语言学各章复习要点
Chapter 1
1.要点
a.the definition of language
b.the design features and the functions of language
c.the distinction between human language and animal communication or other artificial sign
system
d.major distinctions in linguistics
2.实践
1）Unlike animal communication systems, human language is __________.
A. stimulus free
B. stimulus bound
C. under immediate stimulus control
D. stimulated by some occurrence of communal interest
2) Which of the following is the most important function of language?
A. interpersonal function
B. performative function
C. informative function
D. recreational function
3) The function of the sentence “Water boils at 100 degree centigrade” is _______.
A. interrogative
B. directive
C. informative
D. performative
4) __________ has been widely accepted as the forefather of modern linguistics?
A. Chomsky
B. Saussure
C. Bloomfield
D. John Lyons
Chapter 2
1.要点
a.the definition of phonetics and its three major research fields
b.the location, characteristics and function of the speech organs
c.the definition and classifications of consonants and vowels
d.the place of articulation and manner of articulations
e.cardinal vowels
f.IPA
g.Broad and narrow transcription and the lip position in the pronunciation of the cardinal
vowels
h.The definition of phonology
i.The comparison and contrast between phonetics and phonology
j.The definition of phone, phoneme, allophone, minimal pair and free variation
k.Theories on phoneme, phonemic contrast and complementary distribution
l.Features on phonetic similarity and distinction
m.Suprasegmental features (syllables, stress, tone, etc.)
2.实践
1）Of the three cavities, ___ is the most variable and active in amplifying and modifying speech
sounds.
A. nasal cavity
B. pharynx
C. oral cavity
2) All syllables contain a ________.
A. nucleus
B. coda
C. onset
3）Ａsound which capable of distinguishing one word or one shape of word from another in a given language is a ________.
A. allophone
B. phone
C. phoneme
4) __________ is one of the suprasegmental features.
A. stop
B. Voicing
C. Deletion
D. tone
5) Narrow transcription is the phonetic transcription with ___________.
A. diacritics
B. distinctive features
C. voicing
D. articulation
6) Velar refers to ________.
A. larynx
B. soft palate
C. voicing
D. articulation
7) Which of the following consonants does not exist in English?
A. dental stop
B. bilabial stop
C. alveolar stop
D. velar stop
8. _________ is not a distinctive feature in English phonology.
A. Nasality
B. Voicing
C. Aspiration
D. Rounding
9.________ is not an English consonant.
A. labio-dental plosive b. alveolar nasal C. velar stop D. dental fricative
10. The choice of an allophone in a given phonetic context is _________.
A. random
B. predictable
C. variable
D. independent
11. Voicing of explosives is a distinctive feature in __________.
A. Chinese
B. English
C. both Chinese and English
D. neither Chinese and English
Chapter 3
1．要点
a. the definitions of the basic concepts in this chapter：word, morpheme, morphology, free morpheme, bound morpheme, inflectional affix and derivational affix,
b. inflection and word formation,
3.实践
1）Compound words consist of _______ morphemes.
A. bound
B. free
C. both bound and free
2) Nouns, verbs, adjectives and many adverbs are __________.
A. grammatical words
B. Lexical words
C. neither grammatical nor lexical words
3) “Radar” is a/an ________.
A. acronym
B. blending
C. coinage
D. clipping
4) The words “take ” and “table ” are called _______ because they can occur unattached.
A. form words
B. bound morphemes
C. free morphemes
D. inflectional morphemes
5) A __________ is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword.
A. Blending
B. Acronym
C. Abbreviation
D. invention
6) A ___ is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.
A. stem
B. root
C. allomorph
D. Lexeme
7) _______ is a process in which part of the form is native and part is borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed.
A. loanshift
B. Loan translation
C. loanword
D. loanblend
8）________is a grammatical category used for the analysis of word classes displaying such contrasts as masculine/feminine/neuter, animate/inanimate, etc.
9) the relation between words “rose” and “flower ” is that of _________.
A. synonymy
B. antonymy
C. homonymy
D. hyponymy
Chapter 4
1. 要点
a. the important concepts in this chapter: syntax, endocentric and exocentric construction, the deep structure and surface structure, immediate constituent analysis, concord, government, category,
Chapter 5
1. 要点
a. the definition of semantics,
b. theory of semantic triangle,
c. different kinds of meaning,
d. sense relations
e. componential analysis
f. sentence meaning
2. 实践
1) The sense relationship between “John plays violin” and “John plays a musical instrument” is _______.
A. hyponymy
B. antonymy
C. entailment
2) “Semantics is the scientific study of meaning” is a ____.
A. synonymy
B. polysemy
C. antonymy
D. tautology.
3) Conceptual meaning is ________.
A. denotative
B. connotative
C. associative
D. affective
4) When the word “root” means “part of plat that keeps it firmly in the soil and absorbs water and food from the soil”, the meaning is ________ meaning.
A. connotative
B. conceptual
C. reflected
5) “Wide/narrow ” is an example of ____________.
A. gradable opposite
B. relational opposites
C. conversenesss
D. complementarity
Chapter 6
1. 要点
a. speech act theory
b. principle of conversation
c. Cooperative Principle
d. characteristics of implicature
e. context
2. 实践
1）An illocutionary act is identical with ________
A. sentence meaning
B. the speaker?s meaning
C. language understanding
D. the speaker?s competence
2) The Indirect Speech Act was developed by _______.
A．John Austin B. Levinson C. John Lyons D. John Searle
3) ________ is a branch of linguistics which is the study of meaning in the context use.
A. Morphology
B. Syntax
C. Pragmatics
D. Semantics
4. Tautologies like boys are boys are extreme examples in which maxim of _____ is violated.
A. quality
B. quantity
C. relevance
D. manner
Chapter 7
1. 要点
a. morphological change and syntactic change
b. vocabulary change
c. addition of new words
d. changes in the meaning of words
2. 实践
1)
Chapter 8
1. 要点
a. speech community and speech variety
b. varieties of language：regional dialect, sociolect, idiolect ethnic dialect, register, standard dialect, pidgin and creole,
c. bilingualism and diglossia
2. 实践
1) In the present day, the stability of _ seems to be decreasing.
A. social-class dialect
B. idiolect
C. taboo
D. regional dialect
Chapter 9
1. 要点
a. the relationship between language and culture
b. Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
1.Which of the following statements about language is Not true?
https://www.wendangku.net/doc/c61081198.html,nguage is a system.
https://www.wendangku.net/doc/c61081198.html,nguage is symbolic.
C.Animals also have language.
https://www.wendangku.net/doc/c61081198.html,nguage is arbitrary.
2.What is the most important function of language?
A.Interpersonal.
B. Phatic
https://www.wendangku.net/doc/c61081198.html,rmative D. Meatlingual.
3.The distinction between competence and performance is proposed by
A. Saussure
B. Halliday
C. Chomsky
D. The Prague School
4. Which of the following phonetic description matches the English consonant {p}
A. a voiceless bilabial stop
B. a voiced bilabial stop
C. a voiceless dental stop
D. a voiceless dental fricative
5. Which of the following is not a distinctive feature in English?
A. voicing
B. nasal
C. approximation
D. aspiration
6. If two similar sound segments never occur in the same phonetic environment, then they are
A. two separate phonemes
B. two allophones of phonemes
C. two free variation of a phoneme
D. a minimal pair
7. Where is the primary stress of the word phonology?
A. pho
B. no.
C. lo
D. gy
8. If there is an English adjective “pornitial”, _______ is the most possible for negative form.
A. ip-
B. im--
C. il
D.in-
9. An ____ language is a language in which concepts that we express using proposition, possessive adjectives, and so on are expressed as morphs concatenanted in the same words as the relevant base.
A. inflecting
B. agglutination
C. isolating
D. analytical
10. Which of the following words is created through the process of acronym?
A. ad
B. edit
C. AIDS
D. Bobo
11. The word “lab” is formed through
A. back formation
B. blending
C. clipping
D. derivation
12. If we are to use the technique of IC Analysis to analyze the sentence She broke the window
with a stone yesterday, where is the first cut?
A. between stone and yesterday
B. between she and broke
C. between broke and the window
D. between window and with
13. Which of the following items is not one of the grammatical categories of English pronouns?
A. gender.
B. number
C. case
D. voice
14. Chomsky holds that the major task of linguistics is to
A. study real “facts” in daily settings
B. tell people how to speak appropriately
C. look for …the universal grammar?
D. tell people what is right in language use
15. A word with several meanings is called ___ word.
A. a polysemous
B. a synonymous
C. an abnormal
D. a mutilple
16. Among Leech?s seven types of meaning is concerned with the relationship between a word and
the thing it refers to
A. conceptual
B. affective
C. reflected
D. thematic
17. ____ is a phrase which can only be understood as a unit, not as a summation of the meaning of
each constituent word.
A. Collocation
B. Idiom
C. Semantic component
D. Synonym
18. There are _____ deixis in the sentence She has sold it here yesterday.
A. 3
B. 4
C. 5
D. 6
19. ____ may be used as an example of indirect speech act.
A. “Could you open the window?”
B. “I hereby declare Mr. William elected.”
C. “Good morning!”
D. “I command you to report at 6 in the morning tomorrow.”
20. The maxim of ____ requires that a participant?s contribution be relevant to the conversation.
A. Quantity
B. quality
C. manners D relation
21. A scientific study of language studies is conducted with references to some ____ of language
structure.
A. data
B. general theory
C. facts
D. hypotheses
22. studies the historical development of language over a period of time, it is a historical study.
A. synchronic
B. descriptive
C. prescriptive
D. diachronic
23. The distinction between competence and performance is similar to the distinction between
A. prescriptive and descriptive
B. synchronic and diachronic
C. speech and writing
D. langue and parole
24. Children can speak before they can read or write shows that
A. language is basically vocal
B. language is arbitrary
C. language is used for communication
D. language is productive
25. A minimal pair can be illustrated by
A. sip/sheep
B. bread/breast
C. same/shame
D. breath/breathe
26 Diphthongs are characterized by ____.
A. gliding
B. voicing
C. aspiration
D. stress
27. The phonetic symbol for “voiced, labiodental, fricative” is
A.[v]
B. [d]
C.[f]
D.[m]
28. …Look? is a monomorphemic word which conveys ____ meaning.
A. morphological
B. morphemic
C. lexical
D. grammatical
29. ____ morphemes are those than cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free of bound, to form a word.
A. Free
B. Bound
C. Root
D. Affix
30. There are rules that govern which affix can be added to that type of ___ to form a new word.
A. root
B. affix
C. stem
D. word
31. ____ are closed categories because no new words are allowed for.
A. syntactic categories
B.Major lexical categories
C. minor lexical categories
D. phrasal categories
32. “She gave the book to John..”can be changed to “to whom did she give the book?”This involves ___.
A. NP—movement.
B. WH-movement
C. AUX-movement
D. Post-verb adjective movement
33. The meaning of a language form is as the “situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer” is proposed by
A. Plato
B. Firth
C. Chomsky
D. Bloomfield
34. Sound（adj.）and sound (n.) are identical in sound and spelling, but different in meaning. They are____.
A. homophones
B. homographs
C. hyponyms
D. complete homonyms
35. A word with several meaning is a _____.
A. synonymy
B. polysemic word
C. co-hyponym.
D. complete homonym
36. ____ of a sentence depends on the context in which the sentence is uttered.
A. sentence-meaning
B. utterance-meaning
C. the reference
D. the meaning
37. “What a marvelous dinner you cooked!”
What politeness maxim does the speaker of the utterance observe?
A. Modesty maxim
B. sympathy maxim
C. approbation maxim
D. tact maxim
38. Morphological changes involves?
A. The loss
B. addition
C. alteration of morphological rules
D. all of above
39. Proximately the number of pidgin speakers in the world is
A. about 6 million
B. about 12 million
C. somewhere between 6 and 12 million
D. unknown
40. In Early modern English ___ was the second person pronoun used by social superiors to inferiors.
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. politeness principles
The CP itself cannot explain why people are often to indirect in conveying what they really mean and why the conversational maxims are frequently infringed in social contexts. If these questions are considered in a broader, socially and psychologically oriented approach of pragmatics, they may be answered by the Politeness Principle (PP). Politeness can be defined as the means employed to show awareness of another person?s public self-image.
1. Tact maxim 策略原则(尽量减少他人损失、尽量使别人获益)
2．Generosity maxim 慷慨原则
3．Approbation maxim 赞颂原则
4．Modesty maxim 谦虚原则
5．Agreement maxim 附和原则
6．Sympathy maxim 同情原则
1）A. May I invite you to dinner this evening?
B. Sorry. I have an appointment.
2) A. How?s bill?s term paper?
B. The handwriting is beautiful.
3) A. Bill has taken your parking place again.
B. Well, I like that.
3. deitic words: are related to the orientation or position of events of entities in the real world. They may be personal, such as you, me, or spatial such as this, that, here, there, or temporal such as mow, then, etc.
example:
speaker: The professor has got a car.
英语语言学常识练习
1.What is true of linguist?
A.He needs to be able to speak a large number of languages.
B.He must have a wide experience of different types of languages.
C.He takes great interest in analyzing and attempting to explain various linguistic
phenomenon.
D.His task is basically to study and understand the general principles upon all languages are
built.
2.Which of the following is Not true of linguistics?
A.It does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.
B.It is descriptive, not prescriptive.
C.It regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.
D.It stresses the importance of strict grammatical rules.
3.Study of grammar and its development over different historical periods is ________.
A. applied linguistics
B. synchronic linguistics
C. diachronic linguistics
D. sociolinguistics
4. Human language is distinguished from animal communication due to the following defining
features except_________.
A. creativity
B. arbitrariness
C. cultural transmission
D. fluency
5. The _________ of a language is the system and pattern of the speech sounds used in that
particular language.
A. phonology
B. phonetics
C. morphology
D. semantics
6. Which of the following is not a dental?
7. Which of the following is not a plosive?
8. ________ refers to the study of the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words
are formed.
A. phonology
B. morphology
C. semantics
D. pragmatics
9. The word reliability consists of ________ morphemes.
A. 2
B. 3
C. 4
D. 5
10. Which of the following words is not a compound?
A. management
B. loudspeaker
C. baby-sit
D. warm-hearted
11. ___ is the study of how sentences are structured of in others words, it tries to state what words
can be combined with others to form sentences and in what order.
A. syntax
B. phonology
C. semantics
D. grammar
12. Simply stated, ________ is the study of meaning in language.
A. syntax
B. semantics
C. morphology
D. phonology
13. According to the semiotic triangle of Ogden and Richards, the referent refers to ____.
A. the linguistic element, that is the word, sentence, etc.
B. the object, etc. in the world of experience
C. concept
D. name of the object.
14. Which of the following pairs are collocationally-restricted synonyms?
A. brotherly fraternal
B. man chap
C. addled eggs rancid bacon
D. statesman politician
15. The word site is the ________ of sight.
A. homophone
B. homograph
C. hyponym
D. antonym
16. Which of following is the hyponym of the word flower?
A. plant
B. tree
C. rose
D. petal
17. The words male and female are _________.
A. homographs
B. hyponyms
C. synonyms
D. antonyms
18. ________ is the study of how speakers use the sentences of a language to effect successful communications.
A. pragmatics
B. syntax
C. semantics
D. morphology
19. According to John Austin ?s speech act theory, a speaker, while making an utterance, is in most cases performing simultaneously the following acts except___________.
A. A locutionary act
B. an illocutionary act
C. a per locutionary act
D. a pre locutionary act
20. Based on Grice?s Cooperative Principle in making conversation, “Do not say what you believe
to be false.” Is a requirement of the maxim of __________.
A. quantity
B. quality
C. relation
D. manner
21. Which of the following words is a blend?
A. gym
B. smog
C. radar
D. edit
22. The word cattle in Middle English means property, livestock; but now the word generally refers to any of such mammals as cows, steers, bulls, and oxen. This is an example of ________.
A. meaning shift.
B. widening of meaning
C. narrowing of meaning
D. loss of meaning
23. Which of the following statements is correct?
A. langue refers to the language system itself.
B. Parole is the realization of the language system in speech
C. sense relates to the complex system of relationships that hold between the linguistic elements themselves，while reference deals with the relationship between the linguistic elements and the non-linguistic world of experience.
D. All of above.
答案1-5adcda 6-10 dcbba 11-15 abbca 16-20 cdadb 21-23bcd
Blank Filling
1 Linguistics is the scientific study of ___.
2 To many people, a linguist is the same as a ___ , one who can speak several Languages fluently.
3 In professional usage, the ___ is a scholar who studies Language objectively, observing it scientifically, recording the facts of Language, and generalizing from them.
4 ___ phonetics studies the movement of the vocal organs of producing the sounds of speech; ___ phonetics studies the way the sounds of speech are perceived by the human ear.
5 ___ deals with how Language is acquired, understood and produced.
6 ___ studies the neurological basis of Language development and use in human beings.
7 ___ is concerned with the diversity of Language as it relates to various sociological factors.
8 ___ is concerned with variation and use in relation to the cultural patterns and beliefs of man.
9 The ancient theories of the origin of Language were of ____origin.
10 The Egyptians considered themselves to have the oldest civilization and asserted that the original human Language was ___.
1 The theory that primitive man made involuntary vocal noises while performing heavy work has been called the ___ theory.
2 The theory that primitive man instinctively gave vocal expression to every external impression has been called the ___ theory.
3 A commonly held view among the classic Greeks was that at some ancient time there was a “___ “ who gave the correct, natural name to everything.
4 The theory that Language arose from instinctive emotional cries, expressive of pain or joy has been called the ___ theory.
5 The theory that primitive Language was an imitation of natural sound, such as animal cries, has been called the theory.
6 The theory that Language arose from human beings? instinctive need for contact with his companion has been called the ___ theory.
7 Writing is a secondary Language form based upon ___, and Morse code is tertiary, based upon ___.
8 The reason why Languages other than our own sound like gibberish is because we have not mastered the complexity of their ___.
9 The symbols are said to be arbitrary because they do not ___ what they represent.
10 Language is called upon not only for communication, but also for ___ and cultural ____.
1 Language is an ___ system of articulated sounds made use of by a group of humans as a means of carrying on the affairs of their society.
2 Language is a purely human and ___ method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of a ___ of voluntarily produced symbols.
3 Language is a system of arbitrary ___ symbols which permit all the people in a given culture, or other people who have learned the ___ of that culture, to communicate or interact.
4 The earliest grammar of any Language was ___ grammar by the Hindu scholar Panini.
5 Plato proceeded first to divide the sentence into two parts: ___ and ___.
6 The Greek approach to Language was taken over by the ___ and applied with little change to their Language ___.
7 The first major new development in linguistics until the 13th century was ___ grammar.
8 The 15th and 16th centuries were marked by the ___ of views of Language and an increased awareness of the ___ among Languages.
9 In the 17th century the Port royal Grammarians stressed the ___ of thought.
10 The beginning of modern linguistics was from the late 18th and early 19th century when the ___ method was developed and established.
1 Chomsky?s theory of generative grammar revolutionized work in linguistics in 1957, with the publication of his book ___.
2 Saussure?s exposition of ___ analysis led to t he school of ___ linguistics which developed around the work of Leonard Bloomfield in America.
3 A Language is responsive to the ___ forces that shape history.
4 The Language of Britain was ___ when the Romans invaded the land in 5
5 and 54 BC.
5 The Celtic Language was influenced by ___ during the roman occupation after AD 44.
6 The three Teutonic groups established in England by the successive invasions after AD 450 were: ___, ___ and __.
7 As a result of the Norman Conquest of 1066, vast quantities of ___ words were added to the English vocabulary.
8 The most memorable writing in the Middle English period was ___ by Geoffrey Chaucer.
9.As Samuel Johnson?s A Dictionary of the English Language established a uniform standard for ___ and word use, so Bish op Lowth?s and other grammarians? works standardized English ___.
10 Speech takes place when the organs of speech move to produce a pattern of ___. These movements have an effect on the ___ coming from the lungs.
11 When sounds are produced, the air-stream sent out from the lungs passes through the ___ contained in the larynx.
12 If the glottis is wide open, the air passes freely through the cords, but if it is narrowed, the presence of the air causes the cords to vibrate, producing ___ sounds.
13 A sound which is made with the glottis wide open is called a ___ sound.
14 Consonant sounds can be either ___ or ___, while all vowel sounds are ___.
The shape of the ___ and ___ cavities can be changed, and each change produces a different sound.
1 The differences between the vowel in the word tea and the vowel in the word two is that the first is made with the lips ___ and the front of the tongue humped, and the second is made with the lips ___ and the back of the tongue humped.
2 In the case of vowel sounds, the pharynx and the mouth cavities are changed by the shape and position of the ___ and the ___.
3 The sounds t, d, p, and b are made when the ___ in the mouth is suddenly opened and the air allowed to escape in a little puff or explosion.
4 Consonant sounds can also be made when two organs of speech in the mouth are brought close together so that the air is pushed out between them, causing___.
5 The sounds f and v are the result of air escaping under friction between the lower ___ and upper ___.
6 All English sounds except me, n, and ny are made with the soft palate ___.
7 When the ___ is raised, the air cannot escape through the nose and the sounds ma, n, and ng cannot be made.
8 ___ sounds are produced by a radical constriction at some point in the vocal tract.
9 ___ sounds are produced by lowering the velum.
10 ___ sounds are produced by vibrating the vocal cords.
11 ___ sounds are produced by increasing the muscular effort in the lower jaw.
12 ___ sounds are produced b y maintaining the airflow in the vocal cavity (but not in the nasal cavity).
1 The qualities of vowels depend upon the position of the ___ and the lips.
2 ___ sounds are produced by retracting the body of the tongue from the neutral position.
3 Vowels can be described by referring to the part of the tongue which is at the highest point in the mouth. If the front of the tongue is at the highest point near the hard palate, a ___ vowel is produced. If the back of the tongue is at the highest point near the soft palate, a ___ vowel is produced.
4 V owels produced between the positions for a front vowel and a back vowel are called ___ vowel.
5 One element in the description of vowels is the part of the tongue which is at the highest point in the mouth. A second element is the ___ to which that part of the tongue is raised.
6 If the tongue is raised as high as possible in the mouth, without causing friction, the vowel which results is a ___ vowel.
7 If the tongue is placed as low as possible in the mouth, the vowel which results is an ___ vowel.
8 The position of the lips also has an effect on vowel quality. If the lips are drawn together so that the opening between them is round, we have a ___ vowel. If the lips are not drawn together, the vowel is ___.
9 If, in making a vowel sound, the organs of speech remain in one position without moving to another, the result is a ___ vowel. If the organs of speech start in the position for one vowel and then immed8iately glide to the position of another, the result is a ___.
10 A single impulse of breath from the lungs accompanied by voicing is known as a ___.
11 Diphthongs are represented by two symbols in phonetic transcription, the first shows the position of the organs of speech at the ___ of the glide, and the second shows their approximate position at the ___ of the glide.
1 If the tongue produces a diphthong by moving from a more open position to a more closed position in the mouth, the diphthong is known as ___ diphthong.
2 If the movement of the tongue in making a closing diphthong is small, the diphthong which results is called a ___ diphthong.
3 In the case of closing diphthongs the ___ letter indicates the point towards which the glide is made. The point towards which the glide is made is ___ necessarily reached. Such diphthongs sound quite ___ if the organs of speech perform only part of the maximum permissible movement.
4 The diphthongs made with a movement of the tongue towards the center are known as ___ diphthongs.
5 Consonants are characterized in pronunciation by ___ of the air-stream in the vocal tract.
6 Labial refers to the use of the ___ in the process of articulating a sound.
7 Alveolar refers to the ___ behind the top teeth.
8 Palatals are sounds articulated by the ___ of the tongue against the ___ palate.
9 Velars are sounds articulated by the ___ of the tongue against the ___ palate.
10 A nasal is produced by the release of air through the ___.
11 A stop with a fricative release is called ___.
12 A ___ is formed by an obstacle placed in the middle of the mouth, the air being free to escape
at one or both sides.
1 Language may be defined as systematized sequences of vocal ___ that carry meaning to all members of a given cultural group.
2 Those who are interested in all possible variations of sound are called___.
3 A sound produced in the larynx by closing off the air-stream in the glottis is called ___.
4 Those who are interested primarily in distinctive sounds are called___.
5 A phoneme is a group of similar sounds called___.
6 The sounds k and g are in distinctive opposition in English and they are themselves distinctive sounds or ___.
9 An aspirated p, an unaspirated p, and an unreleased p are ___ of the p ___.
10 The contrast between k and g enables us to distinguish between words which would otherwise
by ___.
11 Conventionally a phoneme is put in ___ while an allophone is put in ___ brackets.
12 The sounds and the meaning of a word are ___.
13 Morphology is the study of word ___ and the internal ___ of words.
14 The most elemental grammatical units in a Language are ___.
15 Morphemes may b e classified as ___ or free.
16 Some morphemes are ___ in that they must be joined to other morphemes, and are always parts of word and never words by themselves. Other morphemes are ___ in that they need not be attached to other morphemes.
17 Bound morphemes may be subdivided into ___ and ___ morphemes.
1 A small set of conjunctions, prepositions and pronouns belongs to “___ class?, while the largest part of nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs belongs to “___ class”.
2 Scholars in the Middle Ages applied the Greco-Latin model to their own Languages with little difficulty because of the close ___ between their own Languages and Greek & Latin as well as their similarities in ___.
3 Certain basic ___ originated from traditional grammar are an inescapable part of any approach to Language analysis.
4 ___ analysis is a basic technique in traditional grammar and is still in use in all modern approaches to linguistics.
5 Traditional grammarians adopted the practice of presenting a ___ of a typical verb from each conjugation and letting it serve as a model for other verbs in the ___.
6 Traditional grammar has remained strongly ___ in its approach.
7 Traditional grammarians used the method of ___ to describe sentences structure.
8 Customarily, traditional grammarians begin with ___ definition of the sentence and its components.
9 Structural grammar placed great emphasis on analyzing the ___ system of Language.
10 Saussure held that a Language may be viewed as a self-contained system—that is, a set of ___ structures.
11 Sussure described ___ study as slicing through the trunk of a tree to study the arrangement of rings. ___ study was then seen as tracing the development of the rings by comparing two synchronic slices.
12 Saussure saw synchronic studies as logically ___ to diachronic studies.
13 Having discovered great variety among North American Languages, Boas was quickly convinced that each Language had to be described in terms of its own ___ system.
1 Bloomfield (1933) and Fries (1940), two of the best-known structural linguists, believed in the need for scientific ___ in linguistic description.
2 The structuralisms focused their attention on describing the ___ of the spoken Language because they felt that ___ in Language was too messy to deal with in an objective manner.
3 The structural grammar recognizes the fundamental difference between ___ words and ___ words.
4 In structural grammar, distributional analysis is used to define ___, which are taken as the basic
building blocks of Language.
5 ___ Grammar is a finite set of rules and principles for capturing the regularities in the Language.
6 K-terminal string is the ___ string of the derivation.
7 Referring to distinguishing between ___ and ___, the point is that we must distinguish between what it can do (under ideal circumstances) and what it is actually doing (in the given circumstances of the moment).
8 According TG grammarians, perhaps the most important fact about the sentences of human Languages is that all sentences have both a ___ structure and a ___ structure.
9 The phrases-structure rules, in conjunction with lexical insertion rules, generate a ___ structure. Next, the transformational rules apply to change the basic structure into a structure representation.
10 Transformational rules do not change the basic __ of sentences.
11.In order to prevent unacceptable sentences from being generated, it is necessary to impose certain ___ on the power of transformations.
12 120 In TG Grammar, the syntactic component provides the ___ for a sentence, whereas the phonological component provides the ___ of the sentence and the semantic component provides its ___.
1 The study of the linguistic meaning of words, phrases, and sentences is called ___.
2 When different words are pronounced the same but have different forms, they are called ___.
3 Not only do Languages contain different words that sound the same but have different meanings, they also contain words that sound different but have the same or nearly the same meanings. Such words are called ___.
4 ___ are written identically but sound differently.
5 Two words that are “opposite” in meaning are __ .
6 Some sentences are ambiguou8s because they have both a literal meaning and a non-literal meaning. The non-literal meaning is also called ___ meaning.
7 “The conjoining of contradictory terms” is called___.
8 ___ is a form of comparison in which an exact name for something is replaced by a term closely associated with it.
9 ___ attributes human qualities to objects or ideas.
10 The study of ___ holding between individual lexical items in the elaboration of a theory of structural semantics by ___ is a great contribution to semantics.
11 ___ refers to a relation between two words, in which the meaning of one of the words includes the meaning of the other word.
12 Under antonymy, a distinction is sometimes made between pairs like male and female, and Paris like big and small, according to whether or not the words are ___.
13 A person who is not male must be female, but something that is not big is not necessarily small, it may be somewhere between the two sizes. Male and female are called ___; big and small are called ___ antonyms.
14 Presupposition refers to the ___ that must by met in order for the intended meaning of a sentence to be regarded as acceptable.
15 Entailment means that the meaning of one sentence is ___ in that of another.
16 Contradiction means if one sentence is true, the other must be ___.
17 Sentences that violate possible semantic relations are said to be ___.
1 The __ act is the actual uttering of a sentence with a particular meaning; the ___ act is the intent that the speaker has in uttering the sentence; and the ___ act is the result achieved in uttering the sentence.
2 The study of Language use and its relation to Language structure and social context is termed ___.
3 ___ is a theory of communication in which the sender sequentially encodes the information to be communicated into a signal that travels to a receiver, who then sequentially decodes it to recover the original message.
4 Communication is also a social affair, usually taking place within the __ of a fairly well defined social situation.
5 Likewise, Message Model portrays Language as a bridge between speaker and hearer whereby “private” ideas re communicated by “public” sounds, which thereby function as the ___ for communicating the relevant massage.
6 The process of converting a message into a signal by means of which it can be communicated to other individuals is called ___.
7 The process of converting a signal in some communication system back into the original message is termed ___.
8 We sometimes speak ___ ; that is, we sometimes intend to perform one communicative act by means of performing another communicative act.
9 We often speak ___; that is, we do not mean what our words mean.
10 ___ is the quickest and the most efficient of the three human comm7unication systems.
11 ___ has often been viewed as reflection of speech.
12 The first form of communication was probably ___.
13 Chinese writing utilizes a system of characters, each of which represents the “meaning” of a ___.
14 ___ is the only major Language that uses a syllabic writing system.
15 The term sound-writing is sometimes used in place of __ writing.
16 A gesture is a ___ manipulation that is neither verbal nor ___ but is communicative.
17 The study of the positioning and movement of the body and its parts during conversation is called ___.
18 The modulation of the voice in communication is called ___.
19 The study of the space maintained between two speakers in conversation is called ___.
20 Language is the sum total of the structures available to the speaker, while style concerns the characteristic ___ in a given context.
21 ___ choice is usually regarded as a matter of form or expression. But this view is misleading, for writers obviously choose __too.
22 The difference between My twenty-three-year-old brother is a bachelor and My twenty-three-year-old brother is unmarried is ___ , not ___.
23 To speak of style as choice, one must recognize not only that there is ___ of choice, but also that there are ___ on choice.
24 Style is sometimes regarded as a ___ with respect to a norm.
Close
Directions: Choose the right word from the following list to fill in each of the blanks in the passage. Write the corresponding letter on your answer sheet.
WORD LIST:
A. utterances
B. native
C. writings
D. reinforcement
E. description
F. method
G. experienced
H. process
I. linguistics J. Behaviorism K. unique L. innate
M. universal N. infants O. Knowledge P. argues
Q. study R. nature S. Acquisition T. potentialities
1.
N. Chomsky believes that Language is somewhat _____56, and
that children are born with what he calls a Language _____57 Device (LAD), which is a _____58 kind of knowledge that fits them for Language learning. He _____59 child comes into the world with specific innate endowment, not only with general tendencies or _____60, but also with knowledge of the _____61 of Language. According to this view, children are born with _____62 of the basic grammatical relations and categories, and this knowledge is _____63. The categories and the relations exist in all human Language and all human _____64 are born with knowledge of them. According to him, the _____65 of Language, or the structure of Language, can throw some light on the nature of the human mind.
2.
For L. Bloomfield, linguistics is a branch of psychology, and specifically of the positivistic brand of psychology known as “_____”66. Behaviorism is a principle of scientific _____67, based on the belief that human beings cannot know anything they have not _____68. Behaviorism in _____69 holds that children learn Language through a chain of “stimulus-response _____70”, and the adult?s use of Language is also a _____71 of “stim ulus-response”. When the behaviorist methodology entered linguistics via Bloomfield`s _____72, the popular practice in linguistic studies was to accept what a _____73 speaker says in his Language and to discard what he says about it. This is because of the belief that a linguistic _____74 was reliable when based on observation of unstudied _____75 by speakers.
Term Translation
Directions: Translate the following linguistic terms into Chinese and English respectively.
76. narrow transcription
77. Firthian phonology
78. inferential communication
79. loss of sound
80. metalinguistics
81. minimal attachment theory
82. mirror maxim
83. tu/vous distinction
84. 女性语域
85. 洋泾浜语
86. 介词演算
87. 屈折(变化)
88. 言语感知
89. 音位变体
90. 团结
91语义三角
Short-answer Questions
Directions: Explain each of the following linguistic views in no more than 80 word. Write your answers on the answer sheet. (15%)
92. Sapire-Whorf Hypothesis
93. TG`s stages of development and the main features
94. Post-Gricean Development
Part V Essay Question
Directions: Develop ONE of the following topics into a 200-300-word essay.
95-1
The theory of communicative competence and its significance in Language learning and teaching.
95-2
Transformational-generative linguistics and its significance in Language learning and teaching.
95-3
Functional linguistics and its significance in Language learning and teaching.
95-4
Input and Language learning
语言学概论重点总结
语言学概论重点总结 一、名词解释（4*6=24） 1、孤立语：孤立语又称词根语，其特点是缺乏形态变化，语法意义主要靠词序和虚词来表示，汉语就是一种比较典型的孤立语。例如，“我喜欢他”中的“我”是主语，“他”是宾语，主要取决于词序。又如，“买菜”是述宾结构，“买的菜”是偏正结构，主要取决于虚词。汉语缺乏严格意义上的形态变化，一个名词性词语无论是充当句子的主语还是宾语，词性都不曾发生变化。除了汉语外，属孤立语的还有越南语、彝语、苗语、缅甸语等。 2、屈折语：屈折语的特点是通过各种屈折方式来表示语法意义。屈折可以分为内部屈折和外部屈折。内部屈折指通过词的语音交替（改变部分语音）来构成不同的语法形式，表示不同的语法意义；如阿拉伯语以固定的辅音框架表示语汇意义，以元音交替表示不同的语法意义。 外部屈折指通过附加词缀的方式表示不同的语法意义。例如英语的book（书，单数）在后面加上词缀-s,就表示复数意义books(书，复数)。 屈折语的一个构型词缀可以同时表示几种语法意义，例如英语的-s在动词后面表示第三人称、单数、现在时、主动语态，如works. 同样的语法意义，在不同的词里也可以用不同的词缀来表示，如俄语中性名词单数主格的词尾有-o(如neop钢笔)，-e（noπe田地）。 屈折语的词根和构型词缀结合得很紧，如果去掉构型词缀，词根往往就不能成词，如俄语nepo去掉词尾-o,nep-就不能独立使用。 印欧语系各语言以及阿拉伯语等，一般都属于屈折语，其中俄语和德语是最典型的屈折语。 3、音位：是某种语言中能区别语素或词的语音形式的最小语音单位，是依据语音的社会属性划分出来的语音类别。 音位本身并不含有任何意义。音位只有在和别的音位组合成高一层级的单位后才能负载意义。如单个的/k/和/ae/或/t/是没有什么意义的，但是他们组合成了[caet](cat)之后就有了“猫”的意义。因此，音位只有区别音形进而区别意义的作用，而没有表达意义的作用。 音位分析的目的是要把语言里数目繁多的语言归纳为数目有限的一套音位系统，分析音位的三基本原则是：对立、互补、语音相似。 音位可以分为音质音位和非音质音位两大类。一般把音素的音质角度分析归并出来的音位叫音质音位，因为它占有一个时段，所以又叫音段音位。除了音质以外，音高、音强、音长这些非音质形式也能区别词的语音形式，由这些韵律（音律）形式构成的音位叫非音质音位。又叫超音段音位。包括调位、重位、时位。 调位：主要由音高特征构成的音位叫调位，又叫声调。调位是汉藏语系诸语言中区别词的语言形式的重要手段之一。 重位：主要由音强特征构成的音位叫重位。重音在英语、俄语中是区别词的语音形式和词义的重要手段。构成重位的非音质特征是综合的。 时位：由音长特征构成的音位叫时位。长短音的区别主要表现在元音上，如广东话和许多少数民族语言里，时位都有区别词的语音形式和意义的作用。 4、语流音变就是指在连续的语流中某些语音成分受前后语音环境的影响而发生变化的现象。有时说话人由于种种原因调整语音的快慢、高低、强弱，也会造成语音的某种变化。
语言学概论 复习总结
英语语言学概论 期中作业 专业：英语（翻译）学号：20131311202 姓名：汤汪
第七章语言、文化与社会 1、语言与文化 (1)语言 语言有广义和狭义之分。 狭义的语言包括口头语言、书面语言和书面语的物质载体——文字。最狭义的语言不包括文字，只包括口语和书面语，口语和书面语是人类社会用来进行交际和思维的最重要、最常用、最发达、最严密的符号体系。 广义的语言不仅包括狭义语言，而且还包括准语言。准语言又称副语言、类语言，根据诉诸感官的不同，准语言又可分为听觉的（伴随声音、音乐语言、其他声响符号）、视觉的（表情、体态等；图表、公式等；绘画语言；舞蹈语言；蒙太奇语言；符号、标识语言；其他视觉符号）、触觉的（盲文等）三类。 广义的语言其实包括了人类用于交际的所有手段，因此可以将广义的语言定义为“人类使用的一切符号”。 (2)文化 文化是社会成员共同拥有的生活方式和为满足这些方式而共同创造的事事物物，以及基于这些方式而形成的心理和行为。 广义的文化可以分为物质文化、制度文化和心理文化三个层次。物质文化是一种可见的显性文化。制度文化和心理文化是不可见的隐性文化或曰潜在文化。 物质文化是指人类创造的种种物质文明。诸如生产和交通工具，武器，日用器具，服饰，居住、饮食和其他人类行为所需要的物品等等。 制度文化是指种种制度和理论体系。诸如饮食习惯、建筑工艺、卫生管理、娱乐方式等生活制度，婚姻形式、亲属关系、家庭财产分配等家庭制度，劳动管理、艺术生产、教育、道德、风俗、宗教、利益、法律、政治、警察、军队等社会制度，以及有关这些制度的各种理论体系。 心理文化包括思维方式、审美情趣、宗教信仰、价值观念等等，比之物质文化和制度文化，心理文化处于更深的层次上。 (3)语言与文化的关系 语言与文化相互依赖、相互影响.语言是文化的重要载体；文化对语言有制约作用.本文对语言的内在系统,从语言的形式和结构上作了分析,并对语言的社会功能和其它外在因素进行了探讨。 语言在人类的一切活动中都起着十分重要的作用,是人类社会生活不可缺少的一个部分。自古以来,语言学家们都试图从多方面对语言进行探讨,形成了许多语言学流派。归纳起来,现代语言学主要来源于两大传统：语文学传统和人类学传统。语文学传统从比较语言学和历史语言学开始,根据文学作品和书面文献的研究对语言进行分析和比较。19世纪语文学家的工作为现代语言学的独立研究奠定了基础,后来发展到布龙菲尔德的结构主义和乔姆斯基的转换生成语法。这一传统的继承者强调语言的自然属性,把语言看成是一个封闭的,独立的系统,把语言学看成是一门横跨人文科学和自然科学的独立的边缘科学。人类学传统指运用人类学方法去研究没有书写系统和文字传统的社会集团的语言。自20世纪初
语言学概论期末复习重点
名词解释 1、词汇 是一种语言中所有的词和成语等固定用语的总汇 2、音位的自由变体 有些音位在同一语言环境中，可以自由替换，而又不能区别词义，不受前面其他音位的影响，没有任何条件的限制 3，语言 语言是社会现象，是社会交际工具。同时是心里现象，是人类思维的工具 4，自源文字 是在某种语言的基础上自发产生并逐步完善的文字 5，同化和异化 同化现象是指，一个音位受相邻音位的影响儿而又在某个区别特征或音位整体上的趋同现象；异化现象，是指两个本来相同或相近的音位，如果连着发音有困难，则其中一个发生变化，变得跟邻近的音不同或不相近 6，黏着语 没有词的内部屈折，每一个语法范畴义都有一个粘附语素来表示，而一个粘附语素也只表示一种语法范畴义的语言类型 7，语音 即语言的声音，是语言符号系统的载体，人的发音器官发出，负载着一定的语言定义。语言依靠语音实现他的社会功能 8音质音位 以因素为材料，从音质的角度分析音位 9形态 同一个词与不同的词组合就有不同的变化。这些不同的变化形成一个聚合，叫做词形变化，或者叫做形态 10仿意词 是分别将外语中的构词材料按外语中的次序译成本民族语，使构词成分的选择和构词结构的选择与外语一一对应 12区别特征 具有区别音位的语音特征叫区别特征，也叫区别性特征 13符号 社会全体成员共同约定，用来表示某种意义的记号、标记、它包括形式和内容两个方面。它的作用是指称社会现实现象 14，小学 中国传统文学又称小学，包括分析字形的文字学，研究字音的音韵学，解释字义的训诂学，它们是围绕解释和解读先秦典籍展开研究的，因此又被称为经学的附庸 15，言内意外 用语言表达思想时留下的一些意义空白或将真实意义隐含在另一种说法中，或用一种意义采用不同说法以获取不同的效果 16文字 有两个意思，一个是指一个一个的字，一是指语言的视觉符号体系 17国际音标 是国际语音协会于1888年制定并开始使用的，不带民族特色。它的制定原则是：
27037 本科自考英语语言学概论精心整理 Chapter 4 Phonology
Chapter 4 Phonology(音位学) 4.1 phonetics and phonology:语音学与音位学的区分 Both phonetics and phonology are concerned with speech.语音学和音位学都士对语音的研究。 定义区别 -Phonetics is a study of the production, perception and physical properties of speech sounds. 语音学是研究语音的生产、感知和物理性质的。 -Phonology studies how speech sounds are combined，organized，and convey meanings in particular languages.研究语音如何在在特定的语言中结合、组织和表达含义。 ---Phonology is language-specific.it is the study of how sounds are organized and used in natural languages.音位学是特定于语言的。它的研究对象是自然语言中的声音是如何组织和使用的。 ---Phonetics is a study of speech sounds while phonology is a study of the sound syst em of a language.语音学是一个研究语音的然后音位学是研究一种语言的声音系统的学科。 4.2 Phonemes，phones and allophones 音位、音子、音位变体 Different languages have different phonological systems.不同的语言有不同的语音系统。 定义： ①Phones are the smallest identifiable phonetic unit or segment found in a stream of speech. 音子就是在连续的发音中可辨认的最小语音单位或片段。 ②Allophones are the phones which represent a phoneme in a language and cannot change word meaning by substituting any of the set for another.音位变体是指代表语言中音位的音子，即使以一个取代另一个也不改变词义。 ③Phonemes are the minimal distinctive units in the sound system of a language.音位是语言系统中最小的独特的单位。 Allophones are the realization of a particular phoneme while phones are the realizatio n of phonemes in general.音位变体是一个特定音素的认知而音子则是一般的音素。 4.3Minimal pairs 最小对立体 The phonologist is concerned with what difference are significant or technically speaki ng, distinctive. Minimal pair---a pair of words which differ from each other by one sound. Three conditions（情况）: 1）the two froms are different in meaning意义不同 2）the two forms are different in one sound segment声音片段不同 3）the different sounds occur in the same position of the two words.不同声音发生在两个单词的相同位置 Minimal set: a group of words can satisfy（满足）the three conditions . Minimal pairs help determine phonemes. 最小对立体用来定义音位。 4.4 identifying phonemes 识别音素 4.4.1 contrastive distribution，complementary distribution and free variation 对比分布，互补分布和自由变异 The distribution of a sound refers to the collective environments in which the sound concerned may appear.一个声音的分布是指其有关的声音可能出现的集体环境。 1）contrastive distribution对比分布 If two or more sounds can occur in the same environment and the substitution of on
语言学概论知识点2017
语言学概论知识点 名词解释： 语言：语言是以语音为物质外壳、以词汇为建筑材料、以语法为结构规律而构成的体系。言语：是对语言的具体运用，包括说话的行为和结果。 语言的任意性：构成符号的声音和意义之间没有内在的、必然的联系。 语言的离散性：语言可以进行切分，被切分成的每个单位有独立的存在，彼此不相互混淆，但又可以灵活组装。 符号：是人们有意识用来指代某种特定事物的、可为人们感官感知的标记。 狭义符号：符号的“能指”（物质外壳）和“所指”（意义） 语言符号：语言是以语音为能指，以语义为所指的符号系统。具有：任意性、线条性、系统性、层次性的特点。聚合关系和组合关系是语言中最基本的两种关系。 组合关系：组合关系就是两个以上连续的语言符号有条件、按规则组合起来的关系。简单地说，就是符号与符号相互组合起来的关系 聚合关系：聚合关系就是语言结构某一位置上能互相替换、具有相同性质和作用的语言符号之间的类聚关系。简单说就是符号与符号之间的替换关系。 语音：语音是人类发音器官发出的有一定意义的声音，是语言的物质外壳（表现形式）。它使语言成分物质化，是语言的载体。 音素：音素是人类语言在一次发音中按照音色的不同划分出来的最小语音单位。 元音：元音也叫“母音”，发音时气流自由呼出，不受任何阻碍，发音器官各部分肌肉紧张均衡，声带振动、可以自成音节。 辅音：辅音又叫“子音”。发音时气流在发音器官某一部分受到阻碍，通过某种方式冲破阻碍而发出音来，发音器官各部分呈紧张状态，声带有时颤动（浊辅音）有时不颤动（清辅音）。音标：广义的音标指一切标记语音的符号，如国际音标、音位音标、音节音标、语音结构音标，狭义的音标指标记音素的音标→最通行的是“国际音标”【专门用来记录语音的符号】国际音标：被各国语言工作者采用的，不带民族特色的记录语音的语音符号。 音位：音位是具体语言或方言在多次发音中划分出来的具有辨义功能的最小语音单位 超音质音位：根据音高、音强、音长的特征归纳出来的功能差别单位。超音质音位主要指调位、时位、量位。超音质音位不局限于一个音的音位，常附在音段音位的序列上面，所以又叫做超音段音位。 音位变体：是同一个音位的不同变异形式，属于同一音位但却没有变异的作用，是音位在特定语音环境中的具体体现或代表。 （条件变体自由变体）：【1】条件变体是只能出现在某种特定语音环境中的音位变体，它是一个音位在不同环境中受不同条件影响而产生的。 【2】自由变体指自由变体指能自由地出现在某种相同的语音环境中的音位变体。它不受条件地限制，可以随意地、自由地替换，不区别意义。 语流音变：特定语流中的音由于受邻音的影响，或者由于说话时快慢、高低、强弱的不同，或者由于所处的位置特殊，都会发生不同程度的变化，这就是语流音变，也叫连读音变。大多数情况下，语流音变都发生在音位范围内条件变体的替换。 语调：是一种普遍的语言现象。声调是属于音节的，但是句子也可以有高低抑扬轻重的变化，这就是语调。狭义的语调又叫句调，指全句高低升降的变化，他表达说话人的情绪要求等
语言学概论复习要点
合作原则—— 基本点：交际双方为使交际能够顺利下去，双方必须合作。 具体内容由美国语言学家格赖斯提出，其认为交际双方的合作，必须遵循四项准则： （1）量的准则：所说的话提供的信息要与交际的目的相适应，不超出不少于交际目的需要（2）质的准则：所说的话是真实的 （3）相关准则：所说的话同对方的话题相关联 （4）方式准则：说话简明清楚 问多答少、言语晦涩、含混啰嗦等都不利于交际的进行。 变异概说—— 任何一种语言都不是绝对划一的统一体，语言随着时间、地点和环境的改变而变化，处于一种缓变的状态中。 语言在共时层面的差异称为语言的差异。 语言的变异受到三种情况的影响： （1）说话者的地区背景和社会背景（母语、教育程度、职业等） （2）产生言语行为的实际情景，需要采取什么言语表达方式和超语言特征 （3）谈论的话题是什么 语言的变异分为三类： （1）地域变异：形成地域方言，即属于某一地域的群体使用的语言 （2社会变异：指不同社会地位、职业、行帮、种族、性别的区别在语言使用上产生的差异（3）功能变异：指说话人为了某一目的使受话人受到影响、产生反应而使用的言语方式 地域变异—— 语言的地域变异表现为地域方言，包括次方言，与之相对的有共同语和规范语言。 （方言—次方言—土语） 方言变异的表现（主要表现在语音和词汇上） 1、语音方面 闽方言、粤方言的变异较大，吴方言次之，客家方言、赣方言、湘方言又次之。 2、词汇方面 主要表现为同一意义用不同词语表现。 3、语法方面 主要表现在词序、虚词方面。粤方言中这种双音节词中修饰性词素位于被修饰性词素之后，是语法上的一个特点。例如：客人—人客、干菜—菜干 方言的形成与发展 汉语言发源地：黄河流域。秦汉以前，楚国南迁，吴方言、湘方言可能在东南部地区形成方言的形成除了由于移民、山川阻隔、政治经济的原因外，与异民族语言的接触和土著语言的混合也有一定的关系。 语言的分化和产生变异的程度，通常取决于共同语对方言的约束力。 方言发展的前途： 1、在社会封闭，甚至分裂的情况下，共同约束力减弱，语言分化的结果导致差别扩大，有可能形成独立的语言。 2、继续保持已有的地域差异状态，在地域范围内，优势扩大或者缩小自己的覆盖范围。 3、由于共同语的强大影响、社会的统一和发展，方言的使用范围逐渐缩小，或者方言本身逐渐向共同语靠拢。
语言学概论复习重点与难点
语言学概论复习重点与难点
<语言学概论>复习重点与难点 指导老师陈蓉 1.1语义就是语言的意义，是语言形式表达的内容。语义包含两个方面的内容，一是思想，也就是所谓的“理性意义”，一是情感，也就是所谓的“非理性意义”。理性意义也叫做逻辑意义或指称意义，是对主客观世界的认识。理性意义是语义的基本要素。非理性意义是说话人的主观情感、态度以及语体风格等方面的内容，它一般总是附着在特定的理性意义之上的。 语义是同语言形式结合在一起的意义，同语言形式的结合是语义的基本特征。 语言形式粗略的说，包括“语汇形式”和“语法形式”两类。语汇形式就是一种语言里所有的实词和固定短语，语法形式包括语序、虚词、形态、重音、语调等形式。由语汇形式表达的语义通常叫“词汇意义”，由语法形式表达的语义叫“语法意义”。
在语言里，语素、词、词组、句子等各级单位都有意义，它们的意义都是语义。其中句子的意义和词的意义具有突出的地位。 语言形式所表达的意义有一般与个别、稳定与临时的分别。在通常情况下都能够存在的意义是一般的、稳定的，在特定睥上下文、特定的交际场合中或特定的知识背景下才能出现的意义是人别的临时的。前者叫“语言意义”即语义，后者叫“语境意义”。 1.2 语义的概括性 概括性是语义的重要属性，无论是词义还是句义都是概括的。 1.3 语义的模糊性 所谓的模糊性是指词义所反映的对象只有一个大致的范围，而没有明确的界限。但也不是所有的词语都如此。不少词语的词义是精确的。 1.4 语义的民族性
语义的民族特点比较突出地体现在词义上。语义的民族特点也体现在词语的非理性意义方面。 2.1 词义的构成 词义是指词的语音形式所表达的内容。词的意义包括词汇意义和语法意义两部分。词义可以说是由理性意义和非理性意义两部分构成的。 词的理性意义是通过人的抽象思维对物质世界和精神世界的各种对象的概括的反映而形成的。 词的理性意义由于概括深度上的差异而分为两种类型：一种是人们对事物所具有的一组非本质特征的反映，这种词的理性意义可以称之为“通俗意义”；另一种是人们对事物的本质特征的反映，这种词的理性意义可以称为“科学意义”。 词的理性意义是词义的基本的和核心的部分。 词的非理性意义是附着在词的理性意义之上的，因而又叫做词义的附加色彩。
英语语言学概论复习
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《语言学概论》教学大纲汇总
《语言学概论》课程教学大纲 一、基本信息 课程编号：10601100540 课程名称：语言学概论 英文名称： Linguistics 课程性质：必修课程 总学时：64 学分：4 理论学时：64 实验学时：0 实践学时：0 指导自学学时：0 适用专业：英语专业（医药贸易方向）适用层次：本科 先修课程：英语语法，精读等 承担院部：人文学院学科组：英语专业学科组 二、课程介绍 （一）课程目标及地位 本课程是高等院校英语专业必修课程之一，一般安排在第七学期，向学生介绍语言学领域的重要研究成果，包括语音学、词汇学、句法学、语义学、语用学的基本理论以及语言与文化、社会、思维等的关系。通过本课程的学习，学生将具备语言学的基本知识，并通过所获得的知识加深对英语的理解及增强对英语中一些语言现象的观察和分析的能力。 本课程的教学目的有两个，即：掌握英语语言学的基础知识、以及应用英语从事语言学方面研究的能力。 1、掌握语言学的基础知识 本课程以英语为主要研究对象，重点介绍英语语言的内部结构、表现形式和意义以及与人的心理、社会、文化艺术、信息科学、教育等的关系，要求学生通过听讲与自学，对英语语言学、语言学分支、流派及其发展等有一个比较全面地了解，掌握英语语言学的基本概念、研究方法及其应用等，提高对英语的理性认识，初步具备发现问题和解决问题的能力。 2、应用英语从事语言学研究的能力 作为语言学方面的专门课程，本课程的最终目的是培养学生应用英语从事英语语言学或一般语言学研究的能力。因此，本课程要求那些对语言学有兴趣并有意从事这方面研究的学生，能够运用英语和所学的语言学知识从事语言学或英语语言学方面的研究，用英语进行表达或撰写论文。 （二）教学基本要求 1．“语言学概论”是汉语言文学专业的一门专业基础课程，是语言理论基础课。它从理论上探讨人类语言的本质、结构和演变的规律。学生通过本课程的学习，能比较系统地掌握语言学的基本概念、基本理论和基础知识，为提高语言理论水平、进一步学习和深入研究其他
语言学复习提纲
复习提纲 1.考试内容包括：Chapter 1，2，4，5，6，8，共6个Chapters。对六章里在课堂讲解的部分充分理解。 2.Define the following terms. Chapter 1 (1)synchronic (2) diachronic (3) prescriptive (4) descriptive (5) arbitrariness (6) duality (7) displacement (8) competence & performance (9) langue & parole Chapter 2 (1)phonetics （2）phonology (3) allophone (4) syllable (5) assimilation Chapter 4 (1)syntax (2) endocentric (3) exocentric (4) recursiveness (5) cohesion Chapter 5 (1)conceptual meaning (2) connotation (3) synonymy (4) gradable antonymy (5) complementaryantonymy (6) converse antonymy (7) hyponymy Chapter 6 (1)connectionism (2) cohort model (3) parallel model (4) construal (5) image schema (6) metaphor (7) metonymy Chapter 8 (1)utterance (2) performative (3) constative (4) Theory of Illocutionary Act (5) cooperative principle (6) conversational implicature 3. 用相关理论对文本（话语）进行分析 (1) cohesion (reference, ellipsis, lexical repetition, substitution, lexical collocation, conjunction) We normally say that a company “went bankrupt,” implying that it had no choice. But when, recently, American Airlines filed for bankruptcy, it did so deliberately. The airline had four billion dollars in the bank and could have kept paying its bills. But it has been losing money for a while, and its board decided that it was foolish to keep throwing good money after bad. Declaring bankruptcy will trim American’s debt load and allow it to break its union contracts, so that it can slim down and cut costs. American wasn’t stigmatized for the move. Instead, analysts hailed it as “very smart.” It is now generally accepted that when it’s economically irrational for a company to keep paying its debts it will try to renegotiate them or, failing that, default. For creditors, that’s just the price of business. But when it comes to another set of borrowers the norms are very different. The bursting of the housing bubble has left millions of homeowners across the country owing more than their homes are worth. In some areas, well over half of mortgages are underwater, many so deeply that people owe forty or fifty per cent more than the value of their homes. In other words, a good percentage of Americans are in much the same position as American
语言学概论期末复习要点
语言学概论(本科)期末复习要点 导言部分 一、语言学、语言学的对象和任务 1．语言学是以语言作为研究对象的科学，它以人类的语言为研究对象。语言学的基本任务是研究语言的规律，具体地说，语言学研究语言的性质、作用、结构，语言的发展变化，使人们懂得有关语言的理性知识，从而提高学习语言和运用语言的水平。 2．中国、印度、希腊－罗马是语言学的三大发源地。 3．我国的小学：小学是我国古代语文学的统称，由训诂学、文字学、音韵学三部分组成。训诂学解释字义，文字学分析字形，音韵学研究字音。 二、语言学在科学体系中的地位 1．语言的研究和其它科学的关系十分密切，不仅与社会科学有联系，而且与自然科学也有十分密切的联系。语言学是一门古老的科学，又是一门年轻的科学。 2．语言交际的过程：语言交际过程可分“编码－发送－传递－接收－解码”五个阶段。 三、语言学的基本类别 根据研究的对象的不同，语言学可以分为以下几类：共时语言学和历时语言学、专语语言学和普通语言学、。各类语言学下面还可以进一步细分，如专语语言学下面可分汉语语言学（例如现代汉语、古代汉语、近代汉语、汉语史等）、英语语言学、俄语语言学等等，普通语言学下面可分语音学、词汇学、语义学、语法学、修辞学等等。 四、语言学流派 比较重要的语言学流派主要有：历史比较语言学、结构语言学、布拉格学派、哥本哈根学派、美国描写语言学派、转换-生成学派、系统-功能学派、社会语言学。各个语言学流派的观点、代表人物有所了解即可，注意布拉格学派、哥本哈根学派以及美国结构语言学派（也称美国描写语言学）都属于结构主义学派，是这一学派的三个分支。关于语言学流派的具体内容阐述，请浏览《语言学网络课件》中的“望远镜”板块。 第一章语言的社会功能 本章需要明确的要点是：第一，语言的两大社会功能；第二，语言是一种社会现象。第一节语言是人类最重要的交际工具1．语言的交际功能：语言是联系社会成员的桥梁和纽带。 2．语言是一种社会现象：弄清楚语言是一种社会现象的内涵，语言不是自然现象，而是社会现象，是一定社会的产物，同社会的关系非常密切。 3．语言是一种特殊的社会现象：没有阶级性，具有全民性特点。语言是人类最重要的交际工具 第二节语言是思维的工具 1．语言和思维的关系 思维活动的过程不可能离开语言而单独进行，思维离不开语言，语言也离不开思维，二者是互相依存，共同发展的。 2．思维能力是全人类共同的，语言是各民族不同 本节其它一些问题可一般了解：一、儿童学习语言的过程，二、思维不能离开语言的实验根据，三、关于聋哑人的思维，聋哑人失去语言能力对他的思维能力的发展产生了严重的消极影响，四、人类思维在机器中的再现。 第二章语言是符号系统 本章有三大要点：语言是符号、语言的任意性特点、语言的层次性第一节语言符号的性质和特点一、什么是符号 1．符号的含义：符号是人们用来指代某种事物的标记。符号是由一定的形式构成的表示一定意义的记号或标记，它包括形式和意义两个方面，指称现实现象。如： 2．符号的构成：符号是由形式和意义两个部分构成的结合体。 二、语言符号及其特点 1．语言符号：从本质上看，语言也是一种符号，也有形式和意义两个方面。注意语言符号同一般符号的区别。 2．语言符号的特点：语言符号具有任意性和线条性的特点 第二节语言符号的系统性一、语言的层级体系 弄清楚语言层级，各个层级的构成及其特点，以及语言二层性的核心。 二、组合关系和聚合关系 1．组合关系：组合关系就是两个同一性质的结构单位（比如音位和音位、词与词等）按照线性的顺序组合起来的关系，也
语言学概论考试内容总结
语言学概论考试内容 一、填空题 1.导言 ●中国、印度和希腊-罗马在传统语文学的研究上都取得了辉煌的成就，是语言学的三大发源地。 ●中国传统的语文学主要是抓住汉字，分析它的形体，探求它的古代读音和意义，形成了统称“小学”的文字、音韵、训诂之学。 ●l9世纪，语言的历史研究取得了辉煌的成就，语言自身独自具有的发展规律被越来越多地认识到，形成了历史比较语言学，这标志着语言学不再是其他学科的附庸，已经成为一门独立的学科。 ●20世纪初，瑞士语言学家索绪尔(F．de Saussure)的《普通语言学教程》明确了语言学研究对象，极大地促进了语言研究的深入和发展，为形成系统的现代语言学理论体系奠定了基础。语言学从此成为一门现代科学。 ●语言研究可以分别描写语言的语音、语法、语汇每个子系统在某一个特定时期的状态和不同子系统之间的关联，这是共时语言学的研究角度；也可以研究语言每个子系统在不同时期所发生的变化及其变化中不同子系统之间的关联，这是历史语言学的研究角度。 ●语言研究可以具体地研究某一个语言，探求其语音、语法、语汇的结构及发展规律；也可以通过多语言的比较探求所有人类语言的语音、语法、语汇在共时结构上的共性，探求所有人类语言在历史发展中的共同规律。前者所形成的学科叫做具体语言学，后者叫做普通语言学。 ●如果借用信息论的术语，运用语言进行交际的过程大体上可以分为五个阶段，即“编码 -- 发送 -- 传递 -- 接收 -- 解码”。
2.语言的功能 ●语言的功能是多方面的，如果从宽泛的意义上讲，大致都可归入语言的社会功能和思维功能两个方面。 ●语言的社会功能中最基本的是信息传递功能。 ●语言是人类社会信息传递第一性的、最基本的手段。 ●语言的社会功能的另一个重要方面是建立或保持某种社会关联，这可称为语言的人际互动功能。 ●人的大脑分左右两半球，大脑的左半球控制语言活动。 3.语言是符号系统 ●符号包含形式和意义两个方面，形式是人们的感官可以感知的。依据所作用的感官的不同，符号可以分为视觉符号、听觉符号和触觉符号。 ●语言符号的任意性和线条性，是20世纪初瑞士的语言学家德·索绪尔作为语言符号的基本性质提出的。语言符号的这两个性质和语言符号的系统性密切相关。 ●语言分层装置是靠语言单位的组合和替换来维系其运转的。 ●组合关系和聚合关系是语言系统中的两种根本关系。不但语言符号（词、语素）处在这两种关系之中，而且构造符号的音位和意义也都处在这两种关系之中。 4.语音和音系 ●语音与自然界的其它声音有相同的一面，即从自然属性看都是因物体的振动而产生；语音还有其不同于自然界其他声音的一面，是它具有社会属性。 ●从自然属性出发，针对所有人类语言的语音进行研究，属于语音学的研究；从社会属性出发，针对语音在某一个具体语言系统中所起的作用进行研究，属于音系学。 ●国际音标是国际语音协会于1888年制定并开始使用的。国际音标的制定原则是音素和标写符号一一对应，不会出现混淆或两可的现象。
语言学概论复习要点
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英语语言学概论--整理汇编
Chapter 1 Language语言 1. Design feature (识别特征) refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 2. Productivity (能产性) refers to the ability that people have in making and comprehending indefinitely large quantities of sentences in their native language. 3. arbitrariness (任意性) Arbitrariness refers to the phenomenon that there is no motivated relationship between a linguistic form and its meaning. 4. symbol (符号) Symbol refers to something such as an object, word, or sound that represents something else by association or convention. 5. discreteness(离散性) Discreteness refers to the phenomenon that the sounds in a language are meaningfully distinct. 6. displacement (不受时空限制的特性) Displacement refers to the fact that human language can be used to talk about things that are not in the immediate situations of its users. 7. duality of structure (结构二重性) The organization of language into two levels, one of sounds, the other of meaning, is known as duality of structure. 8. culture transmission (文化传播) Culture transmission refers to the fact that language is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by inheritance. 9. interchangeability (互换性) Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. 1. ★What is language? Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. This definition has captured the main features of language. First, language is a system. Second, language is arbitrary in the sense. The third feature of language is symbolic nature. 2. ★What are the design features of language? Language has seven design features as following: 1) Productivity. 2) Discreteness. 3) Displacement 4) Arbitrariness. 5) Cultural transmission 6) Duality of structure. 7) Interchangeability. 3. Why do we say language is a system? Because elements of language are combined according to rules, and every language contains a set of rules. By system, the recurring patterns or arrangements or the particular ways or designs in which a language operates. And the sounds, the words and the sentences are used in fixed patterns that speaker of a language can understand each other. 4. ★ (Function of language.) According to Halliday, what are the initial functions of children’s language? And what are the three functional components of adult language? I. H alliday uses the following terms to refer to the initial functions of children’s language: 1) Instrumental function. 工具功能 2) Regulatory function. 调节功能 3) Representational function. 表现功能 4) Interactional function. 互动功能 5) Personal function. 自指性功能 6) Heuristic function. 启发功能[osbQtq`kf`h] 7) Imaginative function. 想象功能 II. A dult language has three functional components as following: 1) Interpersonal components. 人际 2) Ideational components.概念 3) Textual components.语篇