7. 代表文章之二—Structuralchangeandcarbonemissionofruralhouseholdenergy (SCI 6.57)

Structural change and carbon emission of rural household energy

consumption in Huantai,northern China

Long Liang a,b,Wenliang Wu a,n,Rattan Lal b,Yanbin Guo a

a College of Resources and Environmental Sciences,China Agricultural University,Beijing100193,China

b Carbon Management and Sequestration Center,The Ohio State University,Columbus,OH43210,USA

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:

Received16May2011

Received in revised form

26March2013

Accepted21July2013

Available online7September2013

Keywords:

Rural household

Energy consumption

Structural change

Carbon emission

Strategy

a b s t r a c t

Huantai,a typical high-yielding agricultural county in the northern developed region of China and as a

microcosm of China's rural area,is chosen as a case study to analyze the structural change and carbon

(C)emission of rural household energy consumption.During the last30years,the per capita

consumption and emission increased from329kg standard coal equivalent(kg ce)and783.6kg CO2

to638.4kg ce and1582.5kg CO2,with the average annual growth rates of3.2%and3.5%,respectively.

Among four activities(lighting,cooking,heating,and recreation),cooking and heating account for

470–95%at different times,and recreation is the fastest-growing activity.The current annual growth

rates for recreational consumption and emission are133.3%and115.5%,respectively.In the context of

energy structure,the proportion of nonrenewable energy increased from15.7%in1980to87.7%in2009.

Increase in income and changes in lifestyle are the two key factors affecting energy consumption and C

emission.And this trend is endangering the sustainable development of rural areas and further China's

development.Thus,it is necessary to develop new renewable energy strategy and explore new low-C

developing mode both for local and central governments.At the level of Huantai county,appropriate

strategies include improving use-ef?ciency of straw,developing large and medium-sized biogas digester,

and harvesting solar energy.At the level of central government,developing biomass,rural biogas

industry and solar energy have large potentials.It is necessary to continue to promote energy-saving

stoves and small energy facilities,such as small wind power and hydropower stations in rural areas.But

how to realize high-speed development and low-C emission in the process of urbanization is a major

challenge in China at present and in the future.

&2013Elsevier Ltd.All rights reserved.

Contents

1.Introduction (768)

2.Materials and methods (768)

2.1.The study area (768)

2.2.Data collection and analysis (769)

3.Results (769)

3.1.Energy consumption and carbon emission (769)

3.1.1.Nonrenewable energy sources (769)

3.1.2.Renewable energy source (770)

3.2.Change of consumption and emission of energy end-use (770)

3.2.1.Energy consumption and carbon emission for lighting (770)

3.2.2.Cooking energy consumption and carbon emission (772)

3.2.3.Energy consumption and carbon emission for home heating (772)

3.2.4.Recreational energy consumption and carbon emission (772)

4.Discussion (772)

4.1.Unsustainability of fossil energy and sustainable development (772)

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

journal homepage:https://www.wendangku.net/doc/cc3322602.html,/locate/rser

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

1364-0321/$-see front matter&2013Elsevier Ltd.All rights reserved.

https://www.wendangku.net/doc/cc3322602.html,/10.1016/j.rser.2013.07.041

n Corresponding author.Tel./fax:+861062736537.

E-mail address:wuwenl@https://www.wendangku.net/doc/cc3322602.html,(W.Wu).

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews28(2013)767–776

4.2.Structure of energy source and trend..............................................................................7734.3.Carbon emissions and environmental deterioration ..................................................................7734.4.Renewable energy and rural development..........................................................................7744.5.Urbanization and low-C developing mode..........................................................................7745.Conclusions ........................................................................................................775Acknowledgments.......................................................................................................775References . (775)

1.Introduction

Climate change may strongly impact the human society,economy and the environment.Consequently,development of low-carbon(C)fuel sources is gaining momentum globally [1–3].In the “twelfth ?ve-year plan ”(the most important plan designed and completed by the government)of China,low-C and green development are emphasized and will become important compo-nents of its economy.Towards an effort to develop a low-C society,there is a growing focus on cities and industry.Nonetheless,low-C villages and towns must also be taken into account,especially in China.There are 4940million rural residents in China,among which about 750millions keep permanent residency status in villages and their daily life is also an integral part of the low-C society [4–6].In the past,the quantity of rural energy consumption was drastically less than that in the cities.The majority of rural households were mainly dependent on traditional biomass (i.e.,crop residues/straw and ?rewood)as household energy source.Thus,C emission from fossil-fuels was low,and emissions from rural households were often neglected.With the rapid develop-ment of the economy,however,the structure of household energy consumption has greatly changed and rural C emissions are pro-gressively increasing.Indeed,non-renewable and commercial energy sources constitute a considerable proportion of total energy use in some developed rural areas [7–9].Thus,it is necessary to analyze the structural change and emission of rural households at spatial and temporal scales,to identify basic principles and trends,and adopt corresponding measures to prevent rural areas from becoming a major C source.

This manuscript is a case study of the Huantai county of Shandong province,a typical agricultural region in developed area.It is based on an analysis of representative rural household survey and diverse sources of aggregate statistics.It explores the structural change and C emission of household energy use from 1980to 2009.The results presented can be used as an important reference for other regions of northern China,which are also in the process of rapid modernization.The data presented are also

important to identify researchable priorities to balance the energy supply and demand,formulate energy policy,and create eco-environment in rural northern China.

2.Materials and methods 2.1.The study area

Huantai county is located in the center of the Shandong province,which is part of the North China Plain (NCP),located between 36151′50″and 37106′00″N,and 117150′00″and 118110′40″E (Fig.1).The study covers an area of 520km 2,and 0.5million people,consisting of 0.41million in rural communities.This region has a typical continental monsoonal climate,charac-terized by an average annual temperature of 12.51C,with long cold winters.The soil parent material mainly consists of mountain diluvium and Yellow River alluvial deposits,which developed into loam soils classi ?ed as Calcaric Fluvisols [10].This region is the primary food-producing area of China.More than 80%of agricul-tural land use between 1990and 2010comprised of the cropping system involving winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)and summer corn (Zea mays L.).Agronomic productivity in 1990was 415Mg/ha of grains across the entire region.Thus,Huantai became the ?rst grain county in northern China,and earned the title of “Granary of North Lu ”.Modern,intensive livestock breeding is also widely practiced,while sporadic,personal livestock breeding is rapidly diminishing [10].Along with the rapid development of industry and agriculture in recent years,there are many employ-ment opportunities for rural laborers,created by local town and village businesses and the construction industry.Consequently,rural per capita net annual income increased from 88RMB (Chinese Yuan)in 1978to 9745RMB in 2010.Yet,the contribution of agriculture to the total GDP decreased from 49.4%in 1983to o 5%in 2009,and 480%of peasant's income is derived from non-agricultural industries [10]

.

Fig.1.Geographic location of the study area in Huantai County.Abbreviations:CZ —Chengzhuang town;GL —Guoli town;JJ —Jingjia town;MQ —Maqiao town;QF —Qifeng town;TS —Tangshan town;XC —Xingcheng town;XJ —Xingjia town;ZJ —Zhoujia town.

L.Liang et al./Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 28(2013)767–776

768

2.2.Data collection and analysis

With the exception of the data for the 1980s,which was derived from a nationwide survey [11],all data concerning rural household energy consumption in Huantai county were obtained through site surveys,which are also more reliable and accurate.The data for the year 1989was obtained through a cooperative sample survey and an on-the-spot investigation by the Energy Sector Management Assistance Program [12].Data for the years 2005and 2009were obtained using questionnaires circulated by China Agricultural University's experiment station in Huantai.There are 11towns in Huantai county,and additional survey was conducted in 5towns and 11villages.A random strati ?ed sampling method was adopted,and questionnaires were distrib-uted to 220families.The 1989questionnaire was altered slightly for use in 2005and 2009to credibly assess the current rural household energy consumption in the Huantai county.Relevant coef ?cients of standard coal conversion and C emission used are presented in Table 1.The method to calculate corn stover con-sumption also followed the same index [10],and the investigated communities are the same villages and small towns surveyed in 2006and 2010.The Excel program was adapted to conduct statistical analysis.To begin with,the inspecting questionnaires removed some exceptional invalid questions to ensure the effec-tiveness of the survey.Secondly,the input data were used to calculate the mean values of consumption and emission.Thirdly,the data were analyzed to determine structure of the energy source and excess C emission.In the meanwhile,a portion of the macro-data was also collected from the Huantai Statistical Year-books and China Rural Energy Statistical Data [13].

An assessment of the energy-consuming appliances was con-ducted to analyze the relationship among energy consumption,

C emission and lifestyle changes (Table 2).It is not possible to provide correct data for 1980because of the lack of relative statistical data.Thus,a baseline was developed by using a similar survey conducted for urban population over the same time [16].3.Results

3.1.Energy consumption and carbon emission

The rural household energy consumption and C emissions in Huantai county have been increasing during the past 30years (since 1980).The per capita consumption increased from 329kg of standard coal equivalent (kg ce;1kg ce ?7000kcal)in 1980to 638.4kg ce in https://www.wendangku.net/doc/cc3322602.html,pared to national average growth,(Fig.2),during the 1980s,the growth rate of energy consumption in Huantai county was much higher.The Huantai county was basically at the level of national average in 2005.In 2009,however,it was above the national average for rural consumption.Such a trend means that household energy consumption is rapidly increasing in China's rural areas.In developed districts (such as Huantai),however,the mean growth rate is much higher than that of the national average.In the meanwhile,the C emissions also increased from 783.6kg CO 2in 1980to 1582.5kg CO 2in 2009,with an annual growth rate of 3.2%and 3.5%,respectively (Tables 3and 4).Simultaneously,the structures of energy con-sumption and C emission have also changed drastically.In addi-tion,there is a close relationship among consumption,emissions,and lifestyle changes (Table 2).

3.1.1.Nonrenewable energy sources

The nonrenewable energy consumptions [including electricity,liqui ?ed petroleum gas (LPG),gasoline and kerosene]have increased from 51.7kg ce in 1980to 560.1kg ce in 2009,and the proportion of the total increased from 15.7%to 87.7%.In contrast,the consumption of renewable energy (i.e.,straw,biogas and solar)decreased from 277.3kg ce in 1980to 78.3kg ce in 2009and its proportion of the total decreased from 84.3%to 12.3%.Similarly,

Table 2

Quantity of primary energy-consuming appliances per 100rural households from 1980to 2009.Year

Motorcycle Sedan Washing

machine Refrigerator Color

TV Electrical cooker Air-conditioner Motor bicycle Computer Electrical

fan Solar water heater 1980–––––––––––1989101101000007501998310452479300001100200557379481166022121322482009

65

9

92

72

122

197

34

83

28

157

40

Note :from 1985,the local government of Huantai county began to investigate the situation of rural household economy.Thus,there are no statistical data about 1980.In fact,reform and opening-up began in 1980,but China's rural households were still in extreme poverty.According to one investigation of primary energy-consuming appliances per 100urban household in Zhejiang province in 1981,the quantity of refrigerator,color TV and washing machine was only 0.53.0.53and 1.32,respectively [16].Simultaneously,the supplemental investigation in Huantai county showed energy-consuming appliance in general households in 1980was almost zero,but these data were from estimation and the memories of local

peasants.

Year

E n e r g y c o n s u m p t i o n (k g c e )

Fig.2.Energy consumption of national rural average and Huantai district.

Table 1

Index of standard coal conversion and carbon emission of all types of energy.Source:[14,15].Energy type Unit Standard coal ef ?ciency

(kg ce/unit)Carbon emission ef ?ciency

(kg CO 2/unit)Coal

kg

0.7143 1.786Gasoline kg

1.4714 3.096Kerosene kg

1.4571 3.200Diesel kg

1.4571 3.250LPG

kg

1.7143 3.182Electricity kWh

0.3460.997Straw kg

0.529 1.247Firewood kg

0.571 1.436Biogas m

30.714 1.173Solar

m 2

1300

Note :in north China,most of electricity comes from coal-?red plants.Thus,relative coef ?cient of coal-?red plant is taken for electricity emission.

L.Liang et al./Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 28(2013)767–776769

in 2009,the magnitude of C emission from nonrenewable energy amounted to 1416.6kg CO 2compared with only 129.9kg CO 2in 1980.In the meanwhile,the emission from renewable energy reduced from 653.7kg CO 2in 1980to 165.9kg CO 2.This trend implies that nonrenewable or commercial energy is progressively playing more and more important role in peasant's life in the Huantai county.

Coal consumption has become the major factor in nonrenew-able energy and C emissions.It has greatly surpassed other energy sources,accounting for 14.2%of total use in 1980and increasing to 60%by 1989.In addition,electricity,oil products,and LPG use also increased dramatically.However,the rate of increase of electricity is higher than that of LPG.This trend is attributed to two principal factors.One,coal is the main energy source in China,because its availability and use are extremely convenient.In northern China,rural households need a lot of fuel for home heating in winter,which has made coal the ?rst choice of consumption.Two,with the reform and open-door policy of China since 1978,the incomes of peasants have increased and their lifestyle and energy con-sumption pattern drastically changed.In 1980s,the household energy was almost entirely used only for cooking and home heating.After 1990,however,the use of energy-consuming pro-ducts (such as household appliances)has increased rapidly (Table 2),and recreational activities have also played a vital part in the daily activities of rural life.

3.1.2.Renewable energy source

There are two obvious features about renewable energy use in Huantai county.One,the quantity of straw/stover consumption and emission is decreasing,and has decreased from 277.3kg ce and 653.7kg CO 2in 1980to 67.8kg ce and 159.8kg CO 2in 2009,respectively.Two,clean energy sources (i.e.,biogas and solar energy)have emerged strongly,and renewable energy has exhibited diverse

trends.The proportion of straw consumption and emission reduced sharply from 84.3%and 83.4%in 1980to 10.6%and 10.1%,respec-tively.Principal reasons for this trend are adoption of no-till (NT)and straw retention mulch farming practices over the last two decades (since 1990)with strong adoption by local farmers.But corn straw and cobs are still used as household fuel for cooking,especially by relatively-poor families.Concerning diverse range of renewable energy in use since 1988,the local government began to explore and utilize renewable energy including straw gasi ?cation,solar energy,and biogas etc.[17].Through repeated exploration and practice until 2006,the local government decided to widely popu-larize solar energy and biogas.However,the results of this survey showed that domestic biogas has not been widely adopted by the local households in the Huantai county.

3.2.Change of consumption and emission of energy end-use For the purpose of this report,consumption of energy is divided into four types:lighting,cooking,home heating and recreation.Among these,electricity and coal are also divided into different types according to its relative consumption.The results of this survey show that,solar energy is generally used for recrea-tional purposes.From the standpoint of energy end-use,during the past 30years (since 1980),the consumption and emission have also greatly changed (Tables 5and 6).

3.2.1.Energy consumption and carbon emission for lighting

The energy consumption and C emission trends for lighting have changed from highly diverse to only a few sources and the consump-tion increased initially but eventually decreased.In general,there are two trends of energy consumption and emission by lighting.Between 1980and 2005,the per capita consumption and emission for lighting increased from 5.0kg ce and 13.1kg CO 2to 19.4kg ce and 55.9kg CO 2,

Table 3

Per capita rural household energy consumption of different energy types.Energy

1980

1989

2005

2009

Energy (kg ce)

%Energy (kg ce)%Energy (kg ce)%Energy (kg ce)%Electricity 3.29115.02 3.1454.3410.00114.3517.91LPG 00 3.810.8016.19 2.9814.27 2.24Coal

46.7214.2295.0261.67352.8264.92385.7560.43Gasoline 000026.34 4.8545.687.16Kerosene 1.650.50.690.140000Straw 277.384.3163.3234.1493.7417.2567.7710.62Biogas 000.500.1000 3.760.59Solar 000000 6.80 1.07Total

328.96

100

478.36

100

543.43

100

638.38

100

Table 4

Per capita CO 2emissions from diverse energy sources from 1980to 2009.Energy

1980198920052009kg CO 2

%kg CO 2%kg CO 2%kg CO 2%Electricity 9.48 1.2143.28 3.68156.5811.64329.5020.82LPG 00.007.070.6030.05 2.2326.49 1.67Coal

116.8214.91737.6562.76882.1765.58964.5160.95Gasoline 000055.42 4.1296.12 6.07Kerosene 3.620.46 1.520.1300.000.000Straw 653.6783.42384.9932.76220.9716.43159.7510.10Biogas 000.820.0700 6.180.39Solar 00000000Total

783.59

100

1175.33

100

1345.20

100

1582.54

100

L.Liang et al./Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 28(2013)767–776

770

respectively.During 2009,the amounts further decreased to 8.6kg ce and 24.7kg CO 2.But the proportion of consumption and emission for lighting are rather small compared with that of the total.During 2005,

the peak electricity-related consumption and emission amounted to merely 3.6%and 4.2%of total,respectively (Fig.3).There are two principal reasons for this trend.First,after rural power network reconstruction in 1980s,the supply of electricity became more stable and convenient.Therefore,lighting energy consumption changed almost entirely to electricity,while kerosene and biogas use greatly diminished.Second,during the 1980s and 1990s,with the growth of income and increased area of the household,the demand for lighting also increased.In addition,using ?lament light bulb in most of rural families also added to the overall energy consumption.With the development of technology and the adoption of energy-saving lamps,the attendant consumption and emission also decreased during 2000s.In the future,the consumption and emission by lighting is projected to decrease with increase in technological advances.Nonetheless,the impact on total consumption and emission reduction may be rather modest.

Table 5

Structure of per capita energy end-use types from 1980to 2009.Behaviors

Energy source

1980

1989

2005

2009

Energy (kg ce)

%Energy (kg ce)%Energy (kg ce)%Energy (kg ce)%Lighting

Electricity 3.366.611.393.519.41008.6100Kerosene 1.733.40.7 5.70000Biogas 000.10.80000Subtotal 5.010012.110019.41008.6100Cooking

Straw

166.494.7160.253.493.739.567.831.0Electricity 0000 4.2 1.814.9 6.8Coal 9.4 5.3135.845.3123.151.9117.954LPG 00 3.8 1.316.2 6.814.3 6.5Biogas 000.40.100 3.8 1.7Subtotal 175.8100300.2100237.3100218.6100Home heating

Coal 37.425.2159.298.1229.7100267.8100Straw 110.974.8 3.2 1.90000Subtotal 148.3100162.3100229.7100267.8100Recreation

Electricity 00 3.710030.753.890.963.4Gasoline 000026.346.245.731.9Solar 000000 6.8 4.7Subtotal

00

3.7100

57.1100

143.4100

Total

329.0

478.4

543.4

638.4

Table 6

Carbon emission of per capita energy end-use types from 1980to 2009.Behaviors

Energy source

1980198920052009kg CO 2

%kg CO 2%kg CO 2%kg CO 2%Lighting

Electricity 9.572.432.695.155.910024.7100Kerosene 3.627.7 1.5 4.40000Biogas 000.20.50000Subtotal 13.110034.310055.910024.7100Cooking

Straw

392.394.4377.652.122138.7159.830.1Electricity 000012.2 2.142.88.1Coal 23.4 5.6339.746.9307.853.9294.955.6LPG 007.1130.1 5.326.55Biogas 000.70.100 6.2 1.2Subtotal 415.6100724.9100571.1100530.1100Home heating

Coal 93.426.339898.2574.3100669.6100Straw 261.473.77.4 1.80000Subtotal 354.9100405.4100574.3100669.6100Recreation

Electricity 0010.710088.561.526273.2Gasoline 000055.438.596.126.8Solar 00000000Subtotal

00

10.7100

143.9100

358.1100

Total

783.6

1175.3

1345.2

1582.5

10203040506070Year

E m i s s i o n (%)

Fig.3.Emission proportion of different activities.

L.Liang et al./Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 28(2013)767–776771

3.2.2.Cooking energy consumption and carbon emission

Energy consumption and C emission have changed from simple to diverse sources,which increased initially but decreased gradu-ally.This trend is the main feature of energy consumption and C emission for cooking.In1980,straw/stover was the principal source of cooking energy,and coal was a secondary source.In fact, the rural households'cooking energy fundamentally depended on straw/residue,and its proportion reached94.7%because of the lack of energy and purchasing power at that time.In1989,LPG and biogas were used for cooking,and the quantity of LPG steadily increased.However,the use of biogas ceased for a time in2006, because private livestock breeding in this region disappeared during the early2000s.At the same time,electricity was used as cooking energy in most rural families.In2009,straw,coal,LPG, electricity,biogas were all used for cooking,representing extre-mely diverse energy sources.

In1980,per capita consumption and emission from cooking was 175.8kg ce and415.6kg CO2,respectively.In1989,the quantities increased to300.2kg ce and724.9kg CO2,then reached the peak with the growth of35.0%and74.4%,respectively.In2005,however, the per capita consumption and emission decreased to237.3kg ce and571.1kg CO2and further reduced to218.6kg ce and530.1kg CO2,with a strong decreasing trend over time.Straw and crop residues have played an important role and still form an important component of the cooking energy use.In1980,consumption and emission from straw combustion amounted to166.4kg ce and 392.3kg CO2,which was494%of the total energy use for cooking. In1989,the amount of straw consumption stabilized but the proportion of energy use decreased to50%.Along with the adoption of straw retention/mulch farming practices and the improvement of purchasing power of rural households,the quantity and proportion of energy use from straw decreased further during the2000s. However,because of the traditional use of corn cobs as fuel, especially,in many relatively poor families,crop residues are still a major component of cooking energy source,and the proportion of total energy consumption from straw amounted to30%in2009. According to the trends observed and lifestyle,the use of straw will continue for a long time,but its relative proportion will decrease progressively with time.

With the decrease in use of corn stover,coal becomes the most important factor affecting emission.In1980,consumption and emission of coal were only9.4kg ce and23.4kg CO2,respectively. In1989,however,consumption and emission increased by a factor of15to135.8kg ce and339.7kg CO2.Between1989and2009, because of other energy sources involved,the magnitude regres-sively decreased to117.9kg ce and294.9kg CO2,respectively.On the contrary,however,the proportion of energy use increased from 45%in1989to55%in2009.The trend analysis showed that coal was the most important cooking energy in the Huantai county in2009.From1989onward,the use of electricity,LPG and biogas for cooking also increased progressively.Among these,electricity use increased rapidly,use of LPG remained stable,but that of biogas still constitutes a low proportion of the total cooking energy consumption in the Huantai county.

3.2.3.Energy consumption and carbon emission for home heating

In northern China,home heating is an important part of rural household energy consumption.With the exception of1989,the consumption and emission for heating exceeded40%of the total energy use.Unlike cooking,however,home heating consumption remained relatively stable(Fig.3).The statistical analysis of the data showed that energy use for home heating was initially dominated by traditional biomass energy,which gradually shifted to coal.In the meantime,the amount of coal consumption and the related emission increased rapidly.The proportion of biomass for heating energy was nearly75%in1980,but hardly2%in1989,because coal became the primary energy source.From2005onward,coal has been the only source of energy for home heating.In2010,however,some families began using electricity as energy source for home heating.During 1980s and early1990s,most rural families were primarily dependent on simple coal stoves which heated a small area and had low heating ef?ciency.During2000s,however,a range of large-diameter energy-saving coal stoves with radiator heating became the main sources for home heating.Meanwhile,with the improvement of living standards, the attendant consumption and emission progressively increased along with rapid growth because of excessive reliance on coal. Between1980and2009,the annual growth rate of consumption and emission from coal consumption was420%.Therefore,coal was the primary source of energy consumption and C emission in rural households.

3.2.

4.Recreational energy consumption and carbon emission

The fastest growth rate,among the four consumption activities,is in the recreation sector.The per capita consumption and emission for recreation increased from zero in1980to143.4kg ce and358.1kg CO2in2009,respectively.During the past30years(since1980), the average annual growth rate has been133.3%and115.5%. The principal source for recreational energy includes electricity and gasoline.In2009,however,solar energy also became a part of this mix.The principal reason of increase in consumption and emission from recreation is the rapid increase in the use of household appliances.In1980,rural families had no recreational appliances. In1989,washing machine and CTV were used by10%of the rural families.From1998onward,as income increased and the quality of life improved,all kinds of modern facilities(e.g.,private vehicles, color TVs,washing machines,refrigerators,air conditioners,motor-cycles)were adopted by rural families.Surprisingly,even sedan car also began to enter the rural communities.The direct result of this af?uence is the shift in energy consumption from a small amount of electricity use to larger amounts of electricity and oil products,along with an attendant and sharp increase in emission.Predictably, recreational consumption and C emission will progressively increase at high growth rate for a long time.

4.Discussion

4.1.Unsustainability of fossil energy and sustainable development

China's population is large and diverse.Thus,energy and natural resources are relatively insuf?cient.Average per capita availability is much lower than the world average.China's Energy Situation and Policy(2007)reported that,the per capita mineable reserves of oil,natural gas,and coal were equal to8.5%,4.7%,and 50%of the global average levels[18],respectively.Since the policy reform and opening up to the modernization course since1978, China has experienced the fastest rate of development in the world with an average annual growth rate of9.8%.Consequently, the energy consumption is also growing rapidly.In2006,the amount of primary energy consumption was2.46Pg ce.In2010, the energy consumption increased to43Pg ce,and may increase to4.31Pg ce by2015[19].In fact,the rural household energy consumption is also growing but at a relatively lower rate.In1995, primary energy consumption by rural population was0.38Pg ce, and the proportion from biomass was60.7%[20].In2006,the quantity and ratio amounted to0.5Pg ce and55%,respectively, with average annual growth rate of 2.9%[21].Based on the Huantai experience,from1980to2009,the average annual growth rate has been 3.2%.The data presented in this report showed that the estimated primary energy consumption of rural family was0.56–0.57Pg ce in2010.For a long time,most of the

L.Liang et al./Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews28(2013)767–776 772

energy source for rural families was biomass.Thus,energy con-sumption calculations about rural household energy use did not take this factor into account towards computing the statistical data on total energy use.In 2009,50%of the energy consumption of the rural households came from nonrenewable energy sources,and in now developed regions such as the Huantai county the non-renewable energy amounts to 90%(Fig.4).It is obvious that,in modern society,the rural communities may follow the city life-styles,and continue to pursue the conventional model of high economic growth based on a high energy consumption.Further-more,rural communities also depend excessively on nonrenew-able energy use.Yet,the growth rate of nonrenewable energy cannot meet all the energy needs,making this model and path unsustainable [22,23].Therefore,shortage of energy source is the major challenge facing rural China at present and in the future.4.2.Structure of energy source and trend

The Huantai county belongs to a prosperous region,and its rate of growth is higher than that of the national rural average in China.In 2009,national rural per capita net income was just over 5000RMB.In Huantai county,the rural per capita income is 49000RMB [24],and it is located in the NCP.Therefore,to some extent,it is the microcosm of China's rural area,and especially represents northern rural society's future trends about energy consumption and C https://www.wendangku.net/doc/cc3322602.html,pared to the national mean average (Fig.4)[25],the amount of commercial energy consump-tion (including coal,gasoline and electricity)is 2.0, 2.3and 7.4times more than the national average use in 2009.On the contrary,renewable energy (including straw,biogas and solar energy)consumption constitutes only 12.2%of the total energy use.This trend means that,with the improvement of living standards in rural households,farmers depend more and more on fossil-fuel energy to improve the quality of life.Further,the lifestyle is likely to change even more in the foreseeable future,along with strong impact on C emissions and the environmental impact.This transformation,once again,validates the energy ladder theory [26].In fact,this trend is not only evident in China but also in other emerging economics [27,28].Therefore,the

central and western regions of China will probably follow the same trend during the next two decades,especially so if China maintains its high rate of development and does not adopt any effective counter measures in the near future.4.3.Carbon emissions and environmental deterioration

The energy consumption and structure in the Huantai county during the last 30years has undergone drastic changes.Conse-quently,C emissions increased rapidly from 783.6kg CO 2in 1980to 1582.5kg CO 2in 2009,at the annual growth rate of 3.5%.In 1980,83.4%of the CO 2source was crop residues and ?rewood use.In 2009,the proportion of CO 2emission from biomass decreased to 10.5%of the total.Consequently,C emission from fossil-fuel reached the value of 89.5%(Table 7).International Energy Agency (IEA)reported that,the proportional use of renewable energy in China decreased from 41.1%in 1971to 20%in 2000and to 16.2%in 2010,and is projected to decrease to 13.2%by 2020and 11.0%by 2030.However,the proportional use of renewable energy is predicted to increase again by 2030[29].Analyses of Huantai's data indicate that this projection is credible,and perhaps Huantai,as one of the developed regions compared to other parts of China,is the ?rst region to achieve the lowest level of biomass use in household energy consumption.

Anthropogenic emissions related to use of fossil-fuels are getting more attention because they disrupt the global C budget.On the contrary,CO 2emissions from biomass have not been taken into account at regional or national scale,because in theory,it is the product of photosynthesis and is a C-neutral energy source.However,there are high risks of using crop residues as fuel to agricultural ecosystems and human health.Furthermore,emission of soot (black carbon)has more drastic impact on radioactive forcing than hitherto assumed [28].Further,straw removal exacer-bates the loss of soil organic carbon (SOC)in agricultural lands and consequently contributes to accelerated erosion and soil fertility decline [30].Furthermore,the energy use ef ?ciency is o 10%.Thus,there is a serious waste of this precious resource.Farmers have to burn a large quantity of crop residues to produce the desired quantity of energy,which further exacerbates C emissions.

Table 7

Proportion of nonrenewable and renewable resource from 1980to 2009.Source

1980

1989

2005

2009

Energy kg CO 2

%Energy kg CO 2%Energy kg CO 2%Energy kg CO 2%Non-resource 129.916.6789.567.21124.283.61416.689.5Re-resource 653.783.4385.832.822116.4165.910.5Total

783.6

100

1175.3

100

1345.2

100

1582.5

100

electricity,

2.43%LPG, 12.84%biogas,

3.10%solar, 1.07%

coal, 60.43%

7.16%

Fig.4.Structure of household energy consumption in rural China and Huantai county in 2009.Note :(A)is the national rural average use in China,and (B)refers speci ?cally to the Huantai county.Source :[25].

L.Liang et al./Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 28(2013)767–776773

Furthermore,traditional biomass(i.e.,straw and?rewood)are burnt directly,which not only emit greenhouse gases(GHGs)but also produce other environmental pollutants[e.g.,SO2,CO,total suspended particulates(TSP)].Whereas the former cause global warming,the latter detrimentally affect indoor environments and jeopardize human health[31,32].The shift from traditional bio-mass to commercial energy(such as in the Huantai county)may reduce local pollution,especially particulate emissions,and also generate important bene?ts to public health.However,its replace-ment by commercial fuels results in overall gains in energy ef?ciency but a severe decline in energy intensity[28].Therefore, an excessive reliance on nonrenewable energy is unsustainable. Thus,it is necessary to develop renewable and clean sources of energy.

4.4.Renewable energy and rural development

Developing renewable energy is one of the main policy mea-sures adopted by the China's National Climate Change Programme. Accordingly,wind,solar,biomass and geothermal are being considered among the major energy sources of the future[33]. At the same time,a broader perspective is required that takes into account social,economic,and environmental factors associated with rural life.In China especially in the midwestern regions, straw is still an important energy source and there are110million rural households using traditional stoves.The energy use ef?-ciency can be improved from10%to30%by using energy-saving stove,which means55Tg of the standard coal equivalent could be saved and the amount of soot and CO2e emission reduction would be528Gg and138Tg,respectively[25].In the meanwhile,the Huantai county is undergoing the second transformation,mainly because of the energy shortage.Crop residues still account for10% of the total energy use,and the per household coal consumption will decline by 20%and400RMB could be saved through adoption of improved energy-saving stoves.

Domestic household biogas digester construction is the princi-pal project of renewable energy in the rural areas.It is making a good progress in less developed central and western regions[34]. By2009,the numbers of household biogas digesters and large and medium-sized projects are35.07million and22,570,respectively. And the quantity of biogas estimated at13.08billion m3is equiva-lent to saving of21Tg ce and GHG emissions reduction of51Tg CO2e[25].Some estimates show that the maximum GHG emission reduction per household biogas digesters could be 2.0–4.1Mg CO2e per year[35].In2008,a nationwide investigation involving 13provinces about Chinese rural household biogas production was completed and the results showed that the average biogas yield of Chinese rural household was450m3,under an average working period of9months per year.Biogas contributed18%to household energy consumption,but provided40%effective heat per capita. The employed biogas digester substituted15%of the commercial energy used in rural household,especially coal.In households with a biogas facility,energy consumption per capita was only419.56kg ce,which was16%lower than non-biogas families.Annually, 559–938RMB would be created from a biogas facility,and 0.314ha woodland could be protected after biogas use[34].Some case studies about large and medium-sized farms in Shandong and Shanxi province showed that the advanced anaerobic system reduced greenhouse gas emission by81–86%,and the economic bene?ts have been increased by5–7%[36,37].As for Huantai,there is a long history of biogas use,but most households have abandoned this technique because of several problems such as high labor requirement,material shortage,high cost,inconveni-ence,etc.While the local government is aggressively promoting the use of biodigesters,its use was o10%in2009.Thus,it is a serious waste of the precious resource.On the contrary,some intensive breeding farms are interested in developing a biogas industry to manage wastes,but lack funds and technological support.Therefore,constructing large-scale biogas programs at the regional level is an effective means to develop this industry.

In addition,solar energy is a clean energy resource and becoming more and more popular in China.The coverage of solar water heating panels was135million m2at the end of2009,and this is equivalent of saving17.55Tg ce and reducing GHG emission by45.63Tg CO2[38].In Huantai,its adoption rate is as much as 40%because it is clean and convenient,but it merely represents 1.07%of the total energy consumption.The survey conducted herein shows that rural households do not reject renewable energy.However,they prefer a convenient,ef?cient,clean and economic energy source.Thus,exploring new modes of renewable energy use in rural area is an important option to achieve long-term sustainable development in China.

4.5.Urbanization and low-C developing mode

The population of China in2010was1.37billion,of which0.75 billion(55%)lived in rural areas.China's urbanization was45.7%in 2009[6].By2050,the population of China will be1.5billion,of which70%will live in urban centers[39].Thus, 0.3billion rural inhabitants will become urban citizens during the next40years.In fact,urbanization of rural population is in full swings in different regions of China for a range of reasons[40].The per capita C emission in China increased from2.2Mg CO2in1990to4.1Mg CO2in2005and to6.2Mg CO2in2011[41].While the per capita emissions at present are far below those of America and Europe, China is the world's fastest-growing economy.At the same time, city dwellers primarily depend on nonrenewable energy.In con-trast,the proportion of renewable energy(including straw,?re-wood,biogas and solar energy)use in rural areas is450%. Therefore,urbanization is accelerating C emission in long-term because of the drastic transformation of lifestyles.To some degree, urbanization is converting rural areas into a large C source,which will increase even more drastically in the future.This trend is also global.Thus,exploring new modes of renewable energy,according to regional conditions,to achieve low-C transformation in the process of urbanization is a great challenge for China and the world.

Over the past three decades,China has dramatically expanded its power supply in both urban and rural areas.As a result of this expansion,the country has made signi?cant progress in providing rural communities with reliable energy services,and there are some matured modes in rural areas about renewable energy resources.In the future,those modes will continue to play important roles in rural low-C development.Firstly,comprehen-sive biomass(including straw and?rewood)use is becoming popular in different regions.It is estimated that the amount of straw harvested is700Tg annually.Excluding that which is directly returned to?elds,there is350Tg of straw that can be used as fuel in China's rural https://www.wendangku.net/doc/cc3322602.html,ing energy-saving stoves to improve energy use ef?ciency is a way to solve energy shortages. Additionally,in the past10years,the technology for converting agricultural waste into straw densi?cation briquetting fuel(SDBF) of high-grade and high density has been lucubrated.It is impor-tant that SDBF technology is developed for agricultural ecological environment,and rural living conditions and agricultural sustain-able development[42].

Secondly,at present and in future,developing a biogas industry in rural areas is still an important mode to promote renewable energy sources,reduce C emission,and receive economic bene?ts. Over the past30years,the development of biogas for farm household use has been through quite a long process with different stages(including pilot and launching,technical

L.Liang et al./Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews28(2013)767–776 774

breakthrough and improvement of procedure and technologies, rapid development,and construction).Popularization and usage of biogas for farm households have been successful as a whole.

A basic construction unit featuring‘three change for one pool’(biogas generating pool and reconstruction of kitchen,toilet and barn)has been formed.In addition,according to the natural and economic conditions in different regions as well as the practical need in adjusting the industrial structure of agriculture,ecological energy development modes of biogas for rural household use has been creatively developed with the southern‘pig–biogas–fruit’(combination of pig raising with biogas and fruit trees planting) and the northern‘four in one’(combination of pig raising with biogas,vegetable planting and sunlight greenhouse building)as typical modes.At present,with the constant increase of govern-ment investment,the extensive central and west regions of China are making efforts to develop renewable energy resources and ecological agriculture with biogas.Data shows that80million rural households are suitable for the development of domestic biogas.Thus,there is a great prospect about the biogas industry. As for developed and east districts,such as Huantai county,the rapid development of intensive breeding makes construction of large and medium-sized regional biogas program a sensible choice.The mode of combination of company with household is becoming commonplace in some areas.

Thirdly,developing solar energy in rural area has great poten-tial to reduce C emission.Including solar water heaters,solar stoves and passive solar houses have been widely adopted in rural areas.Similarly,the prospect for photovoltaic(PV)technology development is strong.Most parts of China receive high levels of solar insolation,averaging1668kWh/m2annually.In fact, 1200kWh/m2is considered a reasonably high level of insolation [43].With the acceleration of urbanization,developing low-C building is also an important way to achieve sustainable develop-ment.Some new modes of solar energy use such as passive solar building,the solar water heating system into high-rise residences, the domestic multifunctional solar assisted heat pump system, etc.,have recently emerged[44].In addition,small wind-power and micro-hydropower development in extensive rural regions has been a major source of clean energy.

5.Conclusions

Huantai county can be seen as the microcosm of China'a rural area.During the last30years(since1980),the per capita energy consumption and C emissions increased from329kg ce and 783.6kg CO2in1980to638.4kg ce and1582.5kg CO2at an annual average growth rate of3.2%and3.5%,respectively.Of the four activities in1980,cooking and heating comprised of the major consumptions and emission,53%and45%,respectively.In2009, cooking and heating contributed merely34%and42%of consump-tion and emission.Meanwhile,recreational consumption and emission are the fastest-growing sectors,with an annual mean growth rate of133.3%and115.5%,respectively.In Huantai county, nonrenewable and renewable energy sources were16.6%and 83.4%in1980,respectively.In2009,the number was89.5%and 10.5%.Increases in income and changes in lifestyle are the two key factors affecting energy consumption and C emission.Due to its excessive dependence on fossil-fuel,the consumption and emis-sion will continue to increase in the future,while exacerbating both the energy demand and its environmental impacts.

In the level of Huantai county,while coal and electricity are becoming the major energy sources,and are also the contributors of increases in emissions of GHGs,the use of diverse energy sources is necessary and inevitable in order to achieve sustainable development.In the short-term,promoting energy-conserving stoves and improving use ef?ciency are important strategies. In the long-term,developing the SDBF technology and adopting a collective heating system are also effective measures to reduce coal consumption and C emission.Domestic household biogas is incompatible with Huantai's circumstances,and is dif?cult to promote.But developing large and medium-sized biogas digesters may be a good strategy.Solar energy is widely accepted and has bright prospects due to its convenience.However,its single-function limits its share of the total energy use.Therefore,it is necessary to conduct further research and expand its functions. Furthermore,low-C building should be implemented under site-speci?c scenarios in the process of urbanization.

In the level of central government,China should further actively develop rural biogas industry and make better use of biomass and solar energy,so as to provide clean and renewable energy for the rural populations.It will continue popularizing energy-saving stoves and small energy facilities,such as small wind power and hydropower stations in rural areas.How to realize high-speed development and low-C emission of rural area is a great challenge in China.

Acknowledgments

The work is done under the auspices of the CAU-UCR Interna-tional Center for Ecology and Sustainability of China Agricultural University and the Carbon Management and Sequestration Center of the Ohio State University,and help received from staff especially Ph.D.student A.Gelaw and Lady T.Colson is greatly appreciated. References

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励志短文

精心整理励志短文 梦想旅程 麻雀低飞百座村乡，只为了觅得更好的食物，生存的信念，足以让其放弃高傲的力 月光舞着完美的旋律，甜甜的濡睡；梦里，与心爱的人携手漫步于山谷小径，萤火虫轻翔着，载着暖光而来，花儿的香味，弥漫着空气，舒适着美丽的心情…… 梦想的旅程，是一种辛酸的过程，追逐的路途上，布满太多的坎坷与挫折，充满了许许多多无奈的选择、寂寞与苦闷、忧愁与烦恼；奔跑的路上，也乐在其中，过程

总是充满乐趣的，有梦想的人是幸福的，勇于追求梦想的人是快乐的，因为他们懂得生活，更懂得珍惜生活的真谛！ 忙碌的生活，往往会使我们迷失了方向，失去应有的理智，甚至忘却了思考，更变得肤浅起来；让我们活得休闲些吧，回归人性的本真，让生活的信念更加有品位，让生活充满诗意，像蝴蝶一样在阳光下翩然起舞，轻盈洒脱、自由闲适、平实自然！ 静遥望远处泛着乳白的晨曦，想起少女时代那个开满菊花的小小的庭院。那时候身体不好，总是在别人背着书包上学的时候一个人躺在床上打针吃药，孤单的时候也不想寂寞，把录音机里缠绵的钢琴声放到最小，和着窗外滴滴答答的雨声，怀里揣着的那份迤逦的梦想便一点一点荡漾开来。

秋天的时候，打开窗子，一阵一阵的菊香便扑面而来。南方的秋天依然绿意满盈，最记得窗外花台上那丛本应在秋的萧杀中慢慢凋零的丁香，在最后的绽放中却显得愈加的从容与恬淡。 最近总是回忆过去，回忆童年的院子，回忆爸爸在院子里挖的那口浅浅的却总是盈满清泉的井，回忆那份独我与自命清高带来的高处不胜寒，回忆白色窗帘下那口小 与心同行的，应该还有坚定的信念，玷污了一颗心，也就玷污了那份执着的信念。也许会在一个霞光万丈的黎明，一度被怨愤与仇恨塞得满满的心在被噩梦惊醒的时候突然苏醒了过来，瞬间就明白了用一生都可能不能悟出的道理，是啊，为什么要用别人的罪过来惩罚自己？

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