语言学名词解释

Semantic triangle suggests that matching , a cognitive process , is involved in language learning , and a certain amount of matching can lead to the state of semantic point . The conceptualist view is best illustrated by the classic semantic triangle triangle of significance suggested by Odgen and Richards. New "Semantic Triangle "——World , Recognition and Language

Syntactic relations can be analysed into three kinds, namely, positional relations, relations of substitutability, and the relations of co-occurrence

Chapter 1
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.
(Language is a means of verbal communication.)
Arbitrariness 任意性 There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.
( refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.)
Duality 二层性 is the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.
Creativity (productivity) 创造性 Language is creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.
(Language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness.)
Displacement 移位性 Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.
( means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present( in time and space) at the moment of communication.)
Linguistics 语言学 is the scientific study of language.
Saussure distinguished the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics as Langue and Parole.
Competence 语言能力 the ideal user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules of his language.
Performance 语言运用 the actual realization of this knowledge in concrete situations.

Chapter 2
Phonetics 语音学 (the study of sounds) studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived.
Phonology 音系学 is the study of sound patterns and sound systems of languages.
Coarticulation 协同发音 When a speech sound changes, and becomes more like another sound which follows it or precedes it, this is called coarticulation.
(When simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved, we call this process coarticulation.)
Broad Transcription 宽式音标 the transcription with letter-symbols only.
Narrow transcription 窄式音标 the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics 读音符号.
Phone 音素 A phone is a phonetic unit or segment.
Phoneme 音位 A phoneme is a phonological unit which is the smallest unit of sound in language which can distinguish two words.
Allophone 音位变体 the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allop

hones of that phoneme.
Assimilation 同化 is a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.
Syllable 音节 A syllable is composed of a compulsory nucleus(peak), a non-compulsory onset and a non-compulsory coda.
Stress 重音 refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable.
Intonation 语调 involves the occurrence of recurring fall-rise patterns, each of which is used with a set of relatively consistent meanings, either on single words or on groups of words of varying length.

Chapter 3
Morpheme 词素 is the smallest meaning minimal meaningful units in a language.
(Morpheme is the smallest unit of language in terms of the relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.)
Morphology 形态学 studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.
Free morphemes 自由音素 those that may occur alone, that is those which may constitute words by themselves.
Bound morphemes 黏着音素 those must appear with at least another morpheme, that is, they cannot stand alone.
Root 词根 is the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without destroying its meaning.
Affixes 词缀 forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function.
(is a collective term for the type of morpheme that can be used only when added to another morpheme (the root or stem), so affix is naturally bound.
Stem 词干 is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.
Inflection indicates grammatical relations by adding inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case. It will not change the grammatical class of the stem to which it is attached.
Word formation refers to the process of how words are formed.
Compounding 复合法 the formation of new words by joining two or more stems.
(The term compound refers to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form.)
Derivation (affixation) 派生法 the formation of words by adding derivational affixes to stems.
Conversion


Chapter 4
Syntax is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.
Syntax is the study of the formation of sentences.
Syntactic relations can be analysed into three kinds, namely, positional relations, relations of substitutability, and the relations of co-occurrence 同现关系.
Positional relation (word order) 位置关系refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language. The sequential arrangement of words can either be well-formed or ill-formed (ungrammatical or nonsensical).
Relations of substitutability 可替换关系

Firstly, it refers to classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically in sentences with the same structure. Secondly, it refers to groups of more than one word which may be jointly substitutable grammatically for a single word of a particular set.
Grammatical construction/construct 语法结构 can be used to mean any syntactic construct which is assigned one or more conventional functions in a language, together with whatever is linguistically conventionalized about its contribution to the meaning or use the construct contains.
- Constituents are the components within one sentence (a term used for every linguistic unit, which is a part of a larger unit).
Immediate constituents 直接成分 are constituents immediately, or directly, below the level of a construction, which may be a sentence, a word group or even a word (which can be further analyzed into morphemes).
Endocentric construction 向心结构 is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable center or head.
Exocentric construction 离心结构 refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable center or head.
- Subject refers to one of the nouns in the nominative case.
- Object Traditionally, subject can be defined as the doer of an action (the agent), then object may refer to the “receiver” or “goal” of the action (the patient), and it is further classified into Direct Object and Indirect Object.
PS rules provide explanations on how syntactic categories are formed and sentences generated.

Chapter 5
Semantics is the study of meaning, or more specifically, the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular.
Referential theory 指称论 The theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stand for, is known as the referential theory.
- Reference is the relation by which a word picks out or identifies an entity in the world.

Chapter 8
Pragmatics 语用学 Speaker’s meaning (utterance or contextual meaning) – the interpretation of a sentence depends on who the speaker is, who the hearer is, when and where it is used. In a word, it depends on the context. The discipline which concentrates on this kind of meaning is called pragmatics.
Locutionary Act 发话行为（以言指事） When we speak we move our vocal organs and produce a number of sounds, organized in a certain way and with a certain meaning. The act performed in this sense is called a locutionary act.
Illocutionary act 行事行为（以言行事） When we speak, we not only produce some units of language with certain meaning (locution), but also make our purpose in producing them, the way we intend them to be understood. This is the second sense in which to say something is to do something,

and the act performed is known as an illocutionary act.
Perlocutionary act 取效行为（以言成事）
- It refers to the consequential effects of a locution upon the hearer.
By telling somebody something the speaker may change the opinion of the hearer on something, or mislead him, or surprise him, or induce his to do something, etc.
- Whether or not these effects are intended by the speaker, they can be regarded as part of the act that the speaker has performed.