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复习题及答案,语言学基本知识与技能

复习题及答案,语言学基本知识与技能
复习题及答案,语言学基本知识与技能

Chapter One

Introduction

I.What is linguistics?

Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. Linguistics studies not any particular language, but it studies languages in general. It is a scientific study because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.

II.The scope of linguistics

1. Phonetics:The study of sounds used in linguistic communication led to the establishment of phonetics.

2. Phonology: deals with how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication.

3. Morphology: The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged and combined to form words has constituted the branch of study called morphology.

4. Syntax:The combination of words to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages is governed by rules. The study of these rules constitutes a major branch of linguistic studies called syntax.

5. Semantics: The study of meaning is known as semantics.

6. Pragmatics: When the study of meaning is conducted, not in isolation, but in the context of language use, it becomes another branch of linguistic study called pragmatics.

7. Sociolinguitics: The study of social aspects of languages and its relation with society form the core of the branch called sociolinguitics.

8. Psycholinguistics relates the study of language to psychology.

9. Applied linguistics: Findings in linguistics studies can often be applied to the solution of such practical problems as the recovery of speech ability. The study of such applications is generally known as applied linguistics.

III. Some important distinctions in linguistics

1. Prescriptive vs. descriptive

If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive; if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for ―correct and standard‖behaviour in using language, it is said to be prescriptive.

2.Synchronic vs. diachronic

The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.

3. Speech and writing

Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language for some obvious reasons. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always ―invented‖ by its users to record speech when the need arises.

4. Langue and parole

The distinction between langue and parole was made by the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure in

the early 20th century. Langue and parole are French words. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of language in actual use.

https://www.wendangku.net/doc/c75477873.html,petence and performance

The distinction between competence and performance was proposed by the American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s. Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.

6.Traditional grammar and modern linguistics

Traditional grammar refers to the studies of language before the publication of F. de Saussure’s book Course in General Linguistics in 1916. Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in several basic ways.

First, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.

Second, Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary not the written.

Then, modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.

IV. What is language?

L anguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.

1.Design features

1) Arbitrariness

Language is arbitrary. This means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.

2) Productivity

Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.

3) Duality

Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. At the lower or basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system. This duality of structure or double articulation of language enables its users to talk about anything within their knowledge.

4) Displacement

Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This is what ―displacement‖ means. This property provides speakers with an opportunity to talk about a wide range of things, free from barriers caused by separation in time and place. 5) Cultural transmission

Human capacity for language has a genetic basis while the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned. This shows that language is culturally transmitted. It is passed from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.

2.Functions of Language

1)Informative

It is the major role of language. The use of language to record the facts is a prerequisite of social development.

2)Interpersonal function

It is the most important sociological use of language, by which people establish and maintain their status in a society.

Attached to the interpersonal function of language is its function of the expression of identity.

3)Performative

This concept originates from the philosophical study of language presented by Austin and Searle, whose theory now forms the backbone of pragmatics.

The performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons as in marriage ceremonies, the blessing of children and the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony. The kind of language employed in performative verbal acts is usually quite formal and even ritualized.

4)Emotive function

The emotive function of language is one the most powerful uses of language because it is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something. e.g. God, my, Damn it...

5)Phatic communion

The term originates from Malinnowski’s study of the functions of language performed by Trobriand Islanders. It refers to the social interaction of language.

We all use small, seemingly meaningless expressions such as Good morning, God bless you, Nice day to maintain a comfortable relationship between people.

6)Recreational function

No one will deny the use of language for the sheer joy of using it such as a baby’s babbling.

7)Metalingual function

Our language can be used to talk about itself. For example, we can use the word ―book‖to talk about the book.

Chapter Two

Phonology

I.Speech production and perception

A speech sound goes through a three step process. Naturally, the study of sounds is divided

into three areas, each dealing with one part of the progress.

1. Articulatory phonetics

It is the study of the production of speech sounds.

2.Acoustic phonetics

It is the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech.

3.Auditory phonetics

It is concerned with the perception of the sounds produced in speech.

II.Speech organs

Speech organs are also known as vocal organs. They are those parts of the human body

involved in the production of speech.

Speech organs mainly consist of the vocal cords and three cavities which are the pharynx, the oral cavity and the nasal cavity.

The vocal cords are in the larynx, the front part of which is called ―the Adam ’s Apple.‖ III. Consonants

Classification of English consonants

English consonants can be classified in two ways: one is in terms of manner of articulation and the other is in terms of place of articulation.

IV.

Vowels

Classification of English vowels

V owels may be distinguished as front, central, and back according to which part of the tongue is held highest. V owels can also be distinguished according to the openness of the mouth: close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, and open vowels.

? Nouns Adjectives ? Lips Labial / Bilabial ? Teeth Dental ? Alveolar ridge Alveolar ? Hard palate Palatal ? Soft palate Velar ? Uvula Uvular

? Pharynx Pharyngeal ? Tip Apical ? Blade Laminal ? Front Dorsal ?

Back Dorsal

? Consonants Place ? /p/ /b/ Bilabial ? /t/ /d/ Tip-alveolar ? /k/ /g/ Back-velar ? /t ?/ /d ?/ Blade/front – palato-alveolar ? /m/ Bilabial ? /n/ Tip-alveolar ? /? / Back-velar ? Consonants Place ? /p/ /b/ Bilabial ? /t/ /d/ Tip-alveolar ? /k/ /g/ Back-velar

? /t ?/ /d ?/ Blade/front –

palato-alveolar

? /m/ Bilabial

? /n/ Tip-alveolar ?

/? / Back-velar

V. Phonology and phonetics

1. Phonetics is concerned with the general nature of speech sound while phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.

2. Phone, phoneme, and allophone

– A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones.

– A phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or

realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.

–The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme. For example, the

phoneme /l/ in English can be realized as dark /l/, clear /l/, etc. which are

allophones of the phoneme.

3. Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pair

If the phonetically similar sounds are two distinctive phonemes, they are said to form a phonemic contrast, e.g. /p/ and /b/ in /pit/ and /bit/.

If they are allophones of the same phoneme, then they do not distinguish meaning, but complement each other in distribution. For instance, the clear /l/ always occurs before a vowel while the dark /l/ always occurs between a vowel and a consonant, or at the end of a word. So the allophones are said to be in complementary distribution.

When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair. So in English, pill and bill are a minimal pair.

4. Some rules in phonology

Sequential rules, Assimilation rule, Deletion rule

5. Supra-segmental features—stress, tone, intonation

Stress:

Depending on the context in which stress is considered, there are two kinds of stress: word stress and sentence stress.

The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning.

Sentence stress refers to the relative force given to the component of a sentence. The part of speech that are normally stressed in an English sentence are nouns, main verbs, adjectives, adverbs, numerals and demonstrative pronouns; the other categories of words like articles, person pronouns, auxiliary verbs, prepositions, and conjunctions are usually not stressed.

Tone:

Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords. Pitch variation can distinguish meaning just like phonemes; therefore, the tone is a supra-segmental feature. The meaning-distinctive function of the tone is especially important in what we call tone languages. E.g. Chinese.

Intonation:

When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. Intonation plays an important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language, especially in a language like English.

Chapter Three

Morphology

I. Open class and closed class

In English, nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs make up the largest part of the vocabulary. They are the content words of a language, which are sometimes called open class words, since we can regularly add new words to these classes.

The other syntactic categories include ―grammatical‖ or ―functional‖ words. Conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronounces consist of relatively few words and have been referred to as being closed class words since new words are not usually added to them.

II. Internal structure of words and rules for word formation

Morphology refers to the study of the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.

e.g. like—dislike order—disorder appear—disappear approve-–disapprove

agree—disagree

―dis-‖is a prefix means ―not‖, and placed before a root-word

III. Morphemes—the minimal units of meaning

Some words are formed by combining a number of distinct units of meaning. The most basic element of meaning is traditionally called morpheme.

The following list shows that in English a single word may consist of one or more morphemes.

One morpheme: desire

Two morphemes: desire + able

Three morphemes: desire + able + ity

Four morphemes: un + desire + able + ity

In fact every word in every language is composed of one or more morphemes.

Prefixes occurs only before other morphemes while suffixes occur only after other morphemes.

IV. Derivational and inflectional morphemes

In English there are morphemes which change the category or grammatical class of words. A verb, for example, is formed by adding –en to the adjective black—blacken, or by adding -ize to the noun computer—computerize.

More examples: noun—adjective affection + ate

Alcohol + ic

-en, -ate, and –ic are thus called derivational morphemes, because when they are conjoined to other morphemes (or words) a new word is derived, or formed.

Similarly, there are bound morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers, signifying such concepts as tense, number, case, aspect and so on.

Such bound morphemes are referred to as inflectional morphemes.

V. Morphological rules of word formation

The ways words are formed are called morphological rules. These rules determine how morphemes combine to form words.

Some of the morphological rules can be used quite freely to form new words. We call them productive morphological rules.

Un + accept + able = un + adjective = not adjective

VI. Compounds

Another way to form new words, or compound words, to be exact, is by stringing words together, as shown in the examples below:

Chapter Four

Syntax

I. What is syntax?

Synta x is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.

II. Categories

Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.

A fundamental fact about words in all human languages is that they can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes, called syntactic categories.

1. Word level categories are divided into two kinds: major lexical categories and minor lexical categories.

2. Phrase categories and their structures

Syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrases, the category of which is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built. In English syntactic analysis, the most commonly recognized and discussed phrasal categories are noun phrase (NP), verb phrase (VP), adjective phrase (AP) and prepositional phrase (PP).

Whether formed of one or more than one word, they consist of two levels, Phrase level and word level as exemplified below.

NP VP AP PP ←phrase level

||||

N V A P ←word level

Phrases that are formed of more than one word usually contain the following elements: head, specifier and complement. The word around which a phrase is formed is termed head. The words on the left side of the heads are said to function as specifiers. The words on the right side of the heads are complements.

3 Phrase structure rule

The special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule. The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows:

NP →(Det) N (PP) …

VP →(Qual) V (NP) …

AP →(Deg) A (PP) …

PP →(Deg) P (NP) …

The arrow can be read as ―consist of ‖or ―branches into‖. The parentheses mean that the element in them can be omitted and the three dots in each rule indicate that other complement options are available.

4.XP rule

The XP rule: XP →(specifier) X (complement)

5. Xˉ Theory

a. XP → (Specifier) Xˉ

b. Xˉ→ X (complement)

The first rule stipulates that XP categories such as NP and VP consist of an optional specifier (a determiner, a qualifier, and so forth) and an Xˉ. The second rule states that an Xˉconsists of a head, X, and any complements.

6. Phrase elements

Specifier

Specifiers have both special semantic and syntactic roles. Semantically, they help make more precise the meaning of the head. Syntactically, they typically mark a phrase boundary. Specifiers can be determiners, qualifiers and degree words as well.

Complements

As we have seen, complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implies by the meaning of the head. They are attached to the right of the head in English.

The XP Rule (revised): XP → (Specifier) X (Complement*)

This rule also captures the simple but important fact that complements, however many there are, occur to the right of the head in English.

Modifiers

Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of heads.

Table 4-2 Modifier position in English

To make modifiers fit into phrase structure, we can expand our original XP rule into the following so that it allows the various options.

The Expanded XP rule: XP → (Spec) (Mod) X (Complement*) (Mod)

This rule allows a modifier to occur either before the head or after it. Where there is a complement,

a modifier that occurs after the head will normally occur to the right of the complement as well.

7. Sentences (The S rule)

The S rule: S →NP VP

Which combines an NP (often called the subject) with a VP to yield a sentence such as the one bellow.

Many linguists nowadays believe that sentences, like other phrases, also have their own heads. They take an abstract category inflection (dubbed ―Infl‖) as their heads, which indicates the sentence’s tense and agreement.

8. Deep structure and surface structure

There are two levels of syntactic structure. Te first, formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s subcategories, is called deep structure (or D-structure). The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure (or S-structure).

The organization of the syntactic component of the grammar can be depicted below.

The XP Rule

DEEP STRUCTURE ←(Sub-categorization restricts choice of complements)↓

Transformations

SURFACE STRUCTURE

Chapter Five

Semantics

I. What is semantics?

Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning. In our discussion, we will limit ourselves to the study o meaning from linguistic point of view.

II. Some views concerning the study of meaning

1 The naming theory

The naming theory was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato, according to which the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for.

2 The conceptualist view

Conceptualist view relates words and things through the mediation of concepts of the mind. This view holds that there is no link between a linguistic form and what it refers to; rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind. This is best illustrated by the classic semantic triangle or triangle of significance suggested by Ogden and Richards:

3. Contextualism

The contextualist view of meaning is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. Two kinds of context are recognized: the situational context and the linguistic context. The representative linguist of the view is Firth who is influenced by Molinonwsky and Wittgenstein.

4. Behaviorism

Behaviorists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the ―situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.‖ (Bloomfield, 1933) Behaviorism in linguistics holds that children learn language through a chain of ―Stimulus-Response reinforcement‖and the adult’s use of language is also a process of Stimulus-Response. For the theory, Bloomfield put forward the well-known formula:

S →r …………………s →R

Here S stands fro practical stimulus, r stands for the substitute reaction of speech, s stands for the substitute stimulus, and R stands for external practical reaction.

III. Lexical meaning

1. Sense and reference

Sense and reference are two terms often encountered in the study of word meaning. They are two related but different aspects of meaning.

Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in.

Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.

2. Major sense relations

Synonymy

Synonymy refers to the sameness or closed similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.

Polysemy

While different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more than one meaning. This is what we call polysemy.

Hononymy

Hononymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.

Hyponymy

Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.

Antonymy

The term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning; words that are opposite in meaning are antonyms.

i. Gradable antonyms; ii. Complementary antonyms; iii. Relational opposites

3. Sense relations between sentences

i. X is synonymous with Y

ii. X is inconsistent with Y

iii. X entails Y. (Y is an entailment of X)

iv. X presupposes Y. (Y is a prerequisite of X)

v. X is a contradiction

vi. X is semantically anomalous.

4. Analysis of meaning

Componential analysis—a way to analyze lexical meaning

Componential analysis is a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning. By componential analysis, linguist looks at each word as a bundle of different features or components.

Prediction analysis—a way to analyze sentence meaning

Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules called selectional

restrictions, i.e., constraints on what lexical items can go with what others.

Chapter Six

Pragmatics

I. Definition

Pragmatics can be defined in various ways. A general definition is that it is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. As the process of communication is essentially a process of conveying and understanding meaning in a certain context, pragmatics can also be regarded as a kind of meaning study.

II. Context

The notion of context is essential to the pragmatics study of language. Context determines the speaker’s use of language and also the hearer’s interpretation of what is said to him.

III. Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning

While the meaning of a sentence is abstract, and decontextualized, that of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. The meaning of an utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.

IV. Speech act theory

1 Austin’s model of speech acts

Speech act theory is an important theory in the pragmatic study of language. It was originated wit the British philosophy John Austin in the late 50’s of the 20th century. This is a philosophical explanation of the nature of linguistic communication. It aims to answer the question ―What do we do when using language?‖

According to speech act theory, we are performing action when we are speaking. A speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking:locutionary act, illocutionary act, and perlocutionary act.

2. Searl e’s classification of speech act

According to Searle, an American philosophy, speech acts fall into five general categories, i.

e., there are five general types of things we do with language, Specific acts that fall into each type share the same illocutionary point, but differ in their strength.

1) representatives: stating or describing, saying that the speaker believes to be true.

2) directives: trying to get the hearer to do something

3) commissives: committing the speaker himself to some future course of action

4) expressives: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state

5) declarations: bringing about immediate changes by saying something

3. Principle of conversation

Paul Grice’s idea is that in making conversation, the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate; otherwise, it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk. This general principle is called the Cooperative Principle.

急诊急救知识试题与答案

急诊急救知识培训试题 科室姓名分数 一、多选题 (可以一个答案或多个答案)(共20 分,每题 2 分 ) 1、院前对外伤患者主要有哪些急救步骤? A、止血 B、消毒 C、包扎 D、固定 E、搬运 2、使用止血带的注意事项为: A、压扎部位 B、放置衬垫 C、松紧度 D、时间 E、止痛 3、在心跳骤停抢救生命的黄金时间段为: A、1 分钟 B、3 分钟 C、4 分钟 D、8 分钟 E、10 分钟 4、有效胸外心脏按压要求(在条件许可的前提下 ): A、力度 B、速度 C、胸壁弹回 D、按压不中断 E、按压人可轮换 5、人工心脏按压时,按压/ 通气 (次数 )比例: A、 10/1 B、 15/1 C、30/1 D、15/2 E、30/2 6、导致昏厥的原因: A、心源性 B、脑源性 C、反射性 D、排尿性 E、其它原因 7、呼吸困难的发病原因有: A、呼吸系统病 B、心脏病 C、中毒 D、血液病 E、神经精神因素 8、气管异物判断 A、憋气咳嗽 B、大声呼叫 C、呼吸困难 D、缺氧症状 E、高热 9、烫伤与烧伤应急要点 A、隔断热源 B、清水冲洗伤口 C、涂抹牙膏 D、遮盖伤处 E、立即送医院 10、心肺复苏有效指征为: A、面色、口唇由苍白、青紫变红润 B、眼球活动 C、手足抽动 D、呻呤 E、恢复自主呼吸及脉搏搏动 二、填空题 (共 20 分,每空 1 分)

1、外伤患者上臂外伤大出血应扎在1/3处,前臂或手大出血应扎 在 1/3 处,不能扎在上臂的中骨,易被损伤。下般外伤大出血应扎在1/3处,因该处神经走行贴近肱1/3 交界处。 2、在烧伤患者的面积计算中,正常成人的单手掌面积为体表面积的%。 3、成年人的血容量是毫升。 4、动脉出血颜色为,静脉出血颜色为。 5、常用的现场止血术指,, ,,。 6、直接压迫止血法,适用于较小伤口的出血,用无菌纱布直接压迫伤口处, 压迫时间约 min。 7、烧伤深度的识别时,我国普遍采用三度四分法,即根据皮肤烧伤的深浅分 为浅Ⅰ度、浅Ⅱ度、深Ⅱ度、Ⅲ度。深达肌肉、骨质者仍按Ⅲ度计算。临床上 为表达方便,将度和度称为浅烧伤。 8、血液是维持生命的重要物质,成年人血容量约占体重的 8%,即 4000~ 5000ml,如出血量为总血量的 %时,会出现头晕、脉搏增快、血压下降、出冷汗、 肤色苍白、少尿等症状,如出血量达总血量的 %时,就有生命危险。 趾 )9、指压指 (趾 )动脉:适用于手指 (脚趾 )大出血,用拇指和示指分别压迫手指 的指 (趾)动脉,阻断血流。 (脚10、止血带止血法:止血带止血法只适用于大出血,当其他止血法 时才用此法。止血带有橡皮止血带(橡皮条和橡皮带 )、气性止血 带(如血压计袖带 )和布制止血带,其操作方法各不相同。 三、简答题 (共 30 分,每题 6 分 ) 1 如何打 120 电话 (打 120 电话需报告和注意哪些问题)? 答: 2、简述烫伤简单急救法。 答: 3、发现昏厥病人应该如何处理? 答:

修订版《语言学纲要》第三章语音和音系答案

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