Lecture 3 Subject Concord (II)

Lecture 3 Subject Concord (II)

I. Revision

Check up the exercises that the students have done in the first part of subject-verb concord.

II. Presentation

In this part, we shall discuss the problem of concord with a coordinate construction, a quantitative expression, or a nominal clause as subject.

III. Problems of Concord with a Coordinate Subject

1) Concord with “and” or “both…and”

Coordination by “and” or “both…and” is usually treated as plural when it refers to two or more than two persons/things, but it is treated as singular when it refers to only one person or thing.

e.g Both Jack and Rose have been to the States.

Ham and eggs is a good breakfast.

Sometimes, the coordination by “and” appears in a singular form, but has a plural sense. Then it should be treated as plural.

Good and bad taste are inculcated by example.

The coordination by “and” but with "each", "every" or "many a", the predicate verb is usually in singular form.

Many a man and woman in this community finds himself or herself in need.

2) Coordination with "or"/"either...or", "nor"/"neither...nor", "not only...but also". (P46)

Here the problem of concord is generally dealt with according to the principle of proximity. But in informal style, items coordinated by "neither...nor" or "not only... but also" can sometimes be regarded as plural.

3)Subject + as much/ rather than/more than/no less than, etc, the verb form is determined by the subject form.

4)Subject + as well as/ in addition to/with/along with/together with/except, etc, the verb form is determined by the subject form.

IV. Problems of Concord with Expressions of Quantity as Subject

1) Concord with expression of definite quantity as subject

A. When a definite quantity is regarded as a single unit, the verb takes the singular form and when used in the sense of the individuals that constitute the quantity, the verb takes the plural form.

e.g. He thought that sixty-five dollars was not too much to ask.

Some of the dimes are missing.

B. If the subject is "a fractional percentage + of-phrase ", the form of verb is determined by the noun in the of-phrase. A plural noun in the of-phrase requires a plural verb; a singular or a mass noun in the of-phrase is to be followed by a singular verb.

e.g. Nearly 50% of the doctors are women.

Over 60% of the city was destroyed in the war.

C. If the subject is an expression of "A plus/and B" or "A multiplied by B," the verb can either take the singular or plural form. If, on the other hand, the subject is one of "A minus B" or "A divided by B," the verb can be singular.

e.g. Seven plus/ and five make(s) twelve.

Forty minus fifteen leaves twenty-five.

Five times eight is/are forty.

Forty divided by eight is five.

D. If the subject is a noun phrase composed of "one in/out of + plural noun," the verb takes the singular form inn formal style, but in informal style it can be plural. (P50)

2) Concord with expression of indefinite quantity as subject

A. When the subject is a noun phrase composed of "all of.., some of, one of, half of..., most of..., etc." the number of the verb is determined by the noun in the of-phrase.

B. When the subject is composed of "lots of, heaps of, loads of, scads of, plenty of + n," the number of the verb is determined by the noun in the of-phrase.

C. When the subject is a noun preceded by "a portion of, a series of, a pile of, a panel of," the verb invariably takes the singular form, disregarding of the forms of the noun.

D. When the subject is a noun, singular or plural, preceded by "a kind/sort/type of " or by "this kind/sort/type of," the verb takes the singular form. If "kind/sort/type of " is preceded by "these/those", and followed by a plural noun, the verb should be plural.

E. If the subject is a noun phrase, composed of "many a + noun" or "more than one + noun", this kind of noun phrase, though notionally plural, is treated as singular.

F. If the subject is a plural noun preceded by "an average of/ a majority of", the verb form is determined by the noun phrase: if the noun head is the word "average/majority", the verb should be singular; if the head is the plural noun, the verb should be plural.

e.g. An average of 25 applications a month is not unusual.

An average of 25 persons apply each month.

V. Other Problems of Subject-verb Concord

1) Problems of concord with a nominal clause as subject

a. the subject is a nominal clause introduced by what, who, which, how, why, whether, etc, the verb takes the singular form.

e.g. What caused the accident is a complete a mystery.

b. two or more such clauses are coordinated by and or both...and , a plural verb is required.

In SVC constructions with a what- clause a subject, the verb usually takes the singular form.But when the subject complement is plural, or when the what- clause is plural in meaning, the verb of the main clause can be plural.

e.g. What was real to him were the details of his life.

2) Subject-verb concord with a non-finite clause as subject

a. subject is a non-finite clause, the verb of the main clause takes the singular form;

e.g. To climb mountains requires courage.

b. two or more such clauses are coordinated by and, the verbs takes the singular form

when the subject refers to one thing, and the plural form when the subject refers to separate things.

3) Subject-verb concord in relative clauses

In the construction of "one of + plural noun + relative clause", the principle of grammatical concord is generally observed. In order to lay emphasis on "one", the verb can also take the singular form. When "one" is preceded by "the" or "the only", the verb can only be singular.

4) Subject-verb concord in cleft-sentences

Subject-verb concord in that-/who- clause is generally determined by the number of the focal element functioning as subject in the clause.

When the focal element is "I", the verb TO BE in the following "who-/that- clause usually agree with "I" in both person and number; if , on the other hand, the focal element is "me" instead of "I", the verb TO BE should take the third person singular number.

e.g. It is I who am to blame.

It is me that is to blame.

5) Subject-verb concord in existential sentences

It is generally determined by the number of the "notional subject". In informal style, the verb often agrees with the "formal subject" and take the singular form. When the notional subject is a coordinate construction, the verb form goes with the first coordinate element of the notional subject, singular or plural.

e.g. There's a long springboard, and three rafts at varying distances from the shore.

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第二讲 基本句型的转换与扩大 主谓一致(一)

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主谓一致(二)

主谓一致 （一）单数名词与谓语动词的一致 1.表示集体的词： Army, class, audience, club, committee, company, crowd, family, group, government, organization, party, personnel, public, staff, team, union, crew. 2.表示成员的词： Cattle, folk, people, police, poultry Machinery, clothing, luggage, furniture, equipment, jewelry Clothes, works, goods, contents, the Olympics games Some of, plenty of, a lot of, lots of, most of, the rest of, all of, half of, part of, the remainder of 1.the public( )the best judge because the public always( )their thoughts.（B） A.are; express B.is;express C.is;expresses D.are;expresses

2.I think class one( ) to win because class one( )all football lovers.(A) A.is likely; are B. are likely; are C. is likely; is D. are likely; is 3.while my family( ) a small one, every one of us( ) different hobbies.(A) A.is; have B.are; has C.is; has D.are; have 4.cattle( )well in the country market at present, according to the evening news.（A） A. sell B. sells C. is being sold D. will be sold 5. people who( )peace( )seeing a steady situation to seeing an unrest state. A.love; prefers B. love; prefer C.loved; prefer D.love;prefers 6. all the furniture in my office( )made in Hong Kong. A. is B. are C.were D.had been 7.every means( ) to prevent the water from( ). A. are used; polluting B. get used; pllution C. is used; polluted D. has been used; being polluted 8. all possible means( )to save the wounded soldier. A. have been tired B. is to be tried C. has been tried D. are trying

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英汉翻译中的增词法和减词法

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增词法减词法补充,课后看

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主谓一致补短 (2)

主谓一致 Fill in the blanks 一、谓语动词在人称和数上必须和主语一致 1．The results of the experiment______(show/shows) that you have all made good progress. 2．Between the two buildings______(stand/stands) a monument. 二、动名词，不定式或者从句做主语时，谓语动词一般要用单数 1．Growing vegetables ______(need/needs) constant watering. 2．That we have made brilliant achievements (is/are) an iron fact. 三、由and 并列的两个名词做主语时，如果表示的是一个同一概念或者单数概念，谓语动词用单数，否则用复数 1．The iron and steel industry_______(is/are) very important. 2．The teacher and poet often _______(give/gives) lectures around the city. 3. The teacher and the poet ______(is/are) good friends in the city. 如果主语是单数，即使后面跟着由with, together with, as well as, like, but, except等引起的短语，谓语动词与第一个主语保持一致(就前一致) 1．An iron and steel works, with some satellite factories, （is/are) to be built here. 2．A scientist, together with some assistants, ______(was/were) sent to the flooded area to help in the work. 3．The teacher as well as the students________(is/are) going to visit the exhibition. 五、each 和由some, any, no, every构成的复合代词都看作单数 1．Each of us _______(has/have)something to say about the subject. （注意如果是we each 就不一样了） 2．Just a minute, someone______(is/are) talking with manager. 六、what, which, who, some, more, most, all等代词是单数或是复数要依据意思来定 1．Which_____(is/are) your rooms? 2．What we need______(is/are) more practice. 3．What he left me_______(is/are)but a few old books. 4．All but you_____(was/were) here just now. 七、none指不可数名词时为单数，指可数名词时为单复皆可，主要取决于说话人头脑中联想到的是单数还是复数 1．None of the books _______(is/are) easy for us. 2．None of the information______(is/are) useful.

二、主谓一致(Subject-VerbConcord)

二、主谓一致( Subject-Verb Concord ) 主谓一致的问题看上去似乎很简单，其实使用起来却不是那么容易，有时候甚至很复杂。这是因为在不同情况下，处理这一问题所依据的原则各不相同。就其在现代语法中的基本原则而言，通常有三个不同角度的着眼点：1、语法一致2、意义一致3、就近原则。 主谓一致的原则是指，主语和谓语从语法形式上取得一致：主语是单数形式，谓语也采取单数形式；主语是复数形式，谓语亦采取复数形式。例如： A grammar book helps you learn something about the rules of a language.（主语是单数形式，谓语也采取单数形式）语法书帮助你学习语言的某些规则。 Grammar books help you learn something about the rules of a language.（主语是复数形式，谓语也采取复数形式）语法书帮助你学习语言的某些规则。 主语和谓语从语法形式上取得一致的问题远不只上述的那么简单，有许多方面的情况需要去具体地对待： #不定式、动名词、以及从句作主语时应看作单数，谓语动和不可数名词并不是一尘不变的。英文中的很多词都是一词多义，名词词用单数。例如： Reading often means learning .读书常意味是学习。 To read English aloud every morning does you a lot of good.每天早晨朗读英语有许多好处。 What he said has been recorded .他说的话已被录音了。 ## 不定代词one, every, each, everybody, everyone, one of, no one, nothing, nobody, someone, somebody, either, neither, many a 等作主语或是修饰主语时应看作单数，谓语动词用单数。例如： Neither of my sisters likes sports .我的妹妹中没人喜欢运动。 Many a student takes a walk on campus after dinner.许多学生晚饭后常在校园里散步。Every boy and girl shows great interest in extra-curriculum activities .每个男孩和女孩对课外活动都表现出很大的兴趣。 ### 表示国家、机构、事件、作品等名称的专有名词作主语时应看作单数，谓语动词用单数。例如： One Thousand And One Nights tells people lots of mysterious bits of folklore .《一千零一夜》给人们讲了许多神秘的民间传说。 The United States is leading the world in science and technology .美国常在世界科技方面领先。 The United Nations play an important role in the international affairs .联合国在国际事务中起着重要作用。 #### a portion, a series of, a kind of, the number of等与名词构成名词短语作主语时应看作单数，谓语动词用单数。例如： A series of high technology products has been laid out in the exhibition. 一系列高科技产品已在展览上展出。 The number of printing mistakes in some recent books often surprises people even to death.近来一些书籍里印刷错误的数量让人吃惊得要命。 A substantial portion of the reports is missing .这些报告都没有提及实质问题。 A kind of rose in the garden smells very pleasant.这座花园里有一种玫瑰香气怡人。##### 由some, several, both, few, many, a number of 等词修饰主语、或是由它们自身作主语时应看作复数，谓语动词用复数。另外，由and连接两个主语时，谓语一般用复数。例如：

矢量、栅格数据结构的优缺点

§矢量栅格一体化数据结构 一、矢量、栅格数据结构的优缺点 矢量数据结构可具体分为点、线、面，可以构成现实世界中各种复杂的实体，当问题可描述成线或边界时，特别有效。矢量数据的结构紧凑，冗余度低，并具有空间实体的拓扑信息，容易定义和操作单个空间实体，便于网络分析。矢量数据的输出质量好、精度高。 矢量数据结构的复杂性，导致了操作和算法的复杂化，作为一种基于线和边界的编码方法，不能有效地支持影像代数运算，如不能有效地进行点集的集合运算(如叠加)，运算效率低而复杂。由于矢量数据结构的存贮比较复杂，导致空间实体的查询十分费时，需要逐点、逐线、逐面地查询。矢量数据和栅格表示的影像数据不能直接运算(如联合查询和空间分析)，交互时必须进行矢量和栅格转换。矢量数据与DEM(数字高程模型)的交互是通过等高线来实现的，不能与DEM直接进行联合空间分析。 栅格数据结构是通过空间点的密集而规则的排列表示整体的空间现象的。其数据结构简单，定位存取性能好，可以与影像和DEM数据进行联合空间分析，数据共享容易实现，对栅格数据的操作比较容易。 栅格数据的数据量与格网间距的平方成反比，较高的几何精度的代价是数据量的极大增加。因为只使用行和列来作为空间实体的位置标识，故难以获取空间实体的拓扑信息，难以进行网络分析等操作。栅格数据结构不是面向实体的，各种实体往往是叠加在一起反映出来的，因而难以识别和分离。对点实体的识别需要采用匹配技术，对线实体的识别需采用边缘检测技术，对面实体的识别则需采用影像分类技术，这些技术不仅费时，而且不能保证完全正确。

通过以上的分析可以看出，矢量数据结构和栅格数据结构的优缺点是互补的（图2-4-1），为了有效地实现GIS中的各项功能(如与遥感数据的结合，有效的空间分析等)需要同时使用两种数据结构，并在GIS中实现两种数据结构的高效转换。 在GIS建立过程中，应根据应用目的和应用特点、可能获得的数据精度以及地理信息系统软件和硬件配置情况，选择合适的数据结构。一般来讲，栅格结构可用于大范围小比例尺的自然资源、环境、农林业等区域问题的研究。矢量结构用于城市分区或详细规划、土地管理、公用事业管理等方面的应用。 精

英语中的主谓一致

英语主谓一致 一般说来，谓语必须与主语在人称和数上保持一致，即主谓一致。主谓一致涉及三个方面：语法上一致，意义上一致，就近一致。 一、语法上一致 1 不可数名词、动名词、不定式、从句等做主语时，谓语通常用单数。 Much milk is offered to him. Reading aloud is very important in learning English. To nod one’s head means agreement.What they said is true. 2 and连接主语时，注意以下几点： 1）由and, both…and 连接两个单数名词谓语用复数，但当and连接的两个名词指同一个人，同一物，同一事，同一概念时谓语用单数。 Both bread and butter were served for breakfast in this hotel. The teacher and writer is going to give us a talk. 2) 凡是由each…and each…,every…and every… ,no…and no…, many a… and many a…连接名词作主语时谓语用单数。 Each man and each woman has a chance to be raised in our company. No boy and no girl doesn’t go to school at the age of seven in this village. 3) 由and 连接的前置并列修饰语+不可数名词做主语时，谓语用复数。 Good and bad meat in the market are sold out. 4) 不可数名词+并列修饰语作主语时，谓语用单数。 Beer from the USA and Germany is much better that from Britain. 5) 凡由and连接两个带the(a或物主代词)的单数可数名词，谓语用复数，如果只有前一个名词带the(a 或物主代词)则谓语用单数。 The professor and the writer have published a few new books on radio. The tenth and last chapter is written by a young man. 6)由and 连接的第二个名词短语表示否定或带有状语时，谓语的单复数与第一个名词一致。 The teacher, and perhaps his students too, is likely to be present. 7)What 从句的并列式作主语时，并列完整式常用复数，缩略式常用单数。 What he says and what he thinks have nothing to do with me. What I say and do is my own affair. 8) 由and 连接的两个疑问代词、不定式、动名词作主语时，根据意义一致的原则确定单复数。 When and where to build the new factory ________yet.(MET1991) A is not decided B are not decided C has not decided D have not decided 3 主语+介词（短语）：with, except, as well as, no less than, rather than, more than, over, besides, together with, like, including, in addition to等连接的名词时，谓语以介词（短语）前的主语为准，不受介词后的名词影响。 The man with hs daughters and sons is watching TV. The girls as well as the teacher are dancing. 考例：1）E-mail, as well as telephones,______ an important role in our daily life(1999上海) A playing B play C plays D have played 2) A library with five thousand books_______ to the nation as a gift.(MET 1990) A is offered B has offered C are offered D have offered 4 不定代词either, each, one, another, anyone, anybody , no one, nobody, some one, somebody, anything, nothing, something, everything, everyone, everybody, neither等作主语时，谓语用单数，none做主语时，谓语单复数均可。There is nothing wrong with the machine. Either of the shirts fits me very well. None of the farmers has (have)been abroad. 5 many a (an) +名词和more than one +名词做主语时谓语用单数。 Many an apple is in the basket. More than one stamp has been collected by her.

(完整word版)栅格数据结构和矢量数据结构空间分析

一、矢量、栅格数据结构的优缺点 矢量数据结构可具体分为点、线、面，可以构成现实世界中各种复杂的实体，当问题可描述成线或边界时，特别有效。矢量数据的结构紧凑，冗余度低，并具有空间实体的拓扑信息，容易定义和操作单个空间实体，便于网络分析。矢量数据的输出质量好、精度高。 矢量数据结构的复杂性，导致了操作和算法的复杂化，作为一种基于线和边界的编码方法，不能有效地支持影像代数运算，如不能有效地进行点集的集合运算(如叠加)，运算效率低而复杂。由于矢量数据结构的存贮比较复杂，导致空间实体的查询十分费时，需要逐点、逐线、逐面地查询。矢量数据和栅格表示的影像数据不能直接运算(如联合查询和空间分析)，交互时必须进行矢量和栅格转换。矢量数据与DEM(数字高程模型)的交互是通过等高线来实现的，不能与DEM 直接进行联合空间分析。 栅格数据结构是通过空间点的密集而规则的排列表示整体的空间现象的。其数据结构简单，定位存取性能好，可以与影像和DEM数据进行联合空间分析，数据共享容易实现，对栅格数据的操作比较容易。 栅格数据的数据量与格网间距的平方成反比，较高的几何精度的代价是数据量的极大增加。因为只使用行和列来作为空间实体的位置标识，故难以获取空间实体的拓扑信息，难以进行网络分析等操作。栅格数据结构不是面向实体的，各种实体往往是叠加在一起反映出来的，因而难以识别和分离。对点实体的识别需要采用匹配技术，对线实体的识别需采用边缘检测技术，对面实体的识别则需采用影像分类技术，这些技术不仅费时，而且不能保证完全正确。

通过以上的分析可以看出，矢量数据结构和栅格数据结构的优缺点是互补的（图2-4-1），为了有效地实现GIS中的各项功能(如与遥感数据的结合，有效的空间分析等)需要同时使用两种数据结构，并在GIS中实现两种数据结构的高效转换。 在GIS建立过程中，应根据应用目的和应用特点、可能获得的数据精度以及地理信息系统软件和硬件配置情况，选择合适的数据结构。一般来讲，栅格结构可用于大范围小比例尺的自然资源、环境、农林业等

主谓一致(二)大学版

主谓一致 一．以-s结尾的名词作主语的主谓一致问题 1.以-s结尾的疾病名称和游戏名称 ?英语中有一些疾病名称是以-s结尾的，如arthritis（关节炎）, bronchitis （支气管炎）, rickets（软骨病）, mumps（腮腺病）, diabetes（糖尿病）, phlebitis（静脉炎）等，这类名词通常作单数用，例：Mumps is a kind of infectious disease. ?但也有一些疾病名称如measles（麻疹）, rickets（佝偻病）既可作单 数也可作复数用，例： Generally, measles occurs in children. Measles are sometimes caused by a tapeworm（绦虫）. Rickets is /are caused by malnutrition（营养不良）. ●表示游戏名称的名词，如：darts（投镖游戏）, marbles（打弹子游戏） 等，通常作单数用。 ●但也有个别表示游戏名称的名词，如：cards（打纸牌），作复数用。 ●当darts, marbles等用于做这些游戏所用的镖或子弹等意义时，其复 数形式仍作复数用，例： Three darts（三只镖）are thrown at each turn. Marbles（各种子弹）vary in kind and quality. 2.以-ics结尾的学科名称

◆某些以-ics结尾的学科名称，如physics（物理学）, mathematics（数学）, mechanics（机械学）, optics（光学）, acoustics（声学）, politics（政治学）, statistics（统计学）, economics（经济学）, linguistics（语言学）, athletics （体育学）, tactics（兵法）等，通常作单数用。 ◆但若这类名词表示“学科”以外的其他意义，便可作复数用，例： My mathematics（运算能力）is /are rather shaky. Athletics（体育运动）have been greatly promoted at this college. The acoustics（音响效果）in the new concert hall are faultless. The tactics（策略）employed in this campaign were above reproach.（无可指责） The economics（经济意义）of the project are still being considered. 3.以-s结尾的地理名称 ?某些以-s结尾的地理名称，如果是国名，如the United States, the United Nations（联合国）,the Netherlands（荷兰）等，尽管带有复数词尾，但系单一政治实体，故作单数用。 ?但若不是国名，而是群岛、山脉、海峡、瀑布等地理名称，通常作复数 用，如：the West Indies（西印度群岛）, the Bahamas（巴拿马群岛）, the Himalayas（喜马拉雅山脉）, the Straits Gibraltar（直布罗陀海峡）, the Niagara Falls（尼亚加拉大瀑布）等。 4.其他以-s结尾的名词

栅格数据编码方法分为两大类

?栅格数据编码方法分为两大类：1直接栅格编码2压缩编码方法a链码b游程长度编码c块码d 四叉树直接编码就是将栅格数据看作一个数据矩阵，逐行（或逐列）逐个记录代码，可以每行都从左到右逐个象元进行记录，也可以奇数行地从左到右而偶数行地从右向左记录，为了特定目的 还可采用其他特殊的顺序栅格数据编码方法直接栅格编码： ?将栅格数据看作一个数据矩阵，逐行记录代码数据。A A A A A B B B A ABB A A B B ?1）每行都从左到右记录；AAAAABBBAABBAABB ?2）奇数行从左到右，偶数行从右到左； ?栅格数据量大，格网数多，由于地理数据往往有较强的相关性，即相邻象元的值往往是相同的。 所以，出现了各种栅格数据压缩方法。 ?压缩编码的目的就是用尽可能少的数据量记录尽可能多的信息，其类型分为 ?信息无损编码 ?编码过程中没有任何信息损失，通过解码操作可以完全恢复原来的信息 ?信息有损编码 ?为了提高编码效率，最大限度地压缩数据，在压缩过程中损失一部分相对不太重要的信息，解码时这部分难以恢复1、行程编码（游程编码）：将原始栅格阵列中属性值相同的连续若干个栅格单 元映射为一个游程。游程的结构为（A,P) 整数对。块码是游程长度编码扩展到二维的情况，采用 方形区域作为记录单元，每个记录单元包括相邻的若干栅格，数据结构由初始位置（行、列号） 和半径，再加上记录单位的代码组成。采用方形区域作为记录单元，每个记录单元包括相邻的若 干栅格。将栅格数据（线状地物面域边界）表示为矢量链的记录）首先定义一个3x3窗口，中间栅格的走向有8种可能，并将这8种可能0~7进行编码。 ?2）记下地物属性码和起点行、列后，进行追踪，得到矢量链.其基本分割方法是将一幅栅格地图或图像等分为四部分。逐块检查其栅格属性值(或灰度)。如果某个子区的所有栅格值都具有相同 的值。则这个子区就不再继续分割，否则还要把这个子区再分割成四个子区。这样依次地分割， 直到每个子块都只含有相同的属性值或灰度为止。四叉树编码又称为四分树、四元树编码。它是 一种更有效地压编数据的方法。它将2n×2n像元阵列连续进行4等分，一直分到正方形的大小正好与象元的大小相等为止（如下图），而块状结构则用四叉树描述，习惯上称为四叉树编码。 基本思想：将2n×2n象元组成的图像(不足的用背景补上) 按四个象限进行递归分割，并判断属性是否单一，单一：不分。 不单一：递归分割。最后得到一颗四分叉的倒向树。四叉树的树形表示：用一倒立树表示这种分割和分割结果。根：整个区域高：深度、分几级，几次分割叶：不能再分割的块树叉：还需分割的块每个树叉均有4个分叉，叫四叉树。1）常规四叉树 记录这棵树的叶结点外，中间结点，结点之间的联系用指针联系每个结点需要6个变量：父结点指针、四个子结点的指针和本结点的属性值。2）线性四叉树记录叶结点的位置，深度（几次分割）和属性.地址码（定位码、Mort on码）四进制、十进制优点： ·存贮量小，只对叶结点编码，节省了大量中间结点的存储，地址码隐含着结点的分割路径和分割次数。·线性四叉树可直接寻址，通过其坐标值直接计算其Mort on码，而不用建立四叉树。·定位码容易存储和执行实现集合相加等组合操作。四进制的Mor ton码1、方法1：四叉树从上而下（形成）（从整体开始）由叶结点找Mor ton码。 A、分割一次，增加一位数字，大分割在前，小分割在后。所以，码的位数表示分割的次数。 B、每一个位均是不大于3的四进制数，表达位置。由Mor ton找出四叉树叶结点的具体位置。2、方法2：四叉树自下而上合并的方法1）计算每个栅格对应的M Q M Q=2*I b+Jb I,J化为二进制I b,Jb看最大的I,J,不足在前补零。 起始行列号从0计。2)按码的升序排成线性表，放在连续的内存块中。3）依次检查每四个相邻的M Q对应的属性值，相同合并（不同码位去掉），不同则存盘,直到没有能够合并的子块为止。坐标序列法由多形边界的x、y坐标对集合及说明信息组成，是最简单的一种多边形矢量编码拓扑结构编码法 n要彻底解决邻域和岛状信息处理问题必须建立一个完整的拓扑关系结构，这种结构应包括以下内容：唯一标识，多边形标识，外包多边形指针，邻接多边形指针，边界链接，范围（最大和最小x、y坐标值，即外包矩形信息）。采用拓扑结构编码可以较好地解决空间关系查询等问题，但增加了算法的复杂性和数据库的大小。编码方法：点实体,线实体,多边形n点实体