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Vaccine23(2005)

3310–3317

CpG oligonucleotides induce strong humoral but only weak CD4+T cell responses to protein antigens in rhesus macaques in vivo

Gunther Hartmann a,Anja Marschner a,1,Pablo Renner Viveros b,1,Christiane Stahl-Hennig c, Martin Eisenbl¨a tter b,You-Suk Suh c,Stefan Endres a,Klara Tenner-Racz d,

Klaus¨Uberla e,Paul Racz d,Ralph M.Steinman f,Ralf Ignatius b,?

a Department of Internal Medicine,Division of Clinical Pharmacology,Ludwig-Maximilians-University of Munich,

Ziemssenstrasse1,80336Munich,Germany

b Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Immunology,Charit′e-University Medicine Berlin,

Campus Benjamin Franklin,Hindenburgdamm27,12203Berlin,Germany

c Department of Virology an

d Immunology,German Primat

e Center,Kellnerweg4,37077G¨o ttingen,Germany

d Bernhard Nocht Institut

e for Tropical Medicine,Bernhard-Nocht-Str.74,20359Hamburg,Germany

e Department o

f Molecular and Medical Virology,Ruhr-University Bochum,44780Bochum,Germany

f Laboratory of Cellular Physiology and Immunology,The Rockefeller University,1230York Ave.,New York,NY10021,USA

Received16August2004;received in revised form29November2004;accepted5January2005

Available online26January2005

Abstract

Oligonucleotides containing CpG motifs(CpG ODN)are strong adjuvants for humoral immune responses but data on cellular immune responses in primates are scarce.Rhesus macaque blood contained similar numbers of plasmacytoid dendritic cells and B cells,the key sensors of CpG ODN,as human blood,and these cells were activated by CpG-A and CpG-B in vitro.In vivo,both ODNs induced equal plasma levels of interferon-inducible protein10and similarly enhanced antibody responses following i.m.injections of the ODNs,protein antigen, and aluminium hydroxide into rhesus macaques,whereas antigen-speci?c CD4+T cell responses were only slightly increased by CpG ODN.?2005Elsevier Ltd.All rights reserved.

Keywords:Primates;CpG oligonucleotides;Adjuvant

1.Introduction

The potential of vaccines to induce humoral and cellu-lar immunity may be limited due to weak antigenicity of the target antigen,e.g.,hepatitis B surface antigen(HBsAg) in the case of hepatitis B.As a consequence,multiple im-munisations are often required and considerable numbers of vaccinated individuals may fail to mount protective immune responses.An improved understanding of the mechanisms leading to B and T cell activation and differentiation could result in the development of better vaccine adjuvants.

?Corresponding author.Tel.:+493084453620;fax:+493084453830.

E-mail address:ralf.ignatius@charite.de(R.Ignatius).

1Authors contributed equally.

While in mice toll-like receptor(TLR)9,the receptor for oligonucleotides containing CpG motifs(CpG ODN), is expressed on all myeloid cells,B cells,and plasmacy-toid dendritic cells(PDCs),its expression in humans is re-stricted to B cells and PDCs[1,2].CpG ODN were discov-ered based on B cell stimulation[3],and activation of murine and human B cells by CpG ODN is well established[4–7]. PDCs are characterized by the production of high amounts of type I interferon(IFN-?and IFN-?)upon viral infec-tion,and recognition of CpG ODN by the cells leads to their activation and maturation[8–11].Different classes of CpG ODN have been identi?ed,i.e.,CpG-B(prototype ODN2006 [6]),which activates human B cells but is relatively weak at inducing IFN-?in PDCs,and CpG-A(prototype ODN 2216[12]),which induces the production of large amounts

0264-410X/$–see front matter?2005Elsevier Ltd.All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2005.01.077

G.Hartmann et al./Vaccine23(2005)3310–33173311

of type I IFN in PDCs but is weak at activating puri?ed B cells.

In mice,CpG ODN are potent adjuvants to support both humoral and cellular immunity including CD4+and CD8+ T cell responses[5,13,14].These effects could be explained by(i)increased CD4+T cell responses and direct B cell ac-tivation in the case of humoral immune responses,and(ii) cross-presentation of antigens by dendritic cells(DCs)after immunisation of mice with CpG ODN and antigens,most ef?ciently when they are covalently linked[14].The activ-ity of CpG ODN to induce humoral immune responses has been con?rmed in non-human primates[7,15–17]and in hu-mans[18].However,to date there are no solid in vivo data on the induction of antigen-speci?c CD4+T cell responses in the presence of CpG ODN in primates.Here we demonstrate that despite strong adjuvant activity of CpG ODN on humoral immune responses,only slightly increased CD4+T cell re-sponses to protein antigens can be observed in the presence of CpG-B and-A.

2.Materials and methods

2.1.CpG ODN and antigens

Completely and partially phosphorothioate-modi?ed ODN were provided by Coley Pharmaceutical Group, Wellesley,MA(small letters:phosphorothioate link-age;capital letters:phosphodiester linkage3 of the base;bold:CpG-dinucleotides):CpG-B,ODN2006: 5 -t cg t cg ttttgt cg ttttgt cg tt-3 [6];CpG-A,ODN2216: 5 -ggGGGA CG AT CG T Cg ggggG-3 [12].To immunise against HBsAg,a commercially available vaccine con-taining aluminium hydroxide(alum)as adjuvant(Engerix B Kinder?,SmithKline Beecham Pharma,M¨u nchen, Germany)was used at paediatric dosages.In T cell as-says,peripheral blood mononuclear cells(PBMCs)were re-stimulated with recombinant HBsAg(purity>98%, Biotrend Chemikalien,K¨o ln,Germany).For immunisation against keyhole limpet hemocyanin(KLH),200?g KLH (Calbiochem,San Diego,CA,USA)were adsorbed to88?l alum(Alu-Gel-S,Serva,Heidelberg,Germany)and adjusted to a?nal volume of500?l through mixture with PBS for 30min at room temperature.The ratio between Al3+to protein was6mg to200?g.Staphylococcal enterotoxin B (SEB;Alexis Corp.,Lausen,Switzerland)and Concavalin A(ConA,Sigma,Taufkirchen,Germany)served as positive controls in T cell stimulation assays.

2.2.Animals and immunisations

Healthy young adult male and female rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta)housed at the German Primate Center (Deutsches Primatenzentrum,G¨o ttingen)were used through-out the study.The animals were antibody negative for simian T-lymphotropic virus type1,simian D-type retrovirus,and simian immunode?ciency virus(SIV).All animal care oper-ations were in compliance with the guidelines of the German Primate Center and approved by the local authorities.For immunisations and collection of blood animals were sedated with ketamine.Mixtures of antigen and alum were admin-istered i.m.into one thigh in a?nal volume of0.6ml either together with250or500?g of CpG ODN or with the identical volumes of PBS as control at weeks0and4.For immuni-sation with HBsAg(10?g HBsAg plus alum,Engerix?B Kinder),two animals per group were co-injected with either 250?g CpG-B,250?g CpG-A,or PBS at weeks0and4. Blood samples(3.15ml)were drawn at days1and3after immunisation for measurements of cytokine concentrations. Additional blood samples of4.5ml were drawn at baseline and at weeks2,4,6,and8of the study in order to determine humoral and cellular immune responses.

As the number of animals available for the studies was limited we chose the CpG ODN with higher biostability (CpG-B)at a higher dose for a subsequent immunisation with KLH,which allowed us to treat three animals per group.KLH (200?g)absorbed with alum was given either with500?g CpG-B or with PBS,and two animals(11093and11094) treated ten months previously with HBsAg plus alum and CpG-B were included in the latter group for reasons of ani-mal availability.Blood samples were drawn at the time points as indicated above and in addition at week14.

2.3.Isolation of cells and?ow cytometry

Rhesus macaque PBMCs were isolated from fresh blood as previously described[19]and?ow cytometry was per-formed using monoclonal antibodies(mAbs)labelled with ?uorescein isothiocyanate(FITC),phycoerythrin(PE),or peridinin chlorophyll protein(PerCP),purchased from BD PharMingen(Heidelberg,Germany).For the identi?cation of PDCs in fresh PBMCs,a three-color staining was per-formed:a cocktail of cross-reacting lineage mAbs{FITC-conjugated anti-CD3(clone SP34),anti-CD14(clone M5E2), anti-CD16(clone3G8),and anti-CD20(clone2H7)}was used to exclude lineage-positive cells(i.e.,T cells,mono-cytes,NK cells,and B cells).Simultaneously,cells were stained with anti-HLA-DR-PerCP(clone L243)and PE-conjugated anti-CD123mAb(clone7G3).PDCs were de-?ned as lineage?/HLA-DR+/CD123+cells.

For cell culture experiments,rhesus PBMCs (2×106cells/ml)were incubated in RPMI1640(PAA Laboratories,Linz,Austria)supplemented with10%(v/v) heat-inactivated(56?C,30min)fetal calf serum(FCS, HyClone,Logan,UT,USA),1.5mM l-glutamine,100U/ml penicillin and100?g/ml streptomycin(all Sigma)in the presence or absence of CpG-B or CpG-A(both at3?g/ml) for2days.On day2,cell-free supernatants were harvested for the analysis of cytokines,and cells were stained with mAbs for analysis by?ow cytometry.To detect activated monocytes cells were stained with anti-CD14-FITC(clone M5E2),anti-CD86-PE(clone IT2.2),and anti-HLA-DR-

3312G.Hartmann et al./Vaccine23(2005)3310–3317

PerCP(clone L243).To verify B cell activation cells were stained with anti-CD20-PE(clone2H7),anti-HLA-DR-PerCP(clone L243)and anti-CD86-allophycocyanin{clone 2331(FUN-1)}.

2.4.Cytokine secretion

IFN-?concentrations in cell-free supernatants were anal-ysed using a commercially available ELISA kit for human IFN-?(PBL,Brunswick,USA),which is known to be cross-reacting to the rhesus proteins[20].Interferon-inducible pro-tein10(IP-10,CXCL10)concentrations in plasma samples obtained at days0,1,and3of each immunisation with HBsAg with or without CpG ODN were measured using an ELISA kit for human IP-10(R&D Systems,Wiesbaden,Germany). To detect IFN-?secretion of PBMCs ELISPOT assays were set up as described previously[21].Brie?y,PBMCs were re-suspended at2×106cells/ml in culture medium consisting of RPMI1640(GIBCO,Invitrogen,Karlsruhe,Germany), supplemented with2mM l-glutamine(GIBCO),50?M2-mercaptoethanol(Sigma),10mM HEPES(GIBCO),peni-cillin(100U/ml)-streptomycin(100?g/ml)(GIBCO),and 10%heat-inactivated FCS(Biochrom,Berlin,Germany). 2×105PBMCs were seeded in100?l/well in triplicates in pre-coated IFN-?ELISPOT plates(U-CyTech,H¨o lzel Di-agnostics,K¨o ln,Germany)in the presence or absence of antigens at concentrations of10?g/ml(HBsAg)or20?g/ml (KLH),respectively.5×104PBMCs stimulated with SEB (5ng/ml)veri?ed T cell responsiveness.Plates were incu-bated at37?C and5%CO2for24–36h and developed follow-ing the manufacturer’s instructions.Numbers of spot-forming cells were determined using an ELISPOT reader(BIO-SYS, Karben,Germany).Additionally,IFN-?and IL-4concentra-tions were determined in the supernatants of the proliferation assays(see below),which were harvested prior to pulsing the assays with tritiated thymidine and frozen at?80?C.Sam-ples were thawed and analysed in commercially available ELISA kits for the detection of monkey IFN-?and monkey IL-4(U-CyTech)according to the manufacturer’s protocols.

2.5.Analysis of anti-HBsAg antibody titres

Plasma samples of each animal were collected at various time points and frozen at?80?C for subsequent serological analysis.Anti-HBsAg antibodies were determined using a commercially available microparticle enzyme immunoassay (AXSYM?,Abbott,Wiesbaden,Germany).This test system allows a quantitative analysis of plasma and serum samples and is used for routine hepatitis B diagnostic.

2.6.T cell proliferation assays

To measure T cell proliferative responses in stan-dard proliferation assays PBMCs were resuspended at 1×106cells/ml in culture medium.One hundred microlitres of medium containing the desired concentrations of the anti-gens were added to100?l of the cell suspension for a?nal volume of200?l/well in96-well round-bottom trays(Nunc). Routine controls included PBMCs in medium alone and PBMCs stimulated with Con A(5?g/ml)or SEB(5ng/ml). All conditions were set up in triplicates and cultures were incubated at37?C and5%CO2.On day3(for SEB,Con A, and medium alone)and day5(for HBsAg,KLH,and medium alone),supernatants were harvested and frozen at?80?C for analyses of cytokine concentrations,and3H-thymidine (1?Ci/well,NEN,Perkin-Elmer,Boston,MA,USA)was added to the wells.Cells were harvested18h later onto glass ?bre?lter mats(ICN Biomedicals,Aurora,OH,USA),and incorporated3H-thymidine was measured in a liquid scintil-lation counter.To facilitate the comparison of proliferative responses,stimulation indices were calculated by dividing the mean counts per minute(cpm)of triplicates of antigen-containing wells by the mean cpm of triplicate wells with unstimulated PBMCs.

2.7.Statistical analysis

Data are expressed as mean±standard error of measure-ment(S.E.M.).Statistical signi?cance of differences was de-termined by the paired or unpaired two-tailed Student’s t-test.Differences were considered statistically signi?cant for p<0.05.Statistical analyses were performed using StatView 4.51software(Abacus Concepts Inc.,Calabasas,CA).

3.Results

3.1.Detection and quanti?cation of PDCs in the peripheral blood of rhesus macaques

PDCs and B cells are the only immune cell subsets in human PBMCs that express TLR9and thus can be directly activated by CpG ODN.They can then modulate the activity of immune cell subsets that lack TLR9,such as monocytes, T cells,and NK cells.The utility of rhesus macaques as a model system to predict the in vivo activities of CpG-B and CpG-A depends on a similar number and functional activity of PDCs in rhesus macaques and humans.Therefore,we?rst established a protocol to identify PDCs in rhesus PBMCs. Similar to human blood leukocytes,rhesus PDCs could be identi?ed among lineage-negative cells by positive staining for HLA-DR and CD123.The analysis of blood samples of seven individual rhesus macaques revealed an average PDC frequency of0.5%(±0.1%)in PBMCs.

3.2.Induction of IFN-?and differential activation of rhesus monocytes and B cells by CpG-B and CpG-A in vitro

While CpG-A induces high amounts of IFN-?in human PDCs,CpG-B preferentially activates human B cells but is weak at inducing IFN-?in human PDCs[6,12].To con?rm

G.Hartmann et al./Vaccine23(2005)3310–3317

3313

Fig.1.CpG-B and CpG-A differentially induce IFN-?and IL-6as well as B cell and monocyte activation in rhesus PBMCs.(A)Rhesus PBMCs(2×106cells/ml) were incubated in the presence of CpG-B or CpG-A at3?g/ml.After48h,concentrations of IFN-?(upper panel)and IL-6(lower panel)in the supernatants were measured by ELISA.The mean values±S.E.M.of six and eight individual rhesus blood samples,respectively,are shown.(B)After48h of stimulation, the expression of CD86on B lymphocytes(upper panel,percentage of CD20+and HLA-DR+cells)and monocytes(lower panel,mean?uorescence intensity, MFI)was analysed by?ow cytometry.PBMCs from eight individual animals,*p<0.05;**p<0.01.

that the same type of differential activation is also present in rhesus macaques,PBMCs from six individual animals were stimulated with either CpG-B or CpG-A at3?g/ml.This is the optimal concentration for human PBMCs[12],and simi-lar doses have been used in other studies with rhesus macaque PBMCs in vitro[22].After48h,IFN-?concentrations were determined in the supernatants.Similar to human cells,CpG-A induced higher amounts of IFN-?than CpG-B in rhesus PBMCs(Fig.1A,upper panel).These data indicate that CpG-A induces the production of considerable amounts of IFN-?in rhesus macaque PDCs,considering the small number of PDCs as the only source for IFN-?in the supernatants of PBMCs and the limited cross-reactivity of the ELISA(ap-proximately20%of rhesus IFN-?is detected according to the manufacturer’s information),while experiments with pu-ri?ed PDCs could not be performed due to the limited num-ber of cells available from rhesus macaques.In contrast to IFN-?,the level of IL-6production was higher in response to CpG-B than CpG-A,(Fig.1A,lower panel).Higher IL-6 production correlated with preferential rhesus B cell activa-tion by CpG-B,determined by increased CD86expression on CD20+B cells(Fig.1B,upper panel),similar to earlier studies with human PBMCs[23].In contrast,CpG-A but not CpG-B upregulated CD86expression on CD14+rhesus monocytes(Fig.1B,lower panel).Together these results ver-ify a similar in vitro pattern of direct and indirect activation of rhesus macaque leukocyte subsets by CpG-B and CpG-A as in humans.

3.3.CpG-B and CpG-A increase plasma levels of IP-10 and enhance humoral immune responses to a hepatitis B vaccine in rhesus macaques in vivo

We then compared the immunological activities of CpG-B and CpG-A in rhesus macaques in vivo through co-injection of the ODN with a commercially available hepatitis B vac-cine containing HBsAg adsorbed to alum.Two animals per group were vaccinated twice4weeks apart,while two con-trol animals received the vaccine without CpG,and blood samples were collected before and at various time points af-ter each immunisation.While plasma levels of IFN-?were not detectable by ELISA at all time points(data not shown), IP-10as a more sensitive measure of IFN-?[25]consistently showed a transient increase1day after injection of CpG ODN (Fig.2).Interestingly,despite the different capacities of the two ODN motifs to induce IFN-?in vitro(Fig.1A),levels of IP-10induced by CpG-B and CpG-A in vivo were similar and at equal levels after the?rst and second injection.

At4weeks after the?rst vaccination,only animals that received either CpG-B or CpG-A showed antibody titres that

3314G.Hartmann et al./Vaccine 23(2005)

3310–3317

Fig.2.Intramuscular injections of CpG-B and CpG-A repeatedly induce transient but comparable levels of plasma IP-10in vivo.Engerix B (10?g HBsAg plus alum)was injected i.m.with or without 250?g of CpG-B or CpG-A in rhesus macaques (two animals per group,as indicated)on days 0and 28.Blood samples were drawn at baseline (day 0)and days 1and 3after the injections,and plasma levels of IP-10were determined by ELISA.

would be considered protective in humans,and titres in-creased further within 2weeks of the second injection.How-ever,at this time point antibody titres in the control animals were similar to those in CpG-treated animals (Fig.3).These data indicate that co-injection of CpG ODN provides adju-vant activity after a single immunisation and furthermore,that there is no major difference between CpG-B and CpG-A in the support of humoral immune responses in rhesus macaques in vivo.

3.4.CpG ODN are weak or inactive at enhancing the priming of protein-speci?c CD4+T cell responses

Antigen speci?c T cell proliferative responses of the HB-sAg vaccinated animals were compared in an assay system that has previously been used for the detection of such re-sponses in humans [26].PBMCs were obtained from the different animals at various time points of the study and cultured in the presence or absence of recombinant HB-sAg (10?g/ml).While all animals displayed proliferative re-sponses against control antigens,only weak HBsAg speci?c proliferation was detected after the second immunisation in all animals,irrespective of the administration of CpG (data not shown).In addition,ELISPOT assays demonstrated no signi?cant numbers of HBsAg-speci?c,IFN-?secreting

cells

Fig.3.Injections of CpG-B and CpG-A induce high anti-HBsAg antibody titres after a single immunisation with HBsAg and alum.Rhesus monkeys were injected on days 0and 28with Engerix B (10?g HBsAg plus alum)with or without 250?g of CpG-B or CpG-A as indicated.Anti-HBsAg antibody titres were measured in plasma samples obtained at the indicated time points.

in PBMCs obtained from the animals at any time point (data not shown).Thus,no signi?cant enhancement of HbsAg-speci?c T cell priming was induced early after CpG injection.As HBsAg may be considered a relatively weak T cell antigen,we performed an additional study using the stronger CD4+T cell antigen KLH.Three animals per group received KLH and alum with or without 500?g CpG-B i.m.twice 4weeks apart,and antigen-speci?c proliferative responses of PBMCs obtained at various time points of the study were analysed by re-stimulation with different doses of KLH (1,10,and 100?g/ml)for 5days.While one of the three animals that received KLH absorbed to alum alone showed

increased

Fig.4.T cell responses after immunisation of rhesus macaques with KLH and CpG.200?g KLH adsorbed to alum were injected i.m.with or without CpG-B (500?g/ml)on days 0and 28.At the time points indicated,blood samples were taken and PBMC isolated.(A and B)1×105PBMCs/well were incubated in the absence or presence of KLH (10?g/ml),and T cell proliferation was determined 5days later by 3H-thymidine uptake.Results are presented as stimulatory indices.(A)Results of individual monkeys in-jected with KLH and alum (upper panel)or with KLH,alum,and CpG-B (lower panel).(B)Mean stimulation indices for each group;statistical anal-ysis was performed for results obtained at week 14,*p =0.04.(C)2×105PBMCs/well were restimulated with KLH (20?g/ml),and numbers of spe-ci?c IFN-?producing cells were measured in ELISPOT assays.As pos-itive controls,5×104PBMC/well were stimulated with SEB.The mean (±S.E.M.)of the three individual animals per group are shown.

G.Hartmann et al./Vaccine23(2005)3310–33173315

T cell proliferative responses at week4after the?rst injection, none of the CpG treated animals responded at this time point (Fig.4A).Over the8weeks following the second injection, all CpG-injected animals showed a slow increase of KLH-speci?c T cell proliferation that was maintained until the end of the study.In contrast,only the responding control animal displayed a further increase of KLH-speci?c proliferation after the second injection,followed by a decrease towards the end of the study.At week14there was a statistically signi?cant difference of mean stimulation indices between both treatment groups(Fig.4B).

Analysis of the supernatants of these assays revealed sim-ilar concentrations of IFN-?in both groups at week14(1236, 1068,and902pg/ml for animals11093,11094,and11095 in the KLH plus alum,and1060,1130,and1202pg/ml for animals11110,11114,and11222in the KLH plus alum plus CpG-B treated group,respectively),while none of the ani-mals produced IFN-?upon stimulation with KLH at week0, and IFN-?was undetectable in supernatants harvested from unstimulated PBMCs.In contrast,IL-4was neither detected at week0nor later during the study(data not shown).The induction of similar Th1responses to KLH in the immunised animals irrespective of the injection of CpG was con?rmed by ELISPOT analyses where comparable numbers of KLH-speci?c IFN-?-secreting cells were observed in PBMCs from CpG-treated and control animals(Fig.4C).

Together,the results of the two immunisation studies sug-gest that CpG ODN are weak or inactive at supporting CD4+ T cell responses to protein antigens in rhesus macaques. 4.Discussion

Immunostimulatory CpG ODN are promising adjuvants for the induction of humoral immune responses in humans. While in mice they can also enhance antigen-speci?c CD4+ T cell responses[13,27],little is known about the ef?cacy in primates.

We?rst con?rmed that CpG-A and CpG-B display similar immunomodulatory activities in rhesus macaque PBMCs as in human cells.Numbers of PDCs were within the same range in the peripheral blood of monkeys as in humans[28],and similar data have recently been reported by others[20,29]. Like in human cells,CpG-A was found to induce high levels of IFN-?in monkey PBMCs[12].IFN-?secretion by rhesus PDCs upon stimulation with CpG-A and abrogation of this response following depletion of PDCs in vitro has recently been reported by Pichyangkul et al.[29].Similarly,Coates et al.[20]have demonstrated IFN-?secretion by puri?ed rhesus macaque PDCs upon stimulation with herpes simplex virus-1(HSV)in vitro and also IFN-?production in lymph node cells,but not in the peripheral blood,of HSV-infected monkeys.In contrast,CpG-B activated B cells and induced IL-6production as described for human cells[23].Consistent with earlier studies demonstrating that puri?ed human mono-cytes do not respond to CpG ODN and that CpG-A-induced activation of human monocytes is mediated by PDC-derived IFN-?[2,24],the lack of monocyte activation by CpG-B in-dicated that rhesus macaque monocytes are also unable to be directly stimulated by CpG motifs.Thus,monkey and human leukocytes respond equally to CpG in vitro.

Subsequently,CpG-A and CpG-B were compared in mon-keys in vivo.Like in HSV-infected animals[20],we detected no IFN-?in plasma samples from CpG-injected animals fol-lowing i.m.application of CpG ODN.Both types of CpG ODN,however,induced similar levels of IP-10,a sensitive marker of local or systemic type I IFN production[25],in-dicating that both CpG-A and CpG-B are biologically active after i.m.administration.

Furthermore,CpG-B and CpG-A were equally active at enhancing anti-HBsAg titres after a single injection of anti-gen;however,there was no advantage of CpG ODN injection with the boost immunisation.This may re?ect an excellent response of rhesus macaques to a hepatitis B vaccine consist-ing of HBsAg and alum.In the only other study that examined adjuvant activity of CpG on humoral immune responses in rhesus macaques[16],adjuvant activity of CpG was observed after the?rst as well as second immunisation of the animals. In contrast to our study,the boosting injections were given 12weeks after the?rst application of antigen and a different antigen(OV A with alum)was applied.A further increase of antibodies to HBsAg induced by CpG ODN after repeated injections has also been observed in orang-utans who gener-ally exhibit low responses to HBsAg[15].Clinically,there is recent evidence that injection of CpG-B ODN7909(which is similar to ODN2006)may improve the ability of AIDS patients to mount protective anti-HBsAg antibody responses [30].In another phase I study with CpG-B and HBsAg,higher antibody levels were achieved with CpG ODN that further increased with a boost vaccination after2months[18].How-ever,in that study no alum was applied as an adjuvant and consequently no antibodies were detected in the control group without CpG ODN.

As only little,if any,antigen-speci?c T cell responses were detectable in the HBsAg-immunised animals independently of the administration of CpG ODN,CD4+T cell priming was further elucidated in a second study based on the application of KLH as a stronger CD4+T cell antigen and CpG-B.Fol-lowing the second KLH injection,signi?cantly enhanced pro-liferative responses were observed in the CpG-treated group. The development of KLH-speci?c Th1responses was con-?rmed by the detection of antigen-speci?c IFN-?secretion. IFN-?concentrations in T cell supernatants as well as num-bers of KLH-speci?c,IFN-?producing cells,however,were comparable in animals injected with or without CpG.

To date there is only one published study where the in vivo adjuvant activity of CpG ODN to promote T cell responses in primates has been examined[16].In that study CpG ODN were administered together with heat-killed Leishmania,and small but signi?cantly increased numbers of IFN-?produc-ing cells were seen upon in vitro re-stimulation of PBMCs from CpG injected monkeys.As the authors used a clearly

3316G.Hartmann et al./Vaccine23(2005)3310–3317

distinct source of antigen,i.e.,heat-killed whole parasites, for immunisation and re-stimulation,CpG ODN could poten-tially have different effects on the priming of antigen-speci?c CD4+T cells in primates depending on the antigen admin-istered.While in mice CpG ODN enhance antigen-speci?c CD4+T cell responses also to protein antigens[13,27],these differences may be due to the expression of TLR9in myeloid dendritic cells,which is present in murine[31]but absent in human(and most likely also in non-human primate)cells[9].

Together our results provide evidence that the adjuvant ac-tivity of CpG-A and CpG-B on humoral immune responses to protein antigens in primates is not re?ected by similar effects on CD4+Th1cell priming.Interestingly,IL-12secretion in-duced by rhesus lineage-negative,HLA-DR+cells(myeloid and PDCs)upon incubation with a new type of CpG ODN (CpG-C,ODN C274),but not with CpG-B,and an enhancing effect on SIV-speci?c IFN-?secretion by peripheral T cells has recently been demonstrated in vitro[22].We are currently investigating whether CpG-C may increase T cell responses to a higher extent in vivo than other types of CpG ODNs. Note added in proof

CpG-C may help to induce considerable numbers of IFN-?secreting,speci?c CD4+T cells to a protein antigen in rhesus macaques when injected s.c.at a4-fold higher dose,mixed with a water-in-oil adjuvant(Montanide)(Robert Seder,per-sonal communication).

Acknowledgements

We thank Ursula R¨u schendorf for excellent technical as-sistance and Dr.Helmut Hahn for continuous support.We are grateful to Dr.Marina St¨o f?er-Meilicke for the measurements of anti-HBsAg antibodies.This work was funded by grants QLRT-PL-1999-01215and QLK2-CT-2002-00882from the European Union(to CSH,KTR,K¨U,PR,and RI),and the H.W.&J.Hector Foundation to RI.GH received support by the German Research Foundation(DFG,HA2780/4-1),by the Federal Ministry for Education and Research of Germany (BMBF),Coley Pharmaceutical GmbH,and by the Human Science Foundation of Japan.This work contains parts of the dissertation of A.Marschner at the Ludwig-Maximilians-University,Munich,Germany.

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