热处理专业英语
一、翻译的基本要求
翻译是人类交流思想过程中沟通不同语言的桥梁，使得通晓不同语言的人能够通过原文的重新表达而进行思想交流。翻译是把一种语言（可以称之为“原语”）所表达的信息用另一种语言（可以称之为“译语”）表示出来的语言活动。翻译是一门艺术，是语言艺术再创作。一篇译文在定稿之前，一般都要经过许多次修改，才能达到较高的水准。一部名著经常会有数种译本并存。一部译本的反复修改，同一原著各有千秋的不同译本，都体现了翻译的艺术性。
1．原文的理解
把原语表达的意思用另一种语言翻译出来，是一个由理解到表达的过程。在翻译一篇文章时，译者首先要正确理解原文的意思，然后才能用译语表达出来。显而易见，在翻译过程中，理解是前提，表达是以理解为基础的。只有正确理解原文，才有可能产生正确的译文，错误的理解只能导致错误的翻译。就英译汉而言，理解原文尤为重要。不理解原文的意思，翻译就无从下笔。理解原文必须正确、透彻，否则译文就不可能达意。要正确理解原文，领会原意，译者往往需要借助于工具书，根据上下文来进行合乎逻辑的推断，只有这样，才能避免理解失误。
2．汉语的表达
翻译的最终目的是让读者了解原作的意思。汉语表达的好坏，直接影响到译文的质量。正确的理解未必能产生好的译文，其关键在于译者的语言水平。英语和汉语是两种不同的语言，在结构上有很大的差异。译者往往要摆脱原句的束缚，用符合汉语习惯的句式来表达原句的意思。在这种情况下，表达是至关重要的。在翻译过程中，理解和表达是互为依存的。只有正确理解原文，用恰当的译文形式把原文的意思通顺畅达地表述出来，才算是完成了任务。
忠实与通顺作为翻译的标准，应该是统一的整体，不能把两者割裂开来。好的译文既忠实于原文意思和风格，同时读起来又流畅。与原意大相径庭的文字，不管多么通顺，都称不上是翻译；反之，译文生硬晦涩，词不达意，也起不到翻译的作用。从事翻译，译者必须努力达到既忠实又通顺的标准。
二、介绍几种翻译技巧
1．根据上下文和逻辑关系确定词意
英汉两种语言在词语搭配和句子结构上存在许多差异，英译汉时总有些词或词组难以按原文的字面意思直译出来，为了使译文通顺达意，常常需要将原文的词义加以引伸。引伸词
义是根据上下文的内在联系和逻辑关系，通过原文的表层结构用恰当的汉语词语和符合汉语习惯的表达方法将原文词语的深层意义表达出来，因此不能主观随意，不能脱离原文词义的范围。英语单词的词义比较灵活，一个词可以具有几种不同的含义，如何选择词义是英译汉时经常面临的问题。一个词的词义往往取决于与它搭配、组合的词对它的制约。例如：动词have在下列词组中具有不同的含义：
Have a lot of money 有很多钱have a letter 收到一封信
Have a cold 患感冒have a cup of coffee 喝杯咖啡
Have a coat on 穿着大衣have a good time 玩得开心
有时候，一个词的词义很难仅仅依靠该词在行文中的搭配、组合关系来判断，还必须联系上下文，统观全句或全段才能确定这个词所具有的含义，例如下列句子中cell所表示的意义：
The nucleus is the information center of the cell.
细胞核是细胞的信息中枢。
He was imprisoned in a cell.
他被关在监狱的单人小牢房中。
In the center of the spacious workshop stood a cell with packets of block anodes.
在宽敞的车间中央有一个装有一组组阳极板的电解槽。
When the ends of a copper wire are joined to a device called an electric cell a steady stream of electricity flows through the wire.
当把一根铜丝的两端连接到一种叫做电池的电器上时，就会有稳定的电流流过铜丝。
2．词类转换译法
英语属印欧语系，汉语属汉藏语系，英汉两种语言在词汇和语法结构方面有许多不同。因此，英译汉时在多数情况下很难讲两种语言的词汇或结构一一对号入座。为了使译文符合汉语的习惯，翻译不必拘泥于原文的表层结构，可以在忠实于原文的前提下将原文中某些词的词类或成分转换为汉语的其他词类或成分。
常用的词性转换形式有以下几种：
（1）英语名词转译成汉语动词
A steady increase of load on a part will cause it to deform gradually.
逐渐增加零件上的载荷，可使零件逐渐变形。
The application of electronic computers makes for a tremendous rise in labor productivity.
使用电子计算机可以大大提高劳动生产率。
（2）英语动词转译成汉语名词
The electronic computer is chiefly characterized by its accurate and rapid computation.
电子计算机的主要特点是计算准确而迅速。
Steels behave differently from cast iron.
钢的性能不同于铸铁。
（3）英语形容词转译成汉语动词
Grinding has better surface roughness than milling.
磨削产生的表面粗糙度优于铣削。
Television is different from radio in that it sends and receives pictures.
电视不同于无线电在于它能发送并接收图像。
（4）英语形容词转译成汉语名词
In fission processes the fission fragments are very radioactive.
在裂变过程中，裂变碎片具有强烈的放射性。
Class is much more soluble than quartz.
玻璃的可溶性比石英大得多。
3．词的增减
英译汉时往往需要增加一些原文中没有的词，或减少一些原文中的词，以使译文通顺并且更加忠实地表达原文的意思。翻译中增词与减字并不是没有限制的，更不是随心所欲的。增词与减字是根据原文的需要而采用的翻译处理方法，所谓语言的需要是指：一是汉语表达清晰的需要；二是技术表达明确的需要。
（1）增词法
A material which deforms less under given load is more stiff than one which deforms more.
在一定载荷下，变形小的材料比变形大的材料刚度更大。
Copper is extremely tough but cast-iron is not
钢的韧性极高，而铸铁韧性极低。
（2）减词法
The advantage of rolling bearings is that they cause less friction.
滚动轴承的优点在于产生的摩擦较小。（句中减去了原文中的“they”）
Workers should avoid using these materials wastefully.
工人应节约使用这些材料。（句中的“节约”是由avoid 和wastefully 合并而译出）4．正反译与反正译
英语和汉语中均有从正面或反面来表达这一种现象。正反译就是用变换语气的方法把原文的肯定式译成汉语的否定式。例如：wonder可译成“不知道”，difficult可译成“不容易”，anything but 可译成“一点也不”。反正译是用变换语气的方法把原文的否定式译成汉语的肯定式。翻译时恰当地运用这一方法可以使译文自然流畅。英语中的“not……until”结构和双重否定结构常用这种方法来翻译。另外，“no less than ”，“no more than ”，“nothing but”，“cannot too”等含有否定词语的结构也常用反正译的方法来表达。翻译时恰当地运用正反译与反正译有时可以使译文合乎汉语规范，更恰当地表达原文的意思。
His explanation is far from being satisfactory.
他的解释根本不能令人满意。
The demand for our products exceeds the supply.
我们的产品供不应求。
Metal do not melt until heated to a definite temperature.
金属要加热到一定温度才会熔化。
We cannot be too careful in doing experiments.
我们做实验越仔细越好。
5．分译与合译
分译就是把原句中的某些成分分出来另作处理，可以译成独立的句子，有些英语句子采用分译的方法可以使译文简洁、明确、层次分明；合译就是当英语中两个以上的简单句关系密切，意义贯通，可不限于原文的表层结构，把它们合译成一个汉语单句（或复句），避免不必要的重复。分译和合译是为了使译文符合汉语规范。
Care shall be taken at all times to protect the instrument from dust and damp.
应经常保护仪器，勿使沾染尘土，勿使受潮。
The tube consists of a short copper section followed by a longer steel section wih a flange at the end.
管子由两段组成：前段短，是钢的；后段长，是钢的，末端带法兰。（分译）
And as she thought,it became more involved. Harder to understand.
她在这样想的时候，思想更加紊乱，更加难以理解。（合译）
6．被动句型的翻译
被动语态多是科技英语的特点之一。科技英语的被动语态在译成汉语时，根据句意，可有三种翻译方法：
（1）被动句译成汉语的无主语句
Most of the questions have been settled satisfactorily.
大部分问题已经圆满解决了
If a machine part is not well protected ,it will become rusty after a period of time.
如果机器不好好防护，过了一段时间之后就会生锈。
（2）被动句译成汉语的主动句
This liquid became mixed with the salt at room temperature.
这种液体在室温下与盐混合了。
（3）被动句翻译中加上“被、受、使、对、把、获、由”等词However , new material must be evaluated very carefully to make sure that all their characteristics are well established.
然而，必须对新材料进行认真的评价，以确保其所有性能都满足要求。
For a long time aluminium has been thought as an effective material for preventing metal corrosion.
长期以来，铝被当作一种有效地防止金属腐蚀的材料。
7．定语从句的译法
英语句子中的定语从句，从语法上讲起到了与定语同样的作用，但是从意义上讲，它不仅用作先行词的修饰语，有时候还可以用作补充或说明先行词的附加语、同位语或描述语。此外，有些定语从句和主句之间还存在着状语关系。在定语从句的翻译过程中，主要把握限制性定语从句和非限制性定语从句这两种形式的译法。限制性定语从句对所修饰的先行词起限制作用，语先行词的关系比较密切，不用逗号分开，翻译时一般采用前置法、后置法或融合法。非限制性定语从句则对先行词不起限制作用，只对他加以进一步的描写、解释或叙述，而且要用逗号将其与先行词隔开，译时一般采用前置法或后置法，也可以不把其译为定语。
（1）前置译法——译成带“……的”的短语
将英语限制性定语从句译成带“……的”的定语词组，放在被修饰词之前，将复合句译成汉语单句。
Objects that do not transfer light cause shadows.
不透光的物体会造成阴影。
Hydrogen , which is the lightest element ,has only one electron.
最轻的元素氢只有一个电子。
（2）后置译法——译成后置的并列分句
当英语定语从句的结构较为复杂，译成汉语前置定语显得太长而又不符合汉语表达习惯时，往往可以译成后置的并列分句。
This condenser consists of a tube surrounded by a water jacket through which cold water circulates.
这个冷凝器有一根围绕着水套的管子，冷水是通过水套循环流动的
The properties of carbon steels ,which are most widely used ,depend on the amount of carbon contained.
碳钢的用法十分广泛，其性能取决于碳含量的多少。
（3）融合法——将主语与从句融合为一体
融合法是将原句中的主语和定语从句融合在一起译成一个独立句子的翻译方法。由于限制性定语从句与主句关系密切，所以融合法比较适用于翻译限制性定语从句。
The species that accepts electrons in an oxidation-reaction is referred to as the oxidizing agent.
在氧化还原反应中接受电子的物质称为氧化剂。
（4）独立译法——多用于非限制性定语从句
非限制性定语从句对先行词不起限制作用，只对它加以描述、叙述或解释。翻译这类定语从句时，往往把定语从句译成独立句。
This was the beginning of the science of radar, which finds aircraft by the reflections of radio waves sent into the sky.
这就是雷达科学的开端。雷达利用射入天空的电波的反射来发现飞机。
（5）偏正短语译法——多用于结构为定语从句但实际上起状语作用的定语从句
英语中有些定语从句，兼有状语从句的职能，在意义上与主语有状语关系，说明原因、结果
目的、让步、假设等关系。翻译时应善于从原文的字里行间发现这些逻辑上的关系，然后译成汉语各种相应的偏正复合句。
To make an atom bomb we have to use uranium 235, in which all the atoms available for
fission.
制造原子弹需用铀235，因为它的所有原子都可以裂变。（表示原因的状语从句）
Amplitude spectra of low frequency electro-chemical noise are presented which show a relation between the rate and mode of corrosion attack and fluctuation of the corrosion potential.
本文提出低频电化学噪声振幅谱，旨在表明腐蚀侵袭的速率及方式与腐蚀电位波动之间的相互关系。（表示目的的定语从句）
8．倍数的译法
（1）倍数增加
英语中表示倍数的句子一般有以下3种：
1)倍数+名词/代词
This new machine is three times the efficiency of that one.
2)倍数+as+形容词、副词原级+as
This new machine is three times as efficient that that one.
3)倍数+形容词/副词比较级+than
This new machine is three times more efficient than that one.
上面的三个例句都可以译成“这台新机器的效率是那台机器的三倍”，“这台新机器的效率增加到那台机器的三倍”或“这台新机器的效率比那台机器增加了两倍”。译为“加了……倍”时，表示了存增加的倍数，需要从原数中减去1；译为“增加到……倍”时，可按照原文倍数翻译。这是因为英语在谈“增加……倍”时，其中包含基数在内。然而在汉语中，倍数不包括基数。在英译汉时要注意将这一特点表达清楚。
将倍数增加的句型译为“是……的（多少）倍”或“比……增加（多少-1）倍”是可以的。
The atomic weight of helium is five times than that of hydrogen.
氦原子量是氢原子量的5倍。氦的原子量比氢的原子量重4倍。
The total of hydrostatic pressure acting on the right piston is 4 times larger than that acting on the left piston
作用于右活塞上的总静水压力是左活塞的4倍。
（2）倍数减少
英语中减少的量是倍数时，在译成汉语时通常换算成分数或百分数。由倍数换算成分数的方法是：把倍数用做分母，用1做分子，表示减少后的结果。译成：减少到几分之一（比
较常用）；减少几分之（数字）（一般不常用）。
The length of the test bed was reduced by a factor of ten.
试验台的长度减少到十分之一/减少了十分之九。
The principle advantage over the old-fashioned machine is a four-fold reduction in weight.
与旧式机器相比的主要优点是重量减少了四分之三。
The new equipment will reduce the error probability by a factor of 7.
新设备将使误差概率降低七分之六/降到七分之一。
在英语中常常会碰到在减少的倍数里有小数点，翻译时要把带小数点的倍数译成分数。例如：对于“decrease 8.2 times ”这个短语，就不能译成减少到八点二分之一，而应当译成“减少到四十一分之五”。但考虑到这种说法不符合汉语表达习惯，所以还需要把四十一分之五换算为百分数来表示，即换算为：减少到12.2%或译为“减少了87.8%”。
The cylinder was shortened 6.2 times.
圆筒缩短了百分之八十三点九/缩短到百分之十六点一。
9．长句的翻译
在各类英语读物中，往往由于连接词、关系代词、关系副词、各类短语和各种从句等的存在，使句子结构变得比较复杂，因而往往会出现较长的句子。翻译长句时，首先要注意从语法上分析全句。通过语言规律联系起来的句子，总是表达一定的意思。通过语法分析，弄清长句中包含的几层意思间的内在联系。在分析语法表达的意思时，要注意逻辑上的联系，语法不能脱离逻辑。在弄清句子结构的基础上，再运用各种翻译方法。
（1）顺译法/顺序法
当英语长句的表达顺序与汉语的表达习惯相同，按照动作发生的时间顺序进展时，可以考虑按照原文的顺序进行翻译。
An electronic brain was once used to choose a design of a chemical plant. First , it was fed with all the necessary information. After running through 16,000 possible designs, it picked out the plan for the plant that would produce the most chemicals at the lowest cost, then, it sent out a set of exact specifications.
曾使用电脑选择化工厂的设计方案：首先，向计算机输入必要的信息，计算机审阅过16000个可能的设计方案后，就会把成本最低、产量最高的设计方案挑选出来；然后输出正确的说明书。
（2）逆序法/倒译法
当有的英语长句顺序与汉语表达习惯不太相同甚至完全相反时，可以考虑逆着原文的顺序进行翻译。
Insects would make it impossible for us to live in the world; they would devour all our crops and kill our flocks and herds, if it were not for the protection we get from insect eating animals.
如果没有那些以昆虫为食的动物保护我们，昆虫会侵食我们所有的庄稼，并杀死我们的家畜、牲畜，使我们无法生存下去。
（3）分译法
当英语长句的主句与其从句或其修饰词语之间的关系不是非常密切时，可以把从句修饰词语部分分解成很小的短语来进行翻译，这样做就比较符合汉语的表达习惯。
This means, for instance, that a superconducting electromagnet needs no electrical power to maintain a magnetic field once this has been created.
例如，这就意味着，超导磁体一旦产生，那么就不需要电力也可以维持既定磁场。
Strictly speaking, no structural material is perfectly elastic; depending on the type of structure and the nature of the loads, permanent deformations are unavoidable whenever the loads exceed certain values.
严格地说，没有一种结构材料是完全弹性的，也就是说，随着结构类型和载荷性质的不同，当载荷超过某些数值时，就会发生永久变形。
（4）综合法/合成法
当英语的长句不太适合按照以上叙述的某种方法进行翻译时，可以调换一下方法，或按动词先后，或按逻辑顺序，视具体情况而定。综合法集上述几种方法为一体，按照英语句子的结构和汉语句子的表达习惯，把几种长句的翻译技巧巧妙得当地糅合在一起。
Aluminum remained unknow until the nineteenth century, because nowhere in nature is it found free, owing to its always being combined with elements, most commonly with oxygen ,for which it has a strong affinity.
铝总是和其他元素结合在一起，最常见的是和氧结合在一起，因为对氧有很强的亲和力，因此，在自然界的任何地方都找不到处于游离态的铝，所以直到19世纪才为人们所知。
The law of universal gravitation states that every particle of matter in the universe attracts every other with a force which is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them .
根据万有引力定律的阐述，宇宙中的每一质点都以一种力吸引其他各个质点。这个力与
各质点的质量的乘积成正比，与它们之间距离的平方成反比。
一下是一篇热处理方面的英语（后面附译文）：
HEAT TREATMENT OF METAL
Annealing
The word anneal has been used before to describe heat-treating processes for softening and regaining ductility in connection with cold working of material. It has a similar meaning when used in connection with the heat treating of allotropic materials. The purpose of full annealing is to decrease hardness, increase ductility ,and sometimes improve machinability of high carbon steels that might otherwise be difficult to cut. The treatment is also used to relieve stresses, refine grain size, and promote uniformity of structure throughout the material.
Machinability is not always improved by annealing. The word machinability is used to describe several interrelated factors, including the ability of a material to be cut with a good surface finish. Plain low carbon steels, when fully annealed, are soft and relatively weak, offering little resistance to cutting, but usually having sufficient ductility and toughness that a cut chip tends to pull and tear the surface from which it is removed, leaving a comparatively poor quality surface, which results in a poor machinability rating. For such steels annealing may not be the most suitable treatment .the machinability of many of the higher plain carbon and most of the alloy steels can usually be greatly improved by annealing, as they are often too hard and strong to be easily cut at any but their softest condition.
The procedure for annealing hypoeutectoid steel is to heat slowly to approximately 60℃above the Ac3 line, to soak for a long enough period that the temperature equalizes throughout the material and homogeneous austenite is formed, and then to allow the steel to cool very slowly by cooling it in the furnace or burying it in lime or some other insulating material. The slow cooling is essential to the precipitation of the maximum ferrite and the coarsest pearlite to place the steel in its softest, most ductile, and least strained condition.
Normalizing
The purpose of normalizing is somewhat similar to that of annealing with the exceptions that the steel is not reduced to its softest condition and the pearlite is left rather fine instead of coarse. Refinement of grain size ,relief of internal stresses, and improvement of structural uniformity together with recovery of some ductility provide high toughness qualities in notmalized steel. The
process is frequently used for improvement of machinability and for stress relief to reduce distortion that might occur with partial machining or aging.
The procedure for normalizing is to austenitize by slowly heating to approximately 80℃above the Ac3 or Accm temperature for hypoeutectoid or hypereutectoid steels, respectively; providing soaking time for the formation of austenite ; and cooling slowly in still air. Note that the steels with more carbon than the eutectoid composition are heated above the Accm instead of the Ac1 used for annealing. The purpose of normalizing is to attempt to dissolve all the cementite during austenitization to eliminate, as far as possible, the settling of hard, brittle iron carbide in the grain boundaries. The desired decomposition products are small grained , fine pearlite with a minimum of free ferrite and free cementite.
Spheroidizing
Minimum hardness and maximum ductility of steel can be produced by a process called spheroidizing, which causes the iron carbide to form in small spheres or nodules in a ferrite matrix. In order to start with small grains that spheroidize more readily, the process is usually performed on normalized steel. Several variations of processing are used ,but all require the holding of the steel near the A1 temperature (usually slightly below) for a number of hours to allow the iron carbide to form on its more stable and lower energy state of small, rounded globules.
The main need for the process is to improve the machinability quality of high carbon steel and to pretreat hardened steel to help produce greater structural uniformity after quenching. Because of the lengthy treatment time and therefore rather high cost, spheroidizing is not performed nearly as much as annealing or normalizing.
Hardening of steel
Most of the heat treatment hardening processes for steel are based on the production of high percentages of martensite. The first step, therefore, is that used for most of the other heat-treating processes------treatment to produce austenite. Hypoeutectoid steels are heated to approximately 60℃above the Ac3 temperature and allowed to soak to obtain temperature uniformity and austenite homogeneity. Hypereutectoid steels are soaked at about 60℃above the Ac1 temperature, which leaves some iron carbide present in the material.
The second step involves cooling rapidly in an attempt to avoid pearlite transformation by missing the nose of the I-T curve. The cooling rate is determined by the temperature and the
ability of the quenching media to carry heat away from the surface of the material being quenched and by the conduction of heat through the material itself. Table 11-1 shows some of the commonly used media and the method of application to remove heat, arranged in order of decreasing cooling ability.
High temperature gradients contribute to high stresses that cause distortion and cracking, so the quench should only as extreme as is necessary to produce the desired structure. Care must be exercised in quenching that heat is removed uniformly to minimize thermal stresses. For example ,a long slender bar should be end-quenched, that is ,inserted into the quenching medium vertically so that the entire section is subjected to temperature change at one time. If a shape of this kind were to be quenched in a way that caused one side to drop in temperature before the other, change of dimensions would likely cause high stresses producing plastic flow and permanent distortion.
Several special types of quench are conducted to minimize quenching stresses and decrease the tendency for distortion and cracking. One of these is called martempering and consists of quenching an austenitized steel in a salt at a temperature above that needed for the start of martensite formation(Ms). The steel being quenched is held in this bath until it is of uniform temperature but is removed before there is time for formation of bainite to start . completion of the cooling in air then causes the same hard martensite that would have formed with quenching from the high temperature ,but the high thermal or”quench”stresses that are the primary source of cracks and warping will have been eliminated.
A similar process performed at a slightly higher temperature is called austempering. In this case the steel is held at the bath temperature for a longer period, and the result of the isothermal treatment is the formation of bainite. The bainite structure is not as hard as the martensite that could be formed from the same composition, but in addition to reducing the thermal shock to which the steel would be subjected under normal hardening procedures, it is unnecessary to perform any further treatment to develop good impact resistance in the high hardness range.
Tempering
A third step usually required to condition a hardened steel for service is tempering, or as it is sometimes referred to, drawing. With the exception of austempered steel, which is frequently used in the as-hardened condition, most steels are not serviceable “as quenched”. The drastic cooling to
produce martensite causes the steel to be very hard and to contain both macroscopic and microscopic internal stresses with the result that the material has little ductility and extreme brittleness. Reduction of these faults is accomplished by reheating the steel to some point below the A1 (lower transformation) temperature. The structural changes caused by tempering of hardened steel are functions of both time and temperatural changes caused by tempering of hardened steel are functions of both time and temperature, with temperature being the most important. It should be emphasized that tempering is not a hardening process, but is ,instead, the reverse. A tempered steel is one that has been hardened by heat treatment and then stress relieved, softened, and provided with increased ductility by reheating in the tempering or drawing procedure.
The magnitude of the structural changes and the change of properties caused by tempering depend upon the temperature to which the steel is reheated .the higher the temperature, the greater the effect, so the choice of temperature will generally depend on willingness to sacrifice hardness and strength to gain ductility and toughness. Reheating to below 100℃has little noticeable effect on hardened plain carbon steel. Between 100℃and 200℃,there is evidence of some structural changes. Above 200℃marked changes in structure and properties appear. Prolonged heating at just under the A1 temperature will result in a spheroidized structure similar to that produced by the spheroidizing process.
In commercial tempering the temperature range of 250-425℃is usually avoided because of an unexplained embrittlement, or loss of ductility, that often occurs with steels tempered in this range. Certain alloy steels also develop a “temper brittleness”in the temperature range of 425-600℃,particularly when cooled slowly from or through this range of temperature . when high temperature tempering is necessary for these steels, they are usually heated to above 600℃and quenched for rapid cooling. Quenches from this temperature, of course, do not cause hardening because austenitization has not been accomplished.
翻译如下：
金属热处理
一、退火
在前面描述冷拔加工材料的软化并重新获得塑性的热处理方法时，就已使用退火这个词。当用于同素异晶材料的热处理时，该词具有相似的意义。完全退火的目的是降低硬度、增加塑性，有时也提高高碳钢的切削加工性，否则这种钢很难加工。
退火不总是能提高切削加工性，切削加工性一词用来描述几个相关因素，包括材料切削时获得良好的表面光洁度（即较小的表面粗糙度值——译者）的能力。当完全退火时，普通低碳钢硬度较低，强度较小，对切削的阻力较小，但通常由于塑性和韧性太大以致切屑离开工件表面时会划伤表面，工件表面质量比较差，导致较差的切削加工性。对这类钢，退火可能不是最合适的处理方法。许多高碳钢和大多数合金钢的切削加工性通常可经退火大大改善，因为除在最软条件下，它们的硬度和强度太高而不易加工。
亚共析钢的退火方法是将钢缓慢加热到Ac3线以上大约60℃，保温一段时间，使整个材料温度相同，形成均匀奥氏体，然后随炉或埋在石灰或其他绝缘材料中缓慢冷却。要析出粗大铁素体和珠光体，使钢处于最软、最韧和应变最小的状态，必须缓慢冷却。
二、正火
正火的目的多少类似于退火，但钢不是最软状态且珠光体是细匀而不粗大。钢的正火能细化晶粒，释放内应力，改善结构均匀性同时恢复一些塑性，得到高的韧性。这种方法经常用来改进切削加工性，减少应力，减少因部分切削加工或时效产生的变形。
正火的方法是将亚共析钢或过共析钢分别缓慢加热到Ac3线或Accm线上约80℃，保温一段时间以便形成奥氏体，并在静止空气中缓冷。要注意，含碳量超过过共析钢成分的钢要加热到Accm线以上，而不是退火时的Ac1线以上。正火的目的是在奥氏体化过程中试图溶解所有渗碳体，从而尽可能减少晶界上的硬脆铁碳化合物，而得到小晶粒的细珠光体、最小自由铁素体和自由渗碳体。
三、球化退火
通过球化退火可使钢得最小的硬度和最大的塑性，它可使铁碳化合物以小球状分布在铁素体基体上。为了使小颗粒球化更容易，通常对正火钢进行球化退火。球化退火可用几种不同的方法，但所有方法都需在A1线温度附近（通常略低）保温很长时间，使铁碳化合物形成更稳定，能级较低的小圆球。
球化退火方法的主要目的是改进高碳钢的切削加工性，并对淬硬钢进行预处理，使其淬火后结构更均匀。因为热处理时间长，因此成本高，球化退火不如退火或正火常用。
四、钢的硬化
钢的大多数热处理硬化方法是基于产生高比例的马氏体。因此，第一步用的是大多数其
他热处理用的方法——产生奥氏体。亚共析钢加热到Ac3温度以上大约60℃，进行保温，使温度均布，奥氏体均匀。过共析钢在Ac1线温度以上大约60℃时保温，钢中仍残留部分铁碳化合物。
第二步是快速冷却，力图避免在等温曲线鼻部产生珠光体转变。冷却速度取决于温度和淬火时淬火介质从钢表面带走热量的能力以及钢本身传热的能力。表11-1是一些常用介质和冷却方法，按冷却能力降低的顺序排列。
高的温度梯度产生高应力，会引起变形和开裂，所以淬火只有在非常需要产生特定结构时才使用。淬火时必须小心，使热量均匀扩散以减少热应力。比如，一根细长棒需端部淬火，即将它垂直插进冷却介质中，这样整个截面同时产生温度变化。如果这种形状的工件的某一边比另一边早降温，尺寸变化很可能引起很高的应力，产生塑性流动和永久变形。
用几种特殊的淬火方法可减少淬火应力，减小变形开裂倾向。一种称为分级淬火，其方法是：将奥氏体钢放入温度高于马氏体转变起始温度（Ms）的盐浴中，放置一定的时间直到温度均匀，在开始形成贝氏体之前取出，然后放在空气中冷却，产生与从高温开始淬火时同样硬的马氏体，而导致开裂和翘曲的高的热应力或淬火应力已经被消除。
在略高一点温度下的类似方法称为等温淬火，这时，将（奥氏体）钢放在盐浴中，保持很长的时间，等温处理的结果是形成贝氏体。贝氏体结构不如在同样成分时形成的马氏体硬，但除了减少钢在正常淬火时受到的热冲击外，不必要进一步处理，就可获得在高硬度时较好的冲击韧性。
五、回火
调整淬硬钢以便使用的第三步通常是回火。除了等温淬火钢通常在淬火状态下使用外，大多数钢都不能再淬火状态下使用。为产生马氏体而采取的激冷使钢很硬，产生宏观内应力和微观内应力，使材料塑性很低，脆性极大。为减少这种危害，可通过将钢再加热到A1线（低温转变）一下某一温度。淬火钢回火时产生的结构变化是时间和温度的函数，其中温度是最重要的。必须要强调，回火不是硬化方法，而是刚好相反。回火钢是将经热处理硬化的钢，通过回火时的再加热，来释放应力、软化和提高塑性。
回火引起的结构变化和性能改变取决于钢重新加热的温度。温度越高，效果越大，所以温度的选择通常取决于牺牲硬度和强度换取塑性和韧性的程度。重新加热到100℃以下，对淬火普碳钢影响不大，在100℃到200℃之间，结构会发生某些改变，在200℃以上，结构和性能显著变化。在紧靠着A1温度以下的长时间加热会产生与球化退火过程类似的球化结构。
在工业上，通常要避免在250℃到425℃范围内回火，因为这个范围内回火的钢经常会产生无法解释的脆性或塑性丧失现象。一些合金钢在425℃到600℃范围内，也会产生“回火脆性”，特别是从（或通过）这个温度范围缓慢冷却时会出现。当这些钢必须高温回火时，它们通常加热到600℃以上并快速冷却。当然，从这个温度快冷不会产生硬化，因为没有进行奥氏体化。
电力专业常用英语词汇()
网易电力专业英语词汇(较全) 1）元件设备 三绕组变压器：three-column transformer ThrClnTrans 双绕组变压器：double-column transformer DblClmnTrans 电容器：Capacitor 并联电容器：shunt capacitor 电抗器：Reactor 母线：Busbar 输电线：TransmissionLine 发电厂：power plant 断路器：Breaker 刀闸(隔离开关)：Isolator 分接头：tap 电动机：motor 2）状态参数 有功：active power 无功：reactive power 电流：current 容量：capacity 电压：voltage 档位：tap position 有功损耗：reactive loss 无功损耗：active loss 空载损耗：no-load loss 铁损：iron loss 铜损：copper loss 空载电流：no-load current 阻抗：impedance 正序阻抗：positive sequence impedance 负序阻抗：negative sequence impedance 零序阻抗：zero sequence impedance 无功负载：reactive load 或者QLoad 有功负载: active load PLoad 遥测：YC(telemetering) 遥信：YX 励磁电流(转子电流)：magnetizing current 定子：stator 功角：power-angle
上限:upper limit 下限：lower limit 并列的：apposable 高压: high voltage 低压：low voltage 中压：middle voltage 电力系统 power system 发电机 generator 励磁 excitation 励磁器 excitor 电压 voltage 电流 current 母线 bus 变压器 transformer 升压变压器 step-up transformer 高压侧 high side 输电系统 power transmission system 输电线 transmission line 固定串联电容补偿fixed series capacitor compensation 稳定 stability 电压稳定 voltage stability 功角稳定 angle stability 暂态稳定 transient stability 电厂 power plant 能量输送 power transfer 交流 AC 装机容量 installed capacity 电网 power system 落点 drop point 开关站 switch station 双回同杆并架 double-circuit lines on the same tower 变电站 transformer substation 补偿度 degree of compensation 高抗 high voltage shunt reactor 无功补偿 reactive power compensation 故障 fault 调节 regulation 裕度 magin 三相故障 three phase fault 故障切除时间 fault clearing time 极限切除时间 critical clearing time 切机 generator triping
应用化学专业英语翻译完整篇
1 Unit5元素周期表 As our picture of the atom becomes more detailed 随着我们对原子的描述越来越详尽，我们发现我们陷入了进退两难之境。有超过100多中元素要处理，我们怎么能记的住所有的信息？有一种方法就是使用元素周期表。这个周期表包含元素的所有信息。它记录了元素中所含的质子数和电子数，它能让我们算出大多数元素的同位素的中子数。它甚至有各个元素原子的电子怎么排列。最神奇的是，周期表是在人们不知道原子中存在质子、中子和电子的情况下发明的。Not long after Dalton presented his model for atom( )在道尔顿提出他的原子模型（原子是是一个不可分割的粒子，其质量决定了它的身份）不久，化学家门开始根据原子的质量将原子列表。在制定像这些元素表时候，他们观察到在元素中的格局分布。例如，人们可以清楚的看到在具体间隔的元素有着相似的性质。在当时知道的大约60种元素中，第二个和第九个表现出相似的性质，第三个和第十个，第四个和第十一个等都具有相似的性质。 In 1869,Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev,a Russian chemist, 在1869年，Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev ,一个俄罗斯的化学家，发表了他的元素周期表。Mendeleev通过考虑原子重量和元素的某些特性的周期性准备了他的周期表。这些元素的排列顺序先是按原子质量的增加,,一些情况中, Mendeleev把稍微重写的元素放在轻的那个前面.他这样做只是为了同一列中的元素能具有相似的性质.例如,他把碲(原子质量为128)防在碘(原子质量为127)前面因为碲性质上和硫磺和硒相似, 而碘和氯和溴相似. Mendeleev left a number of gaps in his table.Instead of Mendeleev在他的周期表中留下了一些空白。他非但没有将那些空白看成是缺憾，反而大胆的预测还存在着仍未被发现的元素。更进一步，他甚至预测出那些一些缺失元素的性质出来。在接下来的几年里，随着新元素的发现，里面的许多空格都被填满。这些性质也和Mendeleev所预测的极为接近。这巨大创新的预计值导致了Mendeleev的周期表为人们所接受。 It is known that properties of an element depend mainly on the number of electrons in the outermost energy level of the atoms of the element. 我们现在所知道的元素的性质主要取决于元素原子最外层能量能级的电子数。钠原子最外层能量能级（第三层）有一个电子，锂原子最外层能量能级（第二层）有一个电子。钠和锂的化学性质相似。氦原子和氖原子外层能级上是满的，这两种都是惰性气体，也就是他们不容易进行化学反应。很明显，有着相同电子结构（电子分布）的元素的不仅有着相似的化学性质，而且某些结构也表现比其他元素稳定（不那么活泼） In Mendeleev’s table,the elements were arranged by atomic weights for 在Mendeleev的表中，元素大部分是按照原子数来排列的，这个排列揭示了化学性质的周期性。因为电子数决定元素的化学性质，电子数也应该（现在也确实）决定周期表的顺序。在现代的周期表中，元素是根据原子质量来排列的。记住，这个数字表示了在元素的中性原子中的质子数和电子数。现在的周期表是按照原子数的递增排列，Mendeleev的周期表是按照原子质量的递增排列，彼此平行是由于原子量的增加。只有在一些情况下（Mendeleev注释的那样）重量和顺序不符合。因为原子质量是质子和中子质量的加和，故原子量并不完全随原子序数的增加而增加。原子序数低的原子的中子数有可能比原子序数高的原
电力专业英语
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电力专业英文
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应用化学专业英语翻译
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