may distinguish categories of learners defined by the identity and relationship of their L1 and L2; psycholinguists may make distinctions based on individual aptitude for L2 learning, personality factors, types and strength of motivation, and different learning strategies;
sociolinguists may distinguish among learners with regard to social, economic, and political differences and learner experiences in negotiated interaction; and social psychologists may categorize learners according to aspects of their group identity and attitudes toward target language speakers or toward L2 learning itself.
14.List at least five possible motivations for learning a second language at an older age.
The motivation may arise from a variety of conditions, including the following:
●Invasion or conquest of one’s country by speakers of another language;
● A need or desire to contact speakers of other languages in economic or other specific domains;
●Immigration to a country where use of a language other than one's L1 is required;
●Adoption of religious beliefs and practices which involve use of another language;
● A need or desire to pursue educational experiences where access requires proficiency in another language;
● A desire for occupational or social advancement which is furthered by knowledge of another language;
●An interest in knowing more about peoples of other cultures and having access to their technologies or
literatures.
15.What are the two main factors that influence the language learning?
（1）The role of natural ability: Humans are born with a natural ability or innate capacity to learn language.
（2）The role of social experience: Not all of L1 acquisition can be attributed to innate ability, for language-specific learning also plays a crucial role. Even if the universal properties of language are preprogrammed in children, they must learn all of those features which distinguish their L1 from all other possible human languages. Children will never acquire such language-specific knowledge unless that language is used with them and around them, and they will learn to use only the language(s) used around them, no matter what their linguistic heritage. American-born children of Korean or Greek ancestry will never learn the language of their
grandparents if only English surrounds them, for instance, and they will find their ancestral language just as hard to learn as any other English speakers do if they attempt to learn it as an adult. Appropriate social experience, including L1 input and interaction, is thus a necessary condition for acquisition.
16.What is the initial state of language development for L1 and L2 respectively?
The initial state of L1 learning is composed solely of an innate capacity for language acquisition which may or may not continue to be available for L2, or may be available only in some limited ways. The initial state for L2 learning, on the other hand, has resources of L1 competence, world knowledge, and established skills for interaction, which can be both an asset and an impediment.
17.How does intermediate states process?
The cross-linguistic influence, or transfer of prior knowledge from L1 to L2, is one of the processes that is involved in interlanguage development. Two major types of transfer which occur are: (1) positive transfer, when an L1 structure or rule is used in an L2 utterance and that use is appropriate or “correct” in the L2; and (2) negative transfer (or interference), when an L1 structure or rule is used in an L2 utterance and that use is inappropriate and considered an “error”.
18.What is a necessary condition for language learning (L1 or L2)?
Language input to the learner is absolutely necessary for either L1 or L2 learning to take place. Children additionally require interaction with other people for L1 learning to occur. It is possible for some individuals to reach a fairly high level of proficiency in L2 even if they have input only from such generally non-reciprocal sources as radio, television, or written text.
19.What is a facilitating condition for language learning?
While L1 learning by children occurs without instruction, and while the rate of L1 development is not significantly influenced by correction of immature forms or by degree of motivation to speak, both rate and ultimate level of development in L2 can be facilitated or inhabited by many social and individual factors, such as (1) feedback, including correction of L2 learners' errors; (2) aptitude, including memory capacity and analytic ability; (3) motivation, or need and desire to learn; (4) instruction, or explicit teaching in school settings.
20.Give at least 2 reasons that many scientists believe in some innate capacity for language.
The notion that innate linguistic knowledge must underlie language acquisition was prominently espoused by Noam Chomsky. This view has been supported by arguments such as the following:
(1)Children’s knowledge of language goes beyond what could be lear ned from the input they receive: Children
often hear incomplete or ungrammatical utterances along with grammatical input, and yet they are somehow
able to filter the language they hear so that the ungrammatical input is not incorporated into their L1 system.
Further, children are commonly recipients of simplified input from adults, which does not include data for all
of the complexities which are within their linguistic competence. In addition, children hear only a finite subset
of possible grammatical sentences, and yet they are able to abstract general principles and constraints which
allow them to interpret and produce an infinite number of sentences which they have never heard before.
(2)Constraints and principles cannot be learned: Children’s access to gen eral constraints and principles which
govern language could account for the relatively short time it takes for the L1 grammar to emerge, and for the
fact that it does so systematically and without any “wild” divergences. This could be so because innate
principles lead children to organize the input they receive only in certain ways and not others. In addition to
the lack of negative evidence , constraints and principles cannot be learnt in part because children acquire a
first language at an age when such abstractions are beyond their comprehension; constraints and principles are
thus outside the realm of learning process which are related to general intelligence.
(3)Universal patterns of development cannot be explained by language-specific input: In spite of the surface
differences in input, there are similar patterns in child acquisition of any language in the world. The extent of
this similarity suggests that language universals are not only constructs derived from sophisticated theories and analyses by ling uists, but also innate representations in every young child’s mind.
21.Linguists have taken an internal and/or external focus to the study of language acquisition. What is the
difference between the two?
Internal focus emphasizes that children begin with an innate capacity which is biologically endowed, as well as the acquisition of feature specification as a part of lexical knowledge; while external focus emphasizes the information content of utterances, and considers language primarily as a system of communication.
22.What are the two main factors for learning process in the study of SLA from a psychological perspective?
(1) Information Processing, which assumes that L2 is a highly complex skill, and that learning L2 is not
essentially unlike learning other highly complex skills. Processing itself is believed to cause learning;
(2) Connectionism, which does not consider language learning to involve either innate knowledge or abstraction
of rules and principles, but rather to result from increasing strength of associations (connections) between stimuli and responses.
23.What are the two foci for the study of SLA from the social perspective?
(1)Microsocial focus: the concerns within the microsocial focus relate to language acquisition and use in
immediate social contexts of production, interpretation, and interaction.
(2) Macrosocial focus: the concerns of the macrosocial focus relate language acquisition and use to broader
ecological contexts, including cultural, political, and educational settings.
24.What are the characteristics of an interlanguage?
1)Systematic. At any particular point or stage of development, the IL is governed by rules which constitute the
learner’s internal grammar.
2)Dynamic. The system of rules which learners have in their minds changes frequently, or is in a state of flux,
resulting in a succession of interim grammars.
3)Variable. Although IL is systematic, differences in context result in different patterns of language use.
4)Reduced system, both in form and function.
25.What are the five components of language knowledge?
Linguists have traditionally divided language into the following five components for purposes of description and analysis:(1)vocabulary(lexicon) (2)morphology(word structure) (3)phonology(sound system) (4)syntax(grammar) (5)discourse(ways to connect sentences and organize information)
Please do
3, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 21, 23, 24, 25 (共17题)in your exercisebooks.
Ⅱ.Definition
1.Second Language Acquisition (SLA):a term that refers both to the study of individuals and groups who are
learning a language subsequent to learning their first one as young children, and to the process of learning that language.
2.First language/native language/mother tongue (L1): A language that is acquired naturally in early childhood,
usually because it is the primary language of a child’s family. A child who grows up in a multilingual setting may have more than one “first” language.
3.Second language (L2): A language that is acquired naturally in early childhood, usually because it is the primary
language of a child’s family. A child who grows up in a multilingual setting may have more than one “first”
language.
4.Target language:The language that is the aim or goal of learning.
5.Foreign language:A second language that is not widely used in the learners’ immediate social context, but rather
one that might be used for future travel or other cross-cultural communication situations, or one that might be studied be studied as a curricular requirement or elective in school with no immediate or necessary practical application.
6.Library language: A second language that functions as a tool for further learning, especially when books and
journals in a desired field of study are not commonly published in the learner’s L1.
7.Auxiliary language:A second language that learners need to know for some official functions in their immediate sociopolitical setting. Or that they will need for purposes of wider communication, although their first language serves most other needs in their lives.
8.Linguistic competence:The underlying knowledge that speakers/hearers have of a language. Chomsky distinguishes this from linguistic performance.
9.Linguistic performance:The use of language knowledge in actual production.
https://www.wendangku.net/doc/bd6022562.html,municative competence:A basic tenet (原则、信条、教条) of sociol inguistics defined as “what a speaker
needs to know to communicate appropriately within a particular language community” (Saville-Troike 2003) 11.Pragmatic competence:Knowledge that people must have in order to interpret and convey meaning within
communicative situations.
12.Multilingualism: The ability to use more than one language.
13.Monolingualism:The ability to use only one language.
14.Simultaneous multilingualism:Ability to use more than one language that were acquired during early childhood.
15.Sequential multilingualism:Ability to use one or more languages that were learned after L1 had already been
established.
16.Innate capacity:A natural ability, usually referring to children’s natural ability to learn or acquire language.
17.Child grammar:Grammar of children at different maturational levels that is systematic in terms of production
and comprehension.
18.Initial state:The starting point for language acquisition; it is thought to include the underlying knowledge about
language structures and principles that are in learner s’ heads at the very start of L1 or L2 acquisition.
19.Intermediate state:I t includes the maturational changes which take place in “child grammar”, and the L2
developmental sequence which is known as learner language.
20.Final state: The outcome of L1 and L2 leaning, also known as the stable state of adult grammar.
21.Positive transfer: Appropriate incorporation of an L1 structure or rule in L2 structure.
22.Negative transfer: I nappropriate influence of an L1 structure or rule on L2 use. Also called interference.
23.Phonology: The sound systems of different languages and the study of such systems generally.
24.Syntax: The linguistic system of grammatical relationships of words within sentences, such as ordering and
agreement.
25.Semantics: The linguistic study of meaning.
26.Lexicon: The component of language that is concerned with words and their meanings.
27.Principles and Parameters (model): The internally focused linguistic framework that followed Chomsky’s
Transformational-Generative Grammar. It revised specifications of what constitutes innate capacity to include more abstract notions of general principles and constraints common to human language as part of a Universal Grammar.
28.Minimalist program:The internally focused linguistic framework that followed Chomsky’s Principles and
Parameters model.This framework adds distinctions between lexical and functional category development, as well as more emphasis on the acquisition of feature specification as a part of lexical knowledge.
29.Variation theory: A microsocial framework applied to SLA that explores systematic differences in learner
production which depend on contexts of use.
30.Accommodation theory:A framework for study of SLA that is based on the notion that speakers usually
unconsciously change their pronunciation and even the grammatical complexity of sentences they use to sound more like whomever they are talking to.
31.Sociocultural theory (SCT): An approach established by Vygotsky which claims that interaction not only
facilitates language learning but is a causative force in acquisition. Further, all of learning is seen as essentially a social process which is grounded in sociocultural settings.
https://www.wendangku.net/doc/bd6022562.html,nguage community: A group of people who share knowledge of a common language to at least some extent.
2.Foreigner talk: Speech from L1 speakers addressed to L2 learners that differs in systematic ways from language
addressed to native or very fluent speakers.
3.Interaction Hypothesis:The claim that modifications and collaborative efforts which take place in social
interation facilitate SLA because they contribute to the accessibility of input for mental processing.
4.Symbolic mediation: A link between a person’s current mental state and higher order functions that is provided
primarily by language; considered the usual route to learning (of language, and of learning in general). Part of Vygosky’s Sociocultural Theory.
5.Linguistic context: Elements of language form and function associated with the variable element.
6.Microsocial context:features of setting/situation and interaction which relate to communicative events within
which language is being produced, interpreted, and negotiated.
7.ZPD: Zone of Proximal Development, an area of potential development where the learner can only achieve that
potential with assistance. Part of Vygosky’s Sociocultur al Theory.
8.Scaffolding: Verbal guidance which an expert provides to help a learner perform any specific task, or the verbal
collaboration of peers to perform a task which would be too difficult for any one of them in individual performance.
9.Intrapersonal interaction: communication that occurs within an individual's own mind, viewed by Vygosky as a
sociocultural phenomen.
10.Interpersonal interaction: Communicative events and situations that occur between people.
11.Social institutions:The systems which are established by law, custom, or practice to regulate and organize the life
of people in public domains: e.g. politics, religion, and education.
12.Acculturation: learning the culture of the L2 community and adapting to those values and behavioral patterns.
13.Formal L2 learning: formal/instructed learning generally takes place in schools, which are social institutions that
are established in accord with the needs, beliefs, values, and customs of their cultural settings.
https://www.wendangku.net/doc/bd6022562.html,rmal L2 learning: informal/naturalistic learning generally takes place in settings where people contact—and
need to interact with—speakers of another language.
1.Contrastive Analysis (CA): an approach to the study of SLA which involves predicting and explaining learner problems based on a comparison of L1 and L2 to determine similarities and differences.
2.Stimulus-Response-Reinforcement (S-R-R): learners respond to the stimulus (linguistic input), and reinforcement strengthens the response; they imitate and repeat the language that they hear, and when they are reinforced for that response, learning occurs.
3.Interference: There will be transfer in learning of elements acquired in L1 to L2. When the L1 structure is used inappropriately in the L2, the transfer is called interference.
4. Error Analysis (EA):the first approach to the study of SLA which includes an internal focus on learners’ creative ability to construct language. It is based on the description and analysis of the actual learner errors in L2.
6. Interlanguage (IL): is the intermediate state of a learner’s language as it moves toward the target L2. It has the following characteristics: systematic; dynamic; variable; reduced system, both in form and function.
Ⅲ. Final exam questions
1. Choose the best answer from the three possible choices.（每小题2 分，共20 分）
2. Define the following terms（每小题5 分，共25 分）
3. Short & Long answers（每小题8 分，共40 分）
4. Answer the following questions, you should write at least 200 words.（每小题15分，共15 分）