材料科学与工程专业英语总结

1
Characteristics of English for Science & Technology
科技论文写作的一些特点？
以客观陈述为主，较多使用被动句
使用大量科技词语
表达方式程式化
大量使用非限定动词(我觉得就是to do/doing那些)
大量使用名词及介词短语
复杂的长句子较多
条件句较多
省略句较多
采用的句子结构严谨合理
动词的时态式相对固定

2
Introduction to Materials Science and Engineering
什么是材料科学与工程（MSE）?
Materials science and engineering (MSE) is an interdisciplinary field concerned with inventing new materials and improving previously known materials by developing a deeper understanding of the microstructure-composition-synthesis-processing relationships.

材料科学与工程四面体包括哪四个要素，并解释？
composition成分: the chemical make-up of a material.
microstructure微观结构：a description of the arrangement of atoms, as seen at the microscopic scale.（注：structure means ...., as seen at different levels of detail.）
synthesis制备: how materials are made from naturally occurring or man-made chemicals.
processing工艺: how materials are shaped into useful components to cause changes in the properties of different materials.

材料的分类？举一些例子（例子感觉不太会考）
Metals and Alloys金属与合金
Ceramics, glasses, and glass-ceramics陶瓷、玻璃、玻璃陶瓷
Polymers (plastics)聚合物（塑料）
Semiconductors半导体
Composite materials复合材料

Metals with which you are probably familiar include iron, copper, aluminum, silver, and gold;
common ceramics include sand, bricks and mortar灰浆, (window) glass, and graphite石墨;
examples of familiar polymers are cellulose, nylon, polyethylene，Teflon聚四氟乙烯, Kevlar凯夫拉尔纤维, and polystyrene聚苯乙烯;
we have already discussed mixtures of materials known as composites such as carbon/carbon composites used in tiles瓷砖 on the space shuttle太空机 and carbon fibers in an epoxy matrix环氧树脂 used in tennis rackets and skis;
and the simplest semiconductors are silicon and germanium硅和锗.

一个好的工程师在材料选择时需要考虑什么？
A good engineer will consider:
the effect of how the material is made,
what exactly is the composition of the candidate material for the application being considered,
any processing that may have to be done for shaping the material or fabricating a component,
the structure of the material after processing into a component or device
the environment in which the material will be used, and the cost-to-performance ratio.

3
The Structure of Metals
分析和描述材料结构的五个不同的层次？
We can examine and describe the structure of materials at five different levels:
1 macrostructure;
2 microstructure;
3 Nanostructure;
4 short-range and long-range atomic arrangements;
5 atom

ic structure

键合Bond机制：
There are four important mechanisms by which atoms are bonded in engineered materials. These are:
1 metallic bond
2 covalent bond共价键
3 ionic bond离子键
4 Van der Waals bond

三个基本类型的缺陷：
three basic types of imperfections:
point defects
line defects(or dislocations)
surface defects

The commonest point defects点缺陷 are the vacant-site and those due to the presence of foreign atoms.
Line defects线缺陷 are regions of atomic misfit and are known as dislocations
Screw Dislocations螺位错:
The screw dislocation can be illustrated by cutting partway through a perfect crystal, then skewing the crystal one atom spacing.
Edge Dislocation刃位错:
An edge dislocation刃位错can be illustrated by slicing partway through a perfect crystal, spreading the crystal apart, and partly filling the cut with an extra place of atoms. The bottom edge of this inserted plane represents the edge dislocation.
Surface defects面缺陷 are the boundaries, or planes, that separate a material into regions, each region having the same crystal structure but different orientations.
Grain Boundary晶界:a narrow zone in which the atoms are not properly spaced.
Stacking faults堆垛层错, which occur in FCC metals, represent an error in the stacking sequence of close-packed planes.
A twin boundary挛晶届 is a plane across which there is a special mirror image misorientation of the crystal structure.

三种晶体结构类型举例？
three types of crystal structure
body-centred cubic (bcc): alpha iron, tungsten, molybdenum, vanadium.
Face-centred cubic (fcc): gamma iron, copper, aluminum, lead, nickel.
Close-packed hexagonal (cph,hcp): zinc, magnesium, cadmium, beryllium.


一些定义：
结构：
Microstructure is the structure of materials at a length-scale of ~10 to 1000nm.Microstructure typically includes such features as average grain size, grain size distribution, grain orientation, and other features related to defects in materials.
A grain is a portion of the materials within which the arrangement of atoms is nearly identical相同的.
Length-scale is a characteristic length or range of dimensions over which we are describing the properties of material or the phenomena occurring in materials.
Macrostructure is the structure of a materials at a macroscopic level where the length-scale is >100,000nm.Features that constitute构成macrostructure include porosity, surface coatings表面涂层, and such features as internal or external microcracks内部或外部微裂隙.
The atomic structure includes all atoms and their arrangements, which constitute the building blocks of matter.
amorphous (those that lack a long-range ordering of atoms or ions)crystalline (whose that exhibit periodic arrangements of atoms or ions)
Amorphous materials have only short-range atomic arrangements while crystalline mater

ials have short- and long-range arrangements.


键合：
Metallic Bond：The metallic elements have more electropositive阳性 atoms that donate their valence electrons 价电子to form a “sea”of electron surrounding the atoms.
Covalent Bond:Materials with covalent bonding are characterized by bonds that are formed by sharing of valence electrons among two or more atoms.
Ionic Bond:When more than one type of atom is present in a material, one atom may donate its valence electrons to a different atom, filling the outer energy shell of the second atom.Both atoms now have filled out energy levels, but both have acquired an electrical charge and behave as ions.
Van der Waals Bonding:The origin of van der Waals forces between atoms and molecules is quantum mechanics量子力学 in nature.

晶格等：
Lattice：a collection of points, called lattice points, which are arranged in a periodic pattern so that the surroundings of each point in the lattice are identical.
Motif or Basis:A group of one or more atoms, located in a particular way with respect to each other and associated with each lattice point.
Crystal Structure晶体结构: we obtain it by adding the lattice and basis (i.e., crystal structure=lattice+basis)
The unit cell: the subdivision of a lattice that still retains the overall characteristics of the entire lattice.
Crystal Systems晶系: The seven unique arrangements are cubic立方, tetragonal四方, orthorhombic正交, rhombohedral斜方 (also known as trigonal三方), hexagonal六方, monoclinic单斜, and triclinic三斜.
A grain:a portion of the material within which the arrangement of the atoms is readily identical

Nucleation and Dendritic Growth：
Nucleation involves the formation of minute solid particles in the melt and the process continues with subsequent growth from these nuclei.
Dendrite—the term dendrite is derived from the Greek “dendron” meaning“tree”. Secondary and tertiary arms develop from the main“backbone” of the dendrite, like branches which develop from a tree trunk, except that the branches in a dendrite follow a regular geometrical pattern .


4
The Mechanical Properties of Metals
硬度的定义和测试方法：
The hardness of a metal is its resistance to surface indentation under standard test condition. Three main test methods are used: Brinell, Vickers and Rockwell.

布氏硬度测试方法的描述：
In the Brinell test, an indenter consisting of a hardened steel ball, mounted in a suitable holder, is forced into a prepared surface of the test-piece using a suitable load, which is maintained for fifteen seconds. The diameter of the circular indentation left in the surface after removal of the load is measured in two directions at right angles using a low-power graduated microscope. The average diameter is taken.
布氏硬度测试方法的特点：
The Brinell test makes a relatively large indentation, which is desirab

le when it is necessary to obtain the average hardness of a heterogeneous material (e.g. grey cast iron). However, large indentations may be objectionable有异议的.

维氏硬度测试方法的描述：
The Vickers hardness test (fig. 4.2) eliminates the need for deciding the correct ratio of F/D2 by using a square-base diamond pyramid indenter, is does not readily deform, and gives geometrically similar indentations under different loads.
The diamond indenter, in the form of a right pyramid with a square base and angle of 1360 between opposite faces, is forced into the prepared surface of the test material under a selected load.
The diamond produces a square indentation and the average is taken of the diagonal lengths which are measured by means of microscope with a variable slit built into the eye-piece.
维氏硬度测试方法的特点：
The accuracy of the result will not vary with the depth of the indentation, though the relationship between depth of indentation and thickness of test-piece must still be observed.

洛氏硬度测试方法的描述：
In the Rockwell test the depth of the indentation is measured by the instrument and this is directly indicated on a dial as a hardness value. No subsequent measurement of the indentation is involved.
The test-piece is placed on the table of the machine and the indenter is brought into contact with the prepared surface under a minor load of 10 kgf.
This takes up the “slack” in the system and dial indicator is set to zero. The major (additional) load is then applied, and when the reading of the dial indicator is steady the major load is taken off.
The test-piece remains under the minor load while the hardness value is read directly from the dial indicator.
洛氏硬度的测试方法的特点：
The Rockwell scale is not as accurate as the Vickers Scale in distinguishing small differences in hardness of hard materials. However, the Rockwell test is particularly suitable for rapid routine checks on finished material.
The C scale is used mainly for hardened steels, while the B scale is used for unhardened steels and the harder non-ferrous alloys.

张力的定义：
The dimensional change caused by a stress is called strain. In tension (or compression). The strain is the ratio of the change in length to the original length.

胡克定律：
In elastic behaviour, the strain produced in a stressed material is completely removed as soon as the stress is removed, so that the material returns to its original dimensions.. Some metallic material show elastic properties up to fairly high stresses in tension, the elastic strain produced is directly proportional to the stress causing it.This relationship is known as Hooke’s law.

应力应变曲线成比例部分Stress/strain Curve：
The graph of stress against strain (fig. 3.7) will be a straight line passing through the origin. The slope of this straight line (stress/strain) is a constant for a given material. This

constant is known as Young’s modulus, or the modulus of elasticity, and is denoted by E.

剪切应力：
The characteristic of shear loading, and resulting shear stress, is that its direction is parallel to the cross-sectional area resisting fracture.

胡克定律应用于剪切应力：
Hooke’s law also applies to shear loading so that the slope of the straight part of the stress/strain graph is shear-stress/shear-strain and is constant for a given material. This constant is called the modulus of rigidity and is denoted by G.

加载伸长曲线的描述Load/extension curve:
If a gradually increasing tensile load is applied to a test-piece and the extension continuously measured, then a graph can be drawn, plotting load against extension.
Figure 4.9 shows a load extension graph typical of many metallic materials stressed intension. Initially the length of the test-piece increases in direct proportion to the applied load, along OP, thus illustrating Hooke’s law.
Hooke’s law does not hold beyond point P, which is known as the limit of proportionality.
Generally, there exists another point, Q, up to which the material remains elastic, i.e. the test-piece returns to its original dimensions on removal of the load. Point Q is known as the elastic limit of the material. Points P and Q are close together, and depending on the sensitivity of the test may appear to be coincident.
As the load is increased, the test-piece continues to extend uniformly until the maximum load at M is reached. After this the cross-sectional area becomes noticeably smaller and a “neck” is formed, with the result that and increase in stress is obtained with a reduction in load.
The actual breaking load at B is therefore less than the load at M, although the actual stress at M is greater than that at M.


5
Heat Treatment of Metals
热处理的定义：
Heat treatment is an operation, or combination of operations, involving the heating and cooling of a materials in the solid state, for the purpose of obtaining certain desirable properties.

热处理的主要步骤：
Main stages：
Heating at a suitable rate
Holding at an appropriate temperature for the required time
Cooling at an appropriate rate（1 Isothermal cooling 2 Continuously cooling）
典型热处理过程：
Typical heat treatment processes：
Annealing 退火
Normalizing 正火
Quenching 淬火
Tempering 回火

还有，
Isothermal Heat Treatment 等温处理
?Austempering 等温淬火
Isothermal Annealing 等温退火
Surface treatments 表面处理

热处理的定义：
Annealing, or a full anneal, allows the steel to cool slowly in a furnace火炉, producing coarse pearlite粗糙的珠光体./Annealing is carried out to obtain a homogeneous structure均质结构, to produce softening软化

or to refine the grain size细化晶粒.
Normalizing allows the steel to cool more rapidly, in air, producing fine pearlite细的珠光体./Normalizing is carried out on low and medium carbon steels. The process is applied to achieve the best combination of mechanical properties 最好的机械性能when it is undesirable for the material to be in the softest possible condition不需要材料在软的状态.
Quenching: A heat treatment process of heating the materials above the critical temperature(Ac3 or Ac1) and holding for required time to obtain austenite, then cooling with a rate more than critical cooling rate, to obtain martensite or the combination of martensite马氏体 and bainite贝氏体.
Tempering: During tempering, an intimate mixture of ferritet铁素体and cementite渗碳体 forms from the martensite马氏体. The tempering treatment controls the final properties of the steel./ A process when martensite in a steel is heated below the eutectoid temperature, the thermodynamically stable α and Fe3C phases precipitate.
The decomposition of martensite in steels causes the strength and hardness of the steel to decrease while the ductility and impact properties are improved.

Isothermal Heat Treatment 等温处理
The isothermal transformation heat treatment used to produce bainite, called austempering等温淬火, simply involves austenitizing the steel, quenching to some temperature below the nose of the TTT curve, and holding at that temperature until all of the austenite transforms to bainite.
pearlite formed by an isothermal anneal等温退火 may give more uniform properties, since the cooling rates and microstructure obtained during annealing and normalizing vary across the cross section of the steel.

Retained Austenite（残余奥氏体）
There is a large volume expansion when martensite 马forms from austenite奥. As the martensite plates form during quenching淬火, they surround and isolate small pools of austenite, which deform to accommodate the lower density martensite. However, for the remaining pools of austenite to transform, the surrounding martensite must deform. Because the strong martensite resists the transformation, either the existing martensite cracks or the austenite remains trapped in the structure as retained austenite.

Residual stresses and cracking(残余应力)
Residual stresses are also produced because of the volume change or because of cold working. A stress-relief anneal can be used to remove or minimize residual stresses due to cold working. Stresses are also induced because of thermal expansion and contraction. In steels, there is one more mechanism that causes stress.

Surface Treatments表面处理
We can, by proper heat treatment, produce a structure that is hard and strong at the surface, so that excellent wear and fatigue resistance are obtained, but at the same time gives a soft, ductile, tough core that provides good resistance to impact failure.

*
热平衡相图是什么？
A thermal equilibrium diagram热平衡相图 is a temperature-composition graph温度-成分 which indicates the structural changes结构变化 that take place during extremely slow rates 慢速of heating and cooling of an alloy.

二元热平衡相图binary equilibrium diagram：
When an alloy contains only two elements, it is referred to as a binary alloy二元合金 and the corresponding diagram is called a binary equilibrium diagram. Such binary diagrams are most commonly used.

热平衡相图的描述：
The equilibrium diagram thus obtained is shown in figure 6.8. Consider the cooling of alloy X under equilibrium conditions. Solidification begins at temperature T1, When the first solid dendrites枝晶 of composition N 成分form. These are richer in metal B than the original alloy X, so that the remaining liquid becomes enriched in metal A. As the temperature falls from T1 to T2 the solid solution changes its composition by diffusion following the solidus斜线 from N to S, while the remaining liquid changes its composition along the liquidus液相线 from M to R.
As the solidification proceeds, the composition of the solid being deposited varies progressively as described, and under equilibrium cooling conditions, the composition of the liquid changes to keep pace with it. These changes are achieved by processes b and c above. If equilibrium conditions prevail when point P is reaches at temperature T2, the solid already deposited and that actually depositing will have a uniform composition S and the residual liquid will have composition R.
Examples of binary systems showing partial solubility in the solid state are the lead/tin alloys and the copper/silver alloys. The thermal equilibrium diagram for this type of system is really a combination of the two previous types and shows solid solubility sections as well as a eutectic.
The curve AEB is the liquidus and is similar to that of the simple eutectic diagram. The solidus is ACEDB and the lines CF and DG are known as solvus lines, which denote the maximum solubility limits of metal Y in metal X, and of metal X in metal Y respectively.


6.Deformation and Annealing of Metals
冷加工金属退火过程中的三个阶段?
Annealing of Cold-worked material:
When a cold-worked material is heated, progressive changes in the structure and properties of the metal take place. It is convenient to consider the changes taking place as a result of three processes:
a) recovery,
b) recrystallisation,
c) grain growth (fig. 7.6).
However, the stages during which these processes operate are not physically distinct.

Recovery
The recovery process takes place by the re-arrangement of the dislocations in the cold-worked metal so as to reduce the energy stored in the lattice. This re-arrangement is brought about by thermal activation.
Recrystallisatlon
During the recrystallisation stage the deformed cold-worked structure is replaced

by a new unstrained one as a result of a nucleation and growth process.
Grain Growth
If annealing is continued after the completion of recrystallisation, some of the new unstrained grains grow by absorbing others.


7 Macroscopic and Microscopic Examination of Materials
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