语用学

语用学

语用学是在语境中考察话语意义的学科。语用学与语义学都是研究语言的意义。根本区别在于是否在语境中考察意义，pragmatics=meaning-semantics。语境是指说话人和听话人共同的知识部分，包括对所用语言的了解以及对交流时的具体场合在内的周围世界的认识。1．言语行为理论

1）施为句和表述句

对事实进行描述，有真假之分的句子称为表述句；在说出的同时，也是在实施某种行为，没有真假的句子，称为施为句。

2）行事行为理论

说话可以在三种意义上被看成做事。第一种为发话行为，移动发音器官，发出一定意义的声音的行为；第二种是刑事行为，在发话行为的同时，表明说话的目的和希望所说的话怎样被人理解，即言外之意；第三种为取效行为，话语对听话人产生的实际效果。语言学家历来关注发话行为，即发音、组词、造句等，取消行为则涉及许多现在无法弄清的心理和社会因素，行事行为称为真正关注的目标，言语行为理论实际就是刑事行为理论。

2．会话含义理论

由H.P.Grice提出。主要探究人们怎样传达没有明确说出来的含义。

1）合作原则

人们在谈话中会有意无意地遵循这样的合作原则：“使你所说的话，在其所发生的阶段，符合你所参与的交谈的公认目标或方向”，具体体现为四条原则：数量准则、质量准则、关系准则、方式准则。

2）准则的违背

除谎言外，其他违背准则的情况实际是在更深的层次上遵守准则。会话含义只有依赖合作原则才能推导出来。

主要考点：言语行为的定义，种类，以及实例分析。合作原则及其四条准则的内容，实例分析合作原则和会话含义。话语意义与句子意义的区别

1.What is Pragmatics

The study of the use of language in communication, particularly the relationship between sentences and the context and situations in which they are used. Pragmatics includes the study of

a: How the interpretation and use of UTTERANCEs depends on knowledge of the real world.人们对话语的理解和运用与对现实世界的认识有什么关系

b: How speakers use and understand SPEECH ACTs说话者如何使用和理解言语行为

c: How the structure of sentences is influenced by the relationship between the speaker and the hearer.句子的结构如何受说话者和听话者之间关系的影响2.Semantics and pragmatics

Semantics and pragmatics are both linguistic studies of meaning. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered. If it is not considered, the study is restricted to the area of traditional semantics; if it is considered, the study is carried out in the area of pragmatics. Semantics studies sentences as units of the abstract linguistic system while pragmatics studies utterances as instances of the linguistic system. The former stops at the sentence level; the latter looks at bigger chunks of conversation. The

former regards sentences as stable products; the latter treats utterances as dynamic processes. The former analyses sentences in isolation; the latter analyses utterances in close connection with their contexts of situation.

3. How does utterance meaning differ from sentence meaning?

A sentence is a grammatical concept, and the meaning of a sentence is often studied as the abstract, intrinsic property of the sentence itself. But if we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes an utterance, and it should be considered in the situation in which it is actually uttered or used. Therefore, while the meaning of a sentence is abstract, and decontextualized, and that of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. The meaning of an utterance is based on sentence meaning;it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context. Take the sentence “my bag is heavy” as an example. The sentence meaning of it is “my bag is heavy(not light)”

The utterance meaning of the sentence varies with the context in which it is uttered . It could be uttered by a speaker as a straightforward statement, telling the hearer that his bag is heavy. It could also be intended by the speaker as an indirect, polite request, asking the hearer to help him carry the bag. Another possibility is that the speaker is declining someone’s request for help. All these are possible interpretation of the same utterance “my bag is heavy”. How it is to be understood depends on the context in which it is uttered and the purpose for which the speaker utters it.

4. Why is Utterance meaning context-dependent?

The notion of context is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. V arious components of shared knowledge have been identified, e.g., knowledge of the language they use, knowledge of what has been said before, knowledge of the world in general, knowledge about the specific situation in which linguistic communication is taking place, and knowledge about each other.

Context determines the speaker’s use of language and also the hearer’s interpretation of what is said to him or her. Without such knowledge, linguistic communication would not be possible, and without considering such knowledge, linguistic communication cannot be satisfactorilly accounted for in a pragmatic sense.

5. Micropragmatics

1) Reference:p144

2)Inference: It refers to the listener’s use of additional knowledge to make sense

of what is not explicit in an utterance.

3)deixis(p144)

4)Anaphora(p145)

Macropragmatics

6.Austin made the primary distinction between two types of utterances: constative and performative.

1)Constatives: utterances which roughly serves to state a fact, report that

something is the case, or describe what something is, eg:

I go to the park every Sunday.

I teach English.

2) Performatives: utterances which are used to perform acts, do not describe or report anything at all; the uttering of the sentence is the doing of an action; they cannot be said to be true or false.eg:

I do.( as uttered in the course of a marriage ceremony.)

I name this ship Queen Elizabeth.

I bet you sixpence it will rain tomorrow.

I give and bequeath my watch to my brother.

I promise to finish it in time.

I apologize.

I declare the meeting open.

3)Characteristics of Performatives

A. They are performed in saying something;

B. they cannot be performed unless language is used;

C. they have connected with them performative verbs, the occurrence of which as a main verb in a present tense, indicative, active, a first person sentence makes explicit what act a speaker intends to be performing in utteringthe sentence.

4) How to distinguish performatives and constatives

1. Conditions: true or false (constative)

2. grammatical criterion: (performative)

first person singular sub.

simple present tense

indicative mood

active voice

7. The distinction between constatives & performatives cannot be maintained.

All sentences can be used to do things.Saying something can be understood as doing something.

8. The theory of the Illocutionary Act

In How to do things with words, Austin holds that there are three senses in which saying something can be understood as doing something.

Locutionary Act 发话行为

Illocutionary Act行事行为

Perlocutionary Act取效行为

Locutionary Act(发话行为/言中行为）: (1)the utterance of a sentence with specific sense and reference;

An illocutionary act: an act performed in saying something. To say sth is to do sth.(the act of expressing the s peaker’s intention)

A perlocutionary act: the act performed by or resulting from saying something;

it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance (the effect of those words on hearer.It is the consequence of or the change brought about by the utterance.)

9.Searles’ five categories of illocutionary act

1.representatives 陈述类those kinds of speech acts that state what the speaker

believes to be the case or not.（state, describe,swear, report etc.)

Eg:The earth is flat.

Chomsky didn’t write about music.

It was a warm sunny day.

2.declaratives:宣告类those kinds of speech acts that change the world via their

utterance(name, declare, nominate, point)

You’re fired

Priest:I now pronounce you husband and wife.

Referee裁判员:You’re out.

Jury Foreman陪审团团长:We find the defendant guilty.

3.directives指令类speech acts by which the speaker tries to get the hearer to do

something.（ask, order, request, command, advise)

Give me a cup of coffee.

Could you lend me a pen?

Don’t do that.

?I order you to leave the room.

?I beg you to give me some advice.

? https://www.wendangku.net/doc/d6395093.html,missives 承诺类:speech acts that speakers use to commit themselves to some future action,(promise, bet)

?I’ll be back.

?We will not do that.

?Warning is also a commissive, as “If you do that again I’ll beat you to death”, because it also commits the speaker to doing something.

? 5.expressives 表达类speech act s that express the speaker’s psychological state about sth,( what the speaker feels.)

?(thank, congratulate, apologize, welcome, deplore对…深感遗憾)

?Congratulations.

?I’m sorry.

?I apologize for stepping on your toe.

10. Direct speech act:speech act where a direct relationship exists between the structure and communicative function of an utterance.

?Eg:using an interrogative form(Can you…?) to ask a question(Can you swim?)

11.Indirect speech act:speech act where an indirect relationship exists between the structure and communicative function of an utterance.

?Eg:using an interrogative form(Can you…?) not to ask a question(Can you help me with this?)

12. The cooperative principle , proposed by Herbert Paul Grice ,is about that the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate; otherwise, it would not be possible to carry on the talk. This principle has the four following maxims (p154

13.Conversational implicature: An additional unstated meaning that has to be assumed in order to maintain the cooperative principle.

14. Relationship between the cooperative principle and conversational implicature:

In daily conversations people do not usually say things directly but tend to imply them. The word “implicature” is used to refer the extra m eaning that is not explicitly expressed in the utterance.

1)in making conversation, the participants must of all be willing to

cooperate;otherwise, it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk. This general principle is called the cooperative principle.(写cp定义)

2）while conversation participants nearly observe the cp, they do not always observe these maxims.These maxims can be violated for various reasons, but only when they are flouted, does conversational implicature occur.

15. The politeness principle is a series of maxims, which Geoff Leech has proposed as

a way of explaining how politeness operates in conversational exchanges.

Each maxim is acompnied by a sub-maxim, which is of less importance.

These support the idea that negative politeness (avoidance of discord) is more important than positive politeness(seeking concord).(p158)

实例分析

1 .A:I think he was married and had a lioness at home.

?The speaker has violated the first Quality maxim,which says “do not say what you believe to be false”. In the literal sense, no human being would marry a lioness, and therefore, at this level, it is a false statement. However, the deliberate violation of the maxim will lead us to interpret it as a metaphor, meaning that his wife had a bad temper.

2. A: What do you intend to do?

B: I have a terrible headache.

B has flouted the maxim of Relation,sinc e he did not answer A’s question

directly. However, assuming that B was co-operative, A was likely to derive the implicature that since B had a terrible headache, he would probably just lie in bed and do nothing.

3. A: Can you tell me the secret?

B: But John is there.

In the conversation, the maxim of relation has been flouted. A will assume that if B is cooperative his reply must be relevant in a different sense: I will not talk about my secret now because I do not want to let John know.

4. A:Let’s go to t he movies.

B: I’ll bring the Kleenex.

The answer of B seems irrelevant to A’s utterance. By doing so, A will likely derive the implicature that B has accepted his suggestion, and is going to get prepared.

5. A: Would you drive a Mercedes?

B: I wouldn’t dri ve ANY expensive car.

By violating the maxim of relation, B intends to implicate that Mercedes is an expensive car, and he would not drive a Mercedes.

6.A:Where’ve you been?

B: Out.

A violation of the first Quantity maxim was recognized, which says “make y our

contribution as informative as is required for the current purpose of the exchange” . B was supposed to provide the specific information of the place he had been to; however, he didn’t. By such a violation, B probably implied that “I do not want to tel l you where I have been”.

7. A: I know you are a famous sociologist. Could you define the term “culture”

please?

B: Well, culture is culture. That’s it.

B violates the first Quantity maxim which requires one’s utterance to be

informative enough and also th e Maxim of manner which requires one’s utterance to be perspicious. BY such violation, B probably wanted to imply that he would not tell the exat definition of “culture” so that A could think about it by himself. 8. H: Let’s dine out with the kids this wee kend.

W: Ok, but not M-c-D-o-n-a-l-d-s.

> This is said when it is known to both husband and wife that the latter has no difficulty in pronouncing the word “Mcdonalds”. Thus the wife has flouted the maxim of manner. Her utterance has the implicature that I don’t want the kids t know we are talking about bringing them to Mcdonalds.

9. A: Where is X?

B: He’s gone to the library. He said so when he left.

In this dialogue, the second maxim of Quantity is violated, which requires one’s utterance not to be over informative. The first part of B’s answer is enough for A’s question, but by adding the second part, the speaker may implicate that he is not sure whether X has really gone to the library.

10. A: When is Susan’s farewell party?

B: Sometime next month.

This is said when it is known to both A and B that B knows exactly when Susan is going to give her farewell party. Thus B is withholding some of the information required at this stage of conversation and is thus flouting the maxim of quantity.The implicature t hat results is “I do not wish to tell you when the party is going to be held.”

语用学

语用学肖蓉芳 莫里斯：1938年《符号理论基础》提出符号学包括三个部分：句法学，语义学，语用学 美国语言哲学家：格赖斯会话含义推理合作原则：量准则质准则关系准则方式准则 1977《语用学杂志》在荷兰的阿姆斯特丹出版发行是语用学成为语言学一门独立的新学科得到承认的标志列文森《语用学》堪称第一本比较系统、完整的语用学教科书 利奇《语用学原则》勾画了语用学的研究范畴，指明了语义学与语用学的联系与区别 尤其礼貌原则合作原则 语用学定义：语用学研究在不同语境中话语意义的恰当地表达和准确的理解，寻找并确立使话语意义得以恰当地表达和准确地理解的基本原则和准则 语用学的研究方法：纯语用学描写语用学应用语用学 弗思接受马林诺夫斯基（文化语境，情景语境观点）创立了比较完整的语境理论 韩礼德1964提出语域（话语的范围，话语的方式，话语的风格）术语，即语境 陈望道提出的“情境”显然就是弗思提出的情景语境，在《修辞学发凡》中提出“六何说” 何故，是说写说的目的：如为劝话人的还是但想使人了解自己意见或是同人辩论的 何事，是说写说的事项：是日常的琐事还是学术的讨论等等 何人，是说认清是谁对谁说的，就是写说者和读听者的关系 何地，是说认清说者当时在什么地方：在城市还是乡村之类 何时，是说写说的当时是什么时候：小之年月，大之时代 何如，是说怎样的写说：如怎样的裁剪，怎样配置之类 语境：上下文语境情景语境民族文化传统语境 指示词语就是表示指示信息的词语指示词语：指示用法：身势用法象征用法（菲尔默） 非指示用法：照应用法非照应用法 会话含义（N解）：1、当说话人违反了这些准则或次准则的时候，听话人就迫使自己超越话语的表面意义去设法领悟说话人所说话语的隐含意义，这种话语的隐含意义，即会话含义。 它关注的不是说话人说了些什么，而是说话人这句话可能意味着什么。 2、美国语言哲学家格赖斯首先提出来的，把会话含义分为两类：一般性会话含义和特殊性会话含义，它是语用学的核心内容，在言语交际中起着非常重要的作用。 格赖斯合作原则：在交谈时，要使你说的话符合你所参与的交谈的公认目的或方向 四条准则及相关次准则： 1、量的准则：指所提供的信息的量 A所说的话应包含为当前交谈目的所需要的信息B所说的话不应包含多于需要的信息 2、质的准则：所说的话力求真实，尤其是： A不要说自知是虚假的话B不要说缺乏足够证据的话 3、相关准则：在关系范畴下，只提出一个准则，即所说的话是相关的 4、方式准则：清楚明白的说出要说的话，尤其要： A避免晦涩B避免歧义C简炼D有条理 得体原则：1、礼貌准则（类似于利奇的礼貌原则）：得体准则宽宏、、赞誉、、谦虚、、一致、、同情、、 2、幽默准则幽默的基本功能：增添欢乐消除隔阂缓解矛盾显出超群才智摆脱困境回敬挑衅 3、克制准则：讽刺挖苦指桑骂槐说反话

语言学期末考试

1. The study of language development over a period of time is generally termed as _____linguistics. D A. applied B. diachronic C. comparative D. synchronic 2. The sentence that has a NP and a VP can be shown in a __C__ formula "S→NP VP". A. hierarchical B. linear C. tree diagram D. vertical 3. Which of the following sounds is a voiceless bilabial stop? A A. [p] B.[m] C.[b] D.[t] 4. The words ―make‖ and ―bus‖ are called _____D____because they can occur unattached. A. derivational morphemes B .inflectional morphemes C. bound morphemes D. free morphemes 5. The pair of words ―lend‖ and ―borrow‖ are____B______. A. gradable antonymy B. relational (converse) antonymy C. synonyms D. co-hyponyms 6. The semantic components of the word ―man‖ can be expressed as ____C___. A.＋animate,＋human,＋male,－adult; B.＋animate,＋human,－male,－adult; C.＋animate,＋human,＋male,＋adult D.—animate,＋human,－male,－adult 7. What kind of function does the sentence ―How do you do?‖ have? B A. Directive B. Phatic C. Informative D. Evocative 8. Nouns, verbs and adjectives can be classified as_______A____. A. lexical words B. grammatical words C. function words D. form words 9. Which of the following best states the behaviorist view of child language acquisition?______A_. A. Language acquisition is a process of habit formation B. Language acquisition is the species-specific property of human beings C. Children are born with an innate ability to acquire language D. Humans are equipped with the neural prerequisites for language and language use 10. The branch of linguistics that studies meaning of language in context is called __C? A. morphology B. sociolinguistics C. pragmatics D. psycholinguistics 11、Chomsky defines "competence" as the ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language.

现代汉语真题有参考答案

2017年10月现代汉语真题—、单项选择题：本大题共20小题，每小题1分，共20分。在每小题列出的备选项中只有一项是最符合题目要求的，请将其选出。 1.【题干】汉语没有丰富的形态变化，属于（）。 【选项】 A．屈折语 B．黏着语 C．孤立语 D．混合语 【答案】C 【解析】C：孤立语：没有丰富的形态变化。 A：屈折语：句子中某些词本身有丰富的形态变化。如“德语” B：黏着语：句子中某些词的形态变化表现为在词的前后附有词缀。如“日语”。D：混合语：在一定社会条件下形成的两种或多种语言的混合体。 【考点】语法方面的主要特点 2.【题干】决定语音与其他声音之不同的属性是（）。 【选项】 A．社会性质 B．生理性质 C．物理性质 D．个体性质

【解析】语音作为语言必不可少的要素之一，必须表达一定的意义，什么样的语音表达什么样的意义，是使用该语言的全体社会成员约定俗成的。因此语音具有物理、生理、社会三方面的性质，其中社会属性是语音的本质属性。 【考点】语音的性质 3.【题干】下列各词，两个音节声母不同的是（）。 【选项】 A．意义 B．字纸 C．历来 D．扭捏 【答案】B 【解析】A：“意义”为零声母；C：“历来”声母均为“L”；D:“扭捏”声母均为“n”；B：“字”声母为“z”，“纸”声母为“zh” 【考点】声母的发音 4.【题干】下列各词，两个音节都属于撮口呼韵母的是（）。 【选项】 A．需求 B．温度 C．学院 D．鱼嘴 【答案】C

【解析】撮口呼：有韵头ü的，或韵腹是ü的韵母。A：“需”为撮口呼，“求”为齐齿呼；B：“温”“度”均为合口呼，D：“鱼”为撮口呼，“嘴”合口呼。 【考点】韵母的分类 5.【题干】下列音节，调值为51的是（）。 【选项】 A．前 B．春 C．比 D．去 【答案】D 【解析】调值51为“去声”，A调值为35；B调值为55，C调值为214 【考点】调值和调类 6.【题干】“不”的读法与其余三项不同的是（）。 【选项】 A．不是 B．决不 C．不好 D．不多 【答案】A 【解析】“不”在词尾或非去声前，读本调“去声”，在去声前读阳平。 【考点】变调

语言学考试试题

Model 1 I. Define the following terms, giving examples for illustration if it is necessary. 1. macrolinguistics::_______________________ 2. compound:_____________________________ 3. Reference: _____________________________ 4. Idiolect:________________________________ 5. Minimal pair:___________________________ 6. Competence:___________________________ 7. Diglossia: _____________________________ 8. Sound assimilation:______________________ 9. Arbitrariness:___________________________ 10. Semantic shift:_________________________ II. Indicate the following statements true or false. 1. Language use is both systematic and non-systematic, subject to external as well as to internal variation. 2. Corpus is a collection of texts input into a computer. Language corpora make it possible for material developers to select authentic, natural and typical language. 3. Mistakes often occur when learners fail to perform their competence. 4. Root is understood in terms of meanings while syem is understood with emphasis on affix. Sometimes a linguistic element is both a root and stem. 5. All instances of NP--movement are related to changing a sentence from the active voice to the passive voice. 6. Word lays in the central position in language comprehension because of its extremely important role in transmitting the meaning.

从语用学角度学习意义

从语用学角度学习意义 摘要：语用学和语义学是相互关联而又不尽相同的两个学科。语用学的诞生使得以往人们不能解释的一些语言现象得到解决，也使人们对语言意义的了解进入了一个新的层次。 关键词：意义；言语行为理论；会话合作原则；语义学；语用学意义是我们研究交际活动的中心。从语言学角度来说，语义学可被定义为意义的学习。语用学是语言学领域里的一个相对来说比较新的分支。一般说来，语用学是研究说话人如何运用语言达到成功交流的目的的学科。区分语用学和语义学的标准就是是否考虑语境。一般来说，语境由说话者和听话者共同拥有的知识构成。没有这种知识，语言交流就不可能。本文旨在阐述语用学和语义学的相互关系与相异之处，并解释语用学是怎样影响我们学习意义的。 一、词汇的意义 词义是客观对象在人们头脑中的抽象概括的反应。然而在实际的交际过程中，我们不能根据这个概念来简单的理解交流过程中的词汇的意义。即便我们从概念意义的角度来理解一个词汇的意义，也还是有不同的方法来解释它的。在日常会话中，至少可以用以下的四种方法来理解一个词汇的意义。假设你不知道英语词汇”desk”的意义，他人可以指着此词汇所表示的物体，并告诉你”这就是desk”；也可以向你描述”desk”就是”一件有一个平面和四条腿的家具，可以用在阅读和书写的时候”；或者向你这样解释，说”desk”就是”桌子的一种，带有抽屉”；如果对方是一名英语

教师，他通常会告诉你”desk”的中文含义就是”书桌”。但是在实际的交际过程中，仅凭这样的定义是不能理解词汇的真正意义的，必须把语境的作用充分考虑进来。例如，”dog”一词，大多数人都会将它定义为”一种家养的驯服的动物”，但是在下面的这个例子中，”dog”显然不是这个意思。 father：there is a dog! mother: oh! call the kids back! 在这个例子中，可以看到”dog”的意思是父亲要提醒母亲有狗，让她把孩子们叫回来以防被狗伤到的意思。 二、句子意义和话语意义 句子的意义通常被认为是句子本身的、抽象的、内在的性质。但是如果我们把句子看成是人们在实际交流过程中所说的话，句子就转化成了话语。话语则是指具有一定交流功能的最小语言单位。它可能恰好是一个完整的句子，也可能不是一个完整的句子，比如英语中用来打招呼的”hello”。我们在研究句子的意义时，就应该将它所在的语境考虑在内。所以想要明确界定”狗在叫”是句子还是话语是不可能的，因为这既可以是一个句子也可以是一个话语，对于它的界定完全决定于我们是如何看待和分析它的。如果我们把它看成是一个语法单位，是脱离语境而独立存在的，那么我们就认为它是一个句子。但是如果我们把它看成是说话人在某个语境下，带有一定目的而说出的话，我们就认为它是一个话语。例如，”我鼻子上冒汗了”这句话，如果把它当做是一个孤立的句子，那这个

语言学基础期末复习提纲(整理版)

题型：填空题10，20%；选择题10，20%；判断4，20%（3句话解释原因）；简答3，18%（四句话作答）；论述1，22%（1/4页纸作答）。 导论 1、中国、印度和希腊-罗马在传统语言文学的研究上都取得了辉煌的成就，是语言学的三大发源地。 2、中国传统语言研究主要抓住汉字，分析它的形体，探求它的古代读音和意义，形成了统称“小学”的文字、音韵和训诂之学，也就是中国传统的语文学。 3、历史比较语言学标志着语言学不再是其他学科的附庸，已经发展成为一门独立的学科。 4、20世纪初，瑞士语言学家索绪尔在《普通语言学教程》中提出观点，语言学从此成为一门现代学科。 5、理论语言学，也称普通语言学，是关于语言的一般规律的理论研究。 第一章语言的功能 1、语言是一种社会现象，和人类社会有着紧密联系。 2、语言的社会功能中最基本的是信息传递功能。 3、如果一个病人大脑左半球发生损伤，他尽管说不出医院的名称、病房、床号，却能找得到。相反，如果大脑右半球受损，尽管能找到医院的名称、病房、床号，却找不到，能说出家的位置却找不到，这说明语言功能存在大脑左边。 4、儿童学习语言的过程是考察语言与思维关系的一条很好途径。 5、儿童语言的习得一定具有先天生理基础，也离不开外界的社会条件。 6、儿童语言能力的开发还有时间的限制，最迟到十二三岁，如果在此之前没有机会学习语言，那么之后其语言习得和心智发展的潜能就失去了。十二三岁是语言习得的关键时期，之一临界期的分工时间也是一致的。 第二章语言是符号系统 1、符号包含形式和意义两个方面。（能指形式，形指意义，符号构成的两个方面，语言学上通常用形式和意义来表述。形式也叫能指，是符号的外壳，是可以被人的感觉器官感知的，因而形式具有物质性。意义也叫所指，是符号形式所代表的内容，也就是现实现象事物。） 2、符号的形式和意义之间是没有本质上、自然属性上的必要联系，在这一点上符号和隐含某种信息的自然的征候不同。 3、语言符号的任意性和线条性，是20世纪初瑞士的语言学家家得·索绪尔作为语言符号的基本性质提出来的。 4、语言符号的语音形式和意义之间没有自然属性上的必然联系，只有社会约定的关系 5、符号和符号组合起来，结构中各个成分的关系称为组合关系，符号在结构中就具有某种相同的作用，它们自然地聚集成群，彼此的关系叫做聚合关系。 第三章语音和音系 1、语音具有自然属性、社会属性的双重属性，从自然属性出发，针对所有人类语言的语音研究，属于语音学的研究；从社会属性出发，针对语音在某一个具体语言的系统中其什么作用的研究，属于音系学的研究。 2、音系学的出发点在于语音在语言系统中的组织方式，属于语言学的核心部分。 3、以语音的自然属性和人类语言共性为研究对象的语音学，把语音最小的线性单位叫做音素。以语音的社会属性和语音在具体语言中的作用为研究对象的音系学，把语音最小的线性单位叫做音位。

《语用学》复习提纲

本次考试共四种题型：填空题、名词解释、简答题、应用题 填空题：（举例如：）（每空1分，共10分） 1.语用学源于哲学家对语言的探索。“语用学”这一术语是由美国哲学家（莫里斯）于1938年首先提出的。 2. 1977年，(《语用学杂志》)在荷兰正式出版发行，“语用学成为语言学的一门独立新兴学科”最终得到认可。 名词解释：（每个4分，共20分） ?语用学：研究在不同语境中话语意义的恰当地表达和准确地理解，寻找并确立使话语意义得以恰当地表达和准确地理解的基本原则和准则。 ?语境：语境是人们运用自然语言进行言语交际的言语环境。语境是人们在语言交际中理解和运用语言所依赖的各种表现为言辞的上下文或不表现为言辞的主观因素。 ?指示词语：指示词语就是表示指示信息的词语。？ ?隐性施为句：人们在言语交际中实际上更经常使用一些不那么明确、不那么特定的语言手段来实施某种行为。 ?优选结构：相邻对中所有可能跟始发语配对的应答语并不具有同等地位，有一组优选结构在起作用，即各种可能的应答语中至少有一类是“合意的”（即听话人的应答能满足说话人发话的期待），有一类是“不合意的”（即听话人的应答不是说话人所期待的）。 ?预示序列：说话人在以言行事之前用以探听虚实的一类话语。说话人使用这类话语的主要动机是考察有无向听话人实施某一言语行为的可能性，即说话人实施某一言语行为能否从听话人那里得到“期待的”反应。 ?会话含义：格赖斯将会话含义分为两类：一般性会话含义和特殊性会话含义。一般性会话含义：不需要特殊语境就能推导出来的含义。特殊性会话含义：需要依赖特殊语境才能推导出来的含义。？ ?直接言语行为：字面意义和说话意图相吻合，也就是句子的结构和功能之间存在着直接的关系。 ?间接言语行为：人们是通过间接的表达方式实现说话的意图，也可以说句子的结构和功能之间存在着间接的关系

语言学知识_语用学

语用学 一．语用学（Pragmatics）的定义： 语用学是用以研究语言使用者如何使用句子成功进行交际的学问。语用学（Pragmatics）与语义学（Semantics）虽然都涉及对语言意义的研究，但是语义学（Semantics）只是将语言视作一个独立的系统来研究，而语用学（Pragmatics）则是将语言置于语境（context）之中。所以，语用学（Pragmatics）与语义学（Semantics）本质区别在于是否将语境（context）因素纳入考量范围之内。 二．句子意义与话语意义（Sentence Meaning Vs. Utterance Meaning）： 1) 句子意义（Sentence Meaning）：句子意义指的是独立于语境的句子本身所传达的字面意义。 2）话语意义（Utterance Meaning）：话语意义指的是将句子的意义置于特定语境中以表达言者某种意图的意义。 三．指示现象（Deixis）： 指示现象指的是说话人利用语言形式表达说话内容所涉及的人员、事物、时间、地点等方面。指示现象是连接语言形式及其发生语境的桥梁。指示语主要分为以下三类：1）人称指示语（person deixis）：用于表达言语交际的参与者。 2）空间指示语（spatial deixis）：用于指代言语活动中所涉及的人、物或事的相对位置。 3）时间指示语（temporal deixis）：用于表达言语交际活动中的时间点和时间段。 四．言语行为理论（Speech Act Theory）： 1) 约翰·奥斯汀（John Austin）的言语行为模式： 英国哲学家约翰·奥斯汀（John Austin）于20世纪50年代提出的言语行为模式区分了言有所述（constative）和言有所为（performative）。 随后，他又对原先的理论进行了发展，放弃了言有所述（constative）和言有所为（performative）的区分，发展出了新的言语行为模式。该模式认为，言者在说话时可同时执行三个动作：即言内行动（locutionary act），言外行动（illocutionary act）和言后行动（perlocutionary act）。 言内行动（locutionary act）：指言者发出言语，传达字面意义的行为动作。 言外行动（illocutionary act）：指言者通过话语所表达的意图。例如：某人说I promise to give you a surprise时，他是在许下诺言。 言后行动（perlocutionary act）：指言者通过言语表达的而实际实施的行为。 2）舍尔（Searle）的言语行为分类： 美国语言学家舍尔（Searle）在约翰·奥斯汀（John Austin）的言语行为模式的基础上对言外行动（illocutionary act）进行了分类：阐述性言语行为（representatives），指令性言语行为（directives），承诺性言语行为（commissives），表达性言语行为（expressives），宣告性言语行为（declaratives）。 3）直接和间接言语行为（direct and indirect speech act）： 直接言语行为：直接通过话语来实施某一行为。 间接言语行为：句子的意思不能按照其字面意义去理解，需要推导其话语的施为用意。

语言学简答(期末)

1. Communication can take many forms, such as sign, speech, body language and facial expression. Do nobody language and facial expression share or lack the distinctive properties of human language 答：On the whole, body language and facial expression lack most of the distinctive properties of human language such as duality, displacement, creativity and so on. Body language exhibits arbitrariness a little bit. For instance, nod means OK/YES for us but in Arabian world it is equal to saying NO. Some facial expressions have non-arbitrariness because they are instinctive such as the cry and laugh of a newborn infant. 2. Do you think they are descriptive and prescriptive What’s your comment on them (1)Do not use man to mean humanity in general. Use person, people, human beings, men and women, humanity and humankind. (2)colored: This term is regarded as outdated in the UK and should be avoided as it is generally viewed as offensive to many black people. (3)civilized : This term can still carry racist overtones which derive from a colonialist perception of the world. It is often associated with social Darwinist thought and is full of implicit value judgments and ignorance of the history of the non-industrialized world. 答：They are undoubtedly descriptive, Guidelines are not rules that can determine whether a sentence is right or not. The guidelines advise you to avoid the use of particular words that are grammatically correct but offensive to some certain groups. Actually, they describe the way antisexist advocators speak and write. 3.(1)What organs are involved in speech production 答：Quite a few human organs are involved in the production of speech: the luns, the trachea, the throat, the nose, and the mouth. (2)Why did George Bernard Shaw say he could spell the word ‘fish’ as ‘ghoti’ 答：This is because gh is pronounced as [f] in ‘enough’, o as [I] in women, and ti as [?] in nation. (3)How is the description of consonants different from that of vowels 答：Consonants are produced by a closure in the vocal tract, or by a narrowing which is so marked that air cannot escape without producing audible friction. By contrast, a vowel is produced without such stricture so that air escapes in a relatively unimpeded way through the mouth or nose. The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in the obstruction of airstream. (4)To what extent is phonology related to phonetics and how do they differ 答：Both phonetics and phonology study human speech sounds but they differ in the levels of analysis. Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived. Phonology is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. It aims to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur. (5)’Assimilation is often used synonymously with coarticulation’. Discuss. 答：Assimilation is a phonological term, often used synonymously with coarticulation,

语用学练习题

英语语言学练习----语用学 一、Decide whether each of the following statements is true or false. 1.The contextual view is often considered as the initial effort to study meaning in a pragmatic sense. ( ) 2.Pragmatics is related to and also different from semantics. ( ) 3.The notion of context is not important to the pragmatic study of language. ( ) 4.All utterances take the form of sentences. ( ) 5.Speech act theory was proposed by the British philosopher John Austin in the late 1950s. ( ) 6.Grice made a distinction between what he called “constatives” and “performatives”. () 7.A locutionary act is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon, and phonology. ( ) 8.In their study of language communication, linguists are only interested in how a speaker expresses his intention and pay no attention to how his intention is recognized by the hearer. ( ) 9.Directives are attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do something. ( ) 10.The Cooperative principle was proposed by John Searle. ( ) 11.There are four maxims under the Cooperative principle. ( ) 12.The violations of the maxims make our language indirect. ( ) 13.All the utterances take the form of sentences. ( ) 14.Austin thought that stating was also a kind of act, and that we can perform with language. ( )

语用学

语用学 语用学是语言学各分支中一个以语言意义为研究对象的新兴学科领域，在众多的语用学定义中，有两个概念是十分基本的，一个是意义，另一个是语境，是专门研究语言的理解和使用的学问，它研究在特定情景中的特定话语，研究如何通过语境来理解和使用语言。 目录 编辑本

语用学 语用学yǔyòngxué [pragmatics] 符号学的一个分支,研究符号或语言词句与其使用之间的关系。 语用学是语言学各分支中一个以语言意义为研究对象的新兴学科领 域，是专门研究语言的理解和使用的学问，它研究在特定情景中的特定话语，研究如何通过语境来理解和使用语言。语用学因其本身的目的性和价值性而不同于语法研究，它是关于人类语言本身的研究。在语言的使用中，说话人往往并不是单纯地要表达语言成分和符号单位的静态意义，听话人通常要通过一系列心理推断，去理解说话人的实际意图。要做到真正理解和恰当使用一门语言，仅仅懂得构成这门语言的发音、词汇和语法是远远不够的。 语用学的另一核心概念就是意义。何兆熊先生(1987)在他的语用学概要一书中指出:“在众多的语用学定义中，有两个概念是十分基本的，一个是意义，另一个是语境。”从发展的观点看，语用学的崛起是语义研究的发展和延伸的结果，因此可以说语用学是一种对意义的研究。但语用学所研究的意义不同于形式语义学所研究的意义，它所研究的是语言在一定的语境中使用时体现出来的具体意义。由此可知，语境对意义的作用在语用学研究中十分重要。 研究在一定的上下文里语言的使用，包括所产生的字面意义和蕴涵意义，以及可能产生的效果的学科。语用学的概念首先是美国哲学家C.W.莫里斯(1901～1979)和R.卡纳普(1891～1970)在20世纪30年代前后提出的。60年代,英国哲学家J.L.奥斯汀(1912～1960)和J.塞尔勒(1932～)先后发表了“语言行为”的理论; 美国语用学家P.格赖斯提出了“会话中合作原则”的理论。以上三个学者的贡献使语用学从概念发展成为一个独立的学科。越来越多的英语教师已认识到语言与语用学的密切关系，英语教学如果只停留在语音、词汇、语法等语言知识层面上，学生即使掌握了标准的语言、丰富的词汇、正确的语法，也不能很好地理解语言，更不能进行成功而有效的交际。因此，为了准确地理解和使用语言，学习者应在交际中运用语用策略消除歧义，提高跨文化交际的能力。 虽然迄今为止，语言学界对语用学的定义和范畴尚没有统一的见解，但却有一种共识，即“语境是语用学的核心概念之一”。是一门专门研究语境在交际过程中的作用的新学科。人们的正常语言交流总离不开特定的语境，“这里的语境包括交际的场合(时间、地点等)，交际的性质(话题)，交际的参与者(相互间的关系、对客观世界的认识和信念、过去的经验、当时的情绪等)以及上下文。语境直接影响着人们对话语的理解和使用”(金定元，1992:171)。换言之，要判断某些具体的言语行为是否得体须依据其使用的语境，离开了语境就使判断本身失真或失去意义。

语言学期末(这份是正确的)

一. What is language? 1. Language can be generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Systematic---- rule-governed, elements in it are arranged according to certain rules; can’t be combined at will. e.g. *bkli, *I apple eat. Arbitrary---- no intrinsic connection between the word and the thing it denotes, e.g. “pen”by any other name is the thing we use to write with. Symbolic---- words are associated with objects, actions ideas by convention. “A rose by any other name would smell as sweet”----Shakespeare Vocal---- the primary medium is sound for all languages; writing system came much later than spoken form. Human-specific---- different from the communication systems other forms of life possess, e.g. bird songs, bee dance, animal cries. The design/defining /distinctive features of human language: Arbitrariness (任意性） Productivity/Creativity(创造性） Duality （二元性、二层性） Displacement （移位性） Cultural transmission（文化传递性） 2.语言&言语 Langue--- the language system shared by a community of speakers Parole--- the concrete act of speaking in actual situations by an individual speaker. 3. Synchronic vs. diachronic Synchronic (linguistics)---languages are studied at a theoretic point in time: one describes a ‘state’of language, disregarding whatever changes might be taking place. Diachronic----languages are studied from point of view of their historical development –for example, the changes which have taken place between Old and Modern English could be described in phonological, grammatical and semantic terms. 二．语音学（选择题） 三．音位学Phonology 1.音位变体 Allophones ---- the phones that can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments. 同一音位在不同环境中表现出来的两个或多个语音上不同的音段. 例如，在英语里，音位/t/在tin里是送气的[th], 在stand里是不送气的[t]，在eighth里是齿化的[t],在cotton里是鼻除阻的[tn]，在bottle里是边除阻的[tl],在hit里则表现为声门化的[t]. 此外，随着说话人口音的不同，可能还会有其他的语音形式. 这样一套在说话人话语中的语音形式就是音位/t/的音位变体. 把两个音素划归成同一音位的两个音位变体必须满足语音相似性原则，而且它们不能处于对比分布. [p, ph] are two different phones 音子and are variants of the phoneme /p/. Such variants of a phoneme are called allophones of the same phoneme. In this case the allophones are said to be in complementary distribution 互补分布because they never occur in the same context: [p] occurs after [s] while [ph] occurs in other places. /p/ [p] / [s] _____

南京大学文学院2018年入学考试初试试题(语言卷)

南京大学 2018 年硕士研究生入学考试初试试题 （ A 卷）（三小时） 考目代码：935 科目名称：文学满分：150 分 适用专业：文学各专业 （一）古代汉语部分（40分） 一、请将下面这段古文翻译成现代汉语（40分） 魏其侯竇嬰者，孝文後從兄子也。父世觀津人。喜賓客。孝文時，嬰為吳相，病免。孝景初即位，為詹事。 梁孝王者，孝景弟也，其母竇太后愛之。梁孝王朝。因昆弟燕飲。是時，上未立太子。酒酣，從容言曰：?千秋之後傳梁王。?太后歡。竇嬰引卮酒敬上，曰：?天下者，高祖天下。父子相傳，此漢之約也。上何以得擅傳梁王？?太后由此憎竇嬰。竇嬰亦薄其官，因病免。太后除竇嬰門籍，不得入朝請。 孝景三年，吳、楚反。上察宗室諸竇毋如竇嬰賢，乃召嬰。嬰入見，固辭謝病不足任。太后亦慚。於是上曰：?天下方有急，王孫寧可讓邪？?乃拜嬰為大將軍，賜金千斤。竇嬰乃言袁盎、欒布諸名將賢士在家者進之。所賜金，陳之廊廡下，軍吏過，輒令財取為用，金無入家者。竇嬰守滎陽，監齊、趙兵。七國兵已盡破，封嬰為魏其侯。諸游士賓客爭歸魏其侯。孝景時，每朝議大事，條侯、魏其侯，諸列侯莫敢與亢禮。 孝景四年，立栗太子。使魏其侯為太子傅。孝景七年，栗太子廢，魏其數爭不能得。魏其謝病屏居藍田南山之下數月，諸賓客辯士說之，莫能來。梁人高遂乃說魏其曰：?能富貴將軍者，上也；能親將軍者，太后也。今將軍傅太子，太子廢而不能爭，爭不能得，又弗能死；自引謝病，擁趙女，屏閑處而不朝。相提而論，是自明揚主上之過。有如兩宮螫將軍，則妻子毋類矣。?魏其侯然之，乃遂起，朝請如故。 （二）现代汉语部分（40分） 二、请以下列汉字的普通话读音为例，结合方言中的情况，说明其中蕴含的古今声母演变规律：（15分） 趣精结经修节主秋 丘旋齐旗休权去全 三、分类解释下列词或短语中的“笔”的含义，并以此为依据，尝试为词典编写“笔”这一条目。（10分） 毛笔笔架笔顺代笔笔名笔法工笔 伏笔笔挺随笔一笔钱写得一笔好字 第1页