词汇学复习资料
Ⅰ. 词义改变的几种方式
（1）Extension （四种）(P93)
1.from specific to general--- picture
2.from proper nouns to common nouns:----rugby，magnet, champagne, etc.
3. from concrete to abstract: threat（军队—威胁）Grasp（抓—领会）nitpick(挑虱子—
挑剔）
4.from technical terms to general words: catalyst--催化剂--刺激/促进因素
example original meaning modern meaning
citizen city dweller inhabitant of a state or nation ---1
salary salt money fixed regular pay esp. for workers---1
layman one who is not of clergy non-member of any profession-- 1 --
offend 反对→使感到恼火或愤恨不满----- 1
bird 小鸟→任何一种鸟----- 1
quarantine （隔离的）四十天→被迫隔离的一段时间--- 1
companion 伙伴，尤指法律或正式关系的伙伴（如配偶或同事）→同伴----2
pile 桥墩→堆在一起的或逐个叠放的大量东西----2
subsist 使存在，使活着→存在，生存----1
task 税款→任务 ---3
（2）specialization（四种）(P96)
1. from general to specific----meat, girl年轻人
2. from abstract to concrete----- gear ( habit, manners P.96)
3. from common nouns to proper nouns----- the Mediterranean
example original meaning modern meaning
meat food edible flesh
starve die die from hunger
wife a woman a married woman hangar 棚| 飞机棚，飞机库
garage 安全地方| 汽车间
grocer 批发商|（经营茶叶、咖啡、糖、香料、水果等杂品的）零售商
artillery 军火| 大炮
liquor 液体| （尤指蒸馏制成的）酒原义词义缩小后的意义
poison 饮料| 毒药
shroud 衣服| 寿衣
stink 任何一种气味| 臭气
hospital 供旅游者休息娱乐的场所| 医院
(3)Amelioration(. Elevation of meaning 词义的升格)：原来贬义或中性的词转换为褒
义。（P98）
Example :
Marshall -- 马夫--元帅executive -- 一般执行者--行政官员
Success -- 结果--成功shrewd--邪恶的--机灵的minister--仆人--首相
(4) Deterioration ( Degradation of meaning 词义的降格)：有中性活褒义转为贬义。Example:
Silly-幸福-愚蠢
Cunning-有知识的-奸诈
Villain-种田人-坏人，恶棍
（5）Semantic shift/meaning transfer:（词义转移）：主观（subjective）意义转为客观(objective)意义或反之
Example:
Productive-多产的-productive writer (obj- subj)
Sweet flower-sweet face (obj-subj)
Pitiful-有同情心的-可怜的（subj-obj）
Tuneful-好唱歌的-悦耳的（subj-obj）
The weather smiles on us. (拟人—人转物)
Angry waves 怒涛angry sea 怒海
Sensitive plants 含羞草（原用于修饰人的词用于修饰物）
（6）transferred epithet(移位修辞)：用描写甲事物的词用来修饰乙事物。
Example :
Restless night ---是人未眠而非夜未眠
Happy new years---人happy 而非新年happy
The ploughman homeward plods his weary way. ---路没有疲倦，而是人疲倦
The assistant kept a respectful distance from his boss when they were walking in the corridor (保持距离以示尊敬)
A sleepless bed/a reassuring(安慰的) arm/ a dizzy(眩晕的) height
?1. Explain what kind of semantic change the following underlined word(s)
has experienced.
?1）He got two strikes against him in his application for a new job.
Extension-specific to general-last chance to get
?2）There are many types of pinchbeck in the market nowadays.
Extension –proper to common –types of fake products
?3）Nails are thin growths at the ends of the fingers.
Specialization –abstract to concrete- things that grow
?4）In some parts of this country liquor is banned.
Specialization- from general to specific- wine
?5) Ours is a friendly face awaiting you with homely comforts.
Specialization- abstract to concrete- facility
?6）Sandwiched between the door and a window is a giant refrigerator.
Extension- proper to common- place or clamp
?7）A warm person is friendly, and shows a lot of affection in his behavior.
Semantic shift- from objective to subjective-kind
?8）Your son is really a terror. Can’t your control him?
Specialization- from abstract to concrete- a person who scare or threaten sb
?9）The student assistant is an effecient help.
Specialization- abstract to concrete-a person who helps
?10) The fairy tale The Sleeping Beauty is very interesting.
Specialization – abstract to concrete- a young beautiful woman
?11) The speeker was surprised to find so many familier faces at his lecture.
Metonymy-face-person
Ⅱ. 修辞的手段(词的理据语义理据)—P60
（1）Metaphor：a word or phrase used of one thing is applied to another(用一种事物暗喻另外一种事物)
Example:
He has a heart of stone.
Life is a short summer.
In research of one’s root(ancestor)
A cloudy face / to cultivate the talent/ to polish an article
He broke her heart
A sea of people/a rain of bullets/a mountain of man
(2) Metonymy : name something by one of its attribute (以某事物的某一特性
来命名事物整体)
Example:
Face-person / pen – writer / there are a lot of good heads in the university.
Many hands make light work
She has got five mouths to feed.
Plain clothes-便衣-便衣警察/ pen- 笔杆子-善于写文章的人
Be fond ong one’s glass-贪杯/爱喝酒
The whole city-全体市民
(3)Synecdoche(提喻) ：using a part for a whole
Example:
all hands on the deck(所有水手船上集合)
White-collar criminals
Bread- food
(4)Analogy（类比：仿造原有的同类创造出去对应词或近似词—words are
created in imitation of other words
Example:
Flash back ---flash forward
Blue collar worker—white/grey/gold/pink/bright/new/open/no-collar worker
Eat-in study-in/lie-in /sit-in
Brain drain- brain gain / go .head north –go. head south/ sunrise .sunset job
Slumpflation-stagflation-boomflation/ over.under –achieve
Exercises
Identify the figures of speech in the following sentences andn then translate them into Chinese.
?1.Greece was the cradle of western culture.
Metaphor, cradle—origin希腊是西方文明的摇篮。
?2. Every government should attend to cleaning its own Augean stables.
metaphor, Augeau stables—corruption 任何政府都应致力于清除自身的腐败现象。
?3.The birds are singing to the smiling year.
personification, singing and smiling are the actions of human.
?4.Would you like a cup or two, Eve?
Metonymy, cup—a cuo of coffee. Eve,你要一杯还是两杯咖啡啊？
?5. The city has its philharmonic and its poverty.
metaphor, philharmonic—luxurious life. 这座城市既有穷人也有富人。
?6. people often compare life to a road through the mountain because both have their
ups and downs.
conversion，ups and downs—success and failure, 人们常把生活比作山间下路，它总是坎坷不平的。
?7. Too many professional prepared resumes read like a pitch from an old-time
pedlar.
Simile, resumes as a pitch old time pedlar, 精心准备的专业化的简历，看多了也就像旧时小贩的吆喝一样，平淡无奇。
?8. I took a last drowning look at the title as I gave the book back into her hand.
Transferred epithet, a drowning look—a look that the agent who is drowning, 在把书还到她手上的时候，我依依不舍的看了一眼那本书的标题。
?9. The Wall Street definitely has more say in their policy-making.
Metaphor, wall street--monopoly capital, 很明显，华尔街在政策制定上有更多的话语权。
Conversion, say—right of making decision.
?10. We have to decline such an application from a man fond of his glass.
Metonymy, fond of his glass—fond of drinking, 我们必须拒绝来自这种贪杯之人的申请。
1. Argument is War.
?观点indefensible（不堪一击）；
?攻击弱点attack one’s weak points;
?击中目标/要害be right on the target；
?摧毁（论点）demolish
?击败wipe sb. out/ shoot sb. Down;
?The fire of this article is concentrated on the government policy on foreign affairs.
2. Time is Money.
?Spend /waste one’s time花时间、浪费时间
?Save time
?Cannot afford the time拿不出时间
?Invest a lot of time in sb.在某人身上投入了大量时间
?Budget one’s time预算（安排）时间
?Lose time
?时间快用完了running out of time
3. Anger is Fire.
?Make sb. Burn 让冒火；
?Be burnt about对感到恼火；
?One’s anger flamed某人发火了。
?Cool down one’s anger平息怒火
? A flame of anger lighted in one’s heart怒火中烧
?Fire sb. With anger激怒某人
?Hold fire忍住不发火
?Flash fire怒目喷火、怒目相对
4. Book is Food.
?Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some few to be chewed and
digested.
?书有可浅尝者，有可吞食者，少数则须咀嚼消化。
?This book is to my taste.这本书和我的口味。
?This poem has folk flavor.这首诗有民歌的风味。
?Such a book is really a potboiler.这样的书简直简直就是个大杂烩。(from “to boil the
pot”粗制滥造)
5. Theories are Containers.
?This theory has no content. It is an empty theory.该理论毫无内容，是一个空洞的理论。
?There are a lot of holes in his theory.他的理论有许多漏洞。
? A water-tight exposition for theories对理论滴水不漏的解释
?His point of view is full of imagination.他的观点充满了幻想。
?He crammed the speech with subversive ideas.他在演讲中塞进了颠覆思想。
?Can you really extract coherent thoughts from that incrediable prose?你真能从那篇不可
思议的的散文中提取出贯穿全文的思想吗？
6.Theories are Buildings.
?Ther is no foundation for his theory. 他的理论毫无根基可言。
?His theory stands on a weak basis.
?The theory lacks support.缺乏支撑
?Their argument began to be shaky.他的论据开始动摇。
?Construct a strong argument for that theory为那个理论构建一个牢固的论据。
?Such a theory will collapse someday.这样的理论总有天会垮掉！
?The frame of the theory must be rebuilt.理论框架必须重建。
?另外，多为深，少为浅(More is Deep; Less is Shallow)
?Deep water水深（多）；shallow water水浅（少）
?They had a shallow conversation last night.他们昨晚谈得很肤浅。
?There is only shallow acquaintance betwwen the two young people.两位年轻人仅是泛泛
之交。
?The teacher has deep influence over the students.教师对学生的影响大。
Word-formation
?Word-formation is a process of creating new words by means of existing elements and
according to the patterns and rules of a given language.
?Derivation
?Compounding
?Conversion
?Quantitative changes (blending, clipping, etc.)
Derivation
be- adj. or n. ----v. becalm, belittle, befriend
de- n.-----v. deform, debug , defrost
en- n.-----v. enslave, endanger
un- n.-----v. unleash（解开…皮带）, unearth
anti- n.-----adj. anti-war, anti-carbon 防积炭的
inter- n.-----adj. inter-state, inter-laboratory
post- n.-----adj. postwar, postliberation
pre- n.-----adj. prewar,preplant
1. Negative prefixes
give negative, reverse or opposite meaning
a- (apolitical不关心政治的, asexual无性的)
de- (destabilize动摇, declassify消除…密级)
dis- (disenfranchise剥夺公民权, disinvest减少投资)
il- (before l: illegal)/ im-(before p,b,m: imperceptible感觉不到的)/ in-(inadequate)/ ir-(before r: irresponsible)
non- (non-economic, non-profit, nonparty, noncolor, nontaste, nonevent, nonnovel非传统小说)
un- (unacceptable, undemocratic, unbook买来送人而非自己读的毫无价值的书, unperson 政治上失宠的官员)
2. Non-negative prefixes
a. Degree, measures or size:
hyper（过多）- (hypercreative, hyperdevoted);
over超过- (overestimate, overcompensate);
semi半- (semiskilled, semi-annual);
super超级- (super-dominant, supercharged);
ultra极端- (ultra-conservative, ultra-secret)
b. Repetition or possibility:
em-(before p,b,m)/en- 使处于某种状态(embark, enclose)
c. Time, place, order relation:
ex-外，以前的(ex-employer, ex-tenant);
inter-交互(inter-office, inter-government);
post-在…后(post-budget, post-election); pre- (pre-delivery, pre-budget)
d. Number and numeral relation:
bi- (bilateral, bilingual);
multi- (multi-dimensional, multi-media);
uni- (unilateral, unisex)
e. Attitude, counteraction:
anti- (anti-EEC, antiestablishment反既成或正统，antibody);
auto- (autodial, autonomy);
counter-反向(countercharge反诉，反攻, counteroffer);
pro- 赞成(pro-business, pro-liberal)
f. Pejoration:
mis- (miscalculation, mismanage处置不当);
pseudo- (pseudo-random假随机, pseudo-democratic)
Suffixation is the formation of a new word by adding a suffix or a combining form to the base, and usually changing the word-class of the base. e.g. boy---boyish. But there are exceptions:
e.g. boy---boyhood.
1 Noun-forming suffixes
-age (passage, marriage, mileage…);
-ance/-ence附于动词后构成名词或由-ant 结尾的形容词化出名词(assistance, predominance, correspondence…);
-dom地位；职务；状况；领域；(freedom, kingdom…)
-ee 受动者(employee, referee, absentee…);
-eer/er 与相关的人(engineer, profiteer, manager…);
-ess附在名词后表示女性、阴性(manageress, heiress…)
-ist (economist…)
-hood 状况、身份(adulthood, singlehood…)
-ing行为、状态、情况，技法，材料等building, meaning, packing, tubings…)
-ion/-sion/-tion/-ition/-ation表示状态、行为、结果(production, conclusion, realization…) -ism 信念、状态(consumerism保护消费者利益运动, perfectionism至善论…)
-ment (agreement, investment…)
-ness 附在形容词后构成抽象名词，表性质、状态或行为(effectiveness, kindness…)
-ship 身份、技能、状态(ownership, friendship…)
-ty/-ity …性质、状态(productivity, prosperity…)
-ure/-ture动作、结果(procedure, expenditure…)
2 Adjective-forming suffixes
-able/-ible “能…的,会…的”：(manageable, permissible)
-al/-tal/-ial/-tial “…的，关于…的”，(economical, statistical)
-ant/-ent进行…动作的；有…的(redundant, dependent)
-ary与…有关的(monetary, inflationary)
-ate/-ete “…的”,“和…有关的”,“以…特征的”：(accurate, complete)
-ful (dutiful, powerful)
-ish “…性质的”,“似…的”,“…一样的”：(snobbish, reddish, bookish)
-ive与…有关的；具有…性质的；有…倾向的(effective, extensive)
-less“无”、“缺”、“没有”(effortless, powerless)
-like 像…(businesslike, lifelike)
-ly “…性质的”(costly, orderly)
-ous/-ious像…的；具有…特征的；实行…的(ambiguous, nutritious)
-some有…倾向的；引起…的(troublesome, worrisome)
-y “有…的”,“多…的”,“以…为特征的”：(sexy, worthy, daddy)
3 Verb-forming suffixes
-en与形容词构成动词，表示“使、使成为”；与名词构成动词，表示“使有、具有”(brighten, moisten)
-ify/-fy “使”，“使成为”，“使化成”，“(intensify, qualify, liquefy溶解、液化, glorify 美化)
-ize/*-ise表示使成为；表示使…化(rationalize,
4 Adverb forming suffixes
-ly (frequently, perfectly)
*-ward/-wards 朝向(windward上风的, backward, homewards)
-wise在某方面；表示方向、位置、方式等(vote-wise, percentage-wise, housingwise就住房问题来看)
Latin prefixes
magn- large, big, great
mal- bad, badly, wrong; ill; evil; abnormal, defective
medi- middle
non- nothing, not
omni- all, every
pro- before; for, in favor of; in front of; in place of
re- back, backward, again
semi- half, partly, twice
sub- under, below
ult- beyond, excessive, to an extreme degree
uni- one, single
ver- true, truth, real, truthfulness
via- way, road, path
1. Mega-(very large) Megacity特大城市
2.Cyber-(automatic/computerized) Cyberculture自动化/电脑化社会Cyberbrain电脑
Cyberart电脑艺术/计算机技术Cyber-security 网络安全
Cyber-space网络虚拟空间
Cyber-privacy网络隐私
Megadestruction 大毁灭
Megagame 大赛
Megastructure 超级建筑
Megarich 十分富有
Megaversity 超级大学
4. Info- (information)
Infotech 信息技术
Infocenter 信息中心
Infotainment 信息娱乐节目
Infomercial 信息商业化的
5. nano- (one billionth)
Nanotech 纳米技术
Nanofabrication 纳米加工
Nanocomputer 超高速电脑
8. E- (electronic)/ Of- (office)/ Of- (office) –ware (articles of the same kind)
1.分析下列单词的构成并翻译成汉语
E.g. des/integra/tion n.蜕变；分解
Dispensable, discancer, degerate, defog, antilitter, ecocide, discounter, nonpolicy, derecognition, nonhappening, antiaging, outplace, outsubmarine, unsell, nondairy, unnational, unisex
2. Conversion - zero derivation
The process of converting words from one part of speech to another without adding any derivative element is called conversion or zero derivation.
3. Compounding
Definition: Compounding or composition is a word-formation process consisting of joining two or more bases to form a new unit, a compound word.
(a) solid: airtight, airmail; (b) hyphenated: air-conditioning;
? 6.techno- (technology) ? Technomania 技术热 ? Technophobia 恐技术症 ? Technocracy 专家政治 ? techno-centric 以技术为中心的 ? 7. tele- (long-distance transfer/television) ? Telead 电话约定广告 ? Telrbanking 电脑化银行业务 ? Telebus 电话叫车/租车 ? Telecenter 远程计算中心 ? Tele-education 远程教育
(c) open: air force, air raid.
4. Blending (P.44-49)
Blending is a process of word-formation in which a new word is formed by combining the meanings and sounds of two words, one of which is not in its full form or both of which are not in their full forms
e.g. boat+hotel=botel n. ship serving as hotel.
smoke+fog=smog n. fog intensified by smoke.
stagnation+inflation=stagflation n. persistent inflation with high unemployment.
Chinglish/vegelate/motel
e.g. communication+satellite=comsat n. communications services involving an artificial satellite.
science+fiction=sci-fi n. of, relating to, or being science fiction.
Misper/pop-cult/telex/lit-crit/hi-tech
e.g. air+hotel=airtel n. hotel located at or close to an airport.
slim+gymnastics=slimnastics n. exercises designed to reduce one’s weight.
e.g. medical+care=medicare n. a government program of medical care esp. for the aged. Mocamp/autolift/teleeducation
5.Back-formation
Back-formation is a term used to refer to a type of word-formation by which a shorter word is coined by the deletion of a supposed affix from a longer form already present in the language.
e.g. typewrite was formed from the noun typewriter by removing the supposed derivation suffix -er, and the verb edit formed from editor by dropping the suffix -or. Back-formation is therefore a process of shortening, too. The majority of back-formed words are verbs.
6.Shortening (P.52-56)
e.g. plane from airplane, phone from telephone, gym from gymnastics and taxi from taxicab.
e.g. ad (=advertisement), auto (=automobile), dorm, exam, in (inch), min/max(imum)etc.
e.g. chute (=parachute), plane (=airplane), scope (=telescope; microscope), quake (earthquake).
e.g. flu (=influenza), fridge (=refrigerator), etc.
e.g. perm (=permanent wave), pop (=popular music or record), pub (=public house), zoo (zoological garden) etc.
7Acronymy----Initialisms and Acronyms
A. Initialisms
Initialism is a type of shortening, using the first letters of words to form a proper name, a technical term, or a phrase; an intialism is pronounced letter by letter.
e.g. BBC (for British Broadcasting Corporation) is pronounced /`bi:bi:`si:/; VIP (for a very important person) is likewise pronounced /vi:ai`pi:/.
There are three types of initialisms:
1. The letters represent full words. This is main type. e.g. CIA=the Central Intelligence Agency of the U.S. ISBN=International Standard Book Number.
WTO, SME(Small & Medium Enterprises), AI(artificial intelligence)
2. “The letters represent elements in a compound or just part of a word” (Quirk et al 1972).
e.g. ID=Identification (card).
3. A letter represents the complete form of the first (or the first two) word, while the second word (or the third word) is in the full form. e.g. H-bomb=hydrogen bomb. B-school, N-war, R & D fees
B. Acronyms
Acronyms are the words formed from the initial letters of the name of an organization or a scientific term, etc. Acronyms differ from initialisms in that they are pronounced as words rather than sequences of letters. e.g NATO=the North Atlantic Treaty Organization is pronounced /`neit?u/, not /`en`ei`ti:`?u/.
UNESCO/ju`nesk?u/ the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.
V AR(value-added reseller)增值再销产品；soho(small office, home office)
Both initialisms and acronyms have become extremely popular since World War II, especially within the past few years.
定义：
1.Lexicology is the part of linguistics, dealing with the vocabulary of a language and the
properties of words as the main units of language.
2. 1. The definition of a word comprises the following points:(1) a minimal free form of a
language; (2) a sound unity; (3) a unit of meaning; (4) a form that can function alone in a sentence. A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.
3.The morpheme is the smallest meaningful linguistic unit of language, not divisible or
analyzable into smaller forms.
4. A free morpheme自由形位(=实义形位）is one that can be uttered alone with meaning.
It can exist on its own without a bound morpheme.
5. A bound morpheme粘附形位（=语法形位=屈折形位）cannot stand by itself as a
complete utterance; it must appear with at least one other morpheme, free or bound
6.“An allomorph is any of the variant forms of a morpheme as conditioned（受制约）by
position or adjoining sounds”
7.Roots: A root is the basic unchangeable part of a word, and it conveys the main lexical
meaning of the word.
8.Affix is a “collective term for type of formative（构词要素）that can be used only when
added to another morpheme.”
9.Word-formation is a process of creating new words by means of existing elements and
according to the patterns and rules of a given language.
10.Derivation is a kind of word-formation when a new word is formed by adding a
derivational morpheme (usually suffix or prefix) to the root.
11.There are two explanations for the term‘‘base”or‘‘stem”．Some linguists consider the
base to be equivalent to the term root，that is，the part of a word remaining when all affixes have been removed．But other linguists maintain that the base is any part of a word when all affix is added to a root or stem．
12.“Stem”is a term used as part of a clas sification of the kinds of elements operating within
the structure ofa word．tlat is to say，a stem is the main part of a word to which suffixes，or case endings are added．
13.The process of converting words from one part of speech to another without adding any
derivative element is called conversion or zero derivation.
14.Definition: Compounding or composition is a word-formation process consisting of
joining two or more bases to form a new unit, a compound word.
15.Blending is a process of word-formation in which a new word is formed by combining
the meanings and sounds of two words, one of which is not in its full form or both of which are not in their full forms. e.g. newscast(news+broad cast),brunch (br eakfast+l unch), etc.
16.Back-formation is a term used to refer to a type of word-formation by which a shorter
word is coined by the deletion of a supposed affix from a longer form already present in the language.
17.The process of clipping involves the deletion of one or more syllables from a word
(usually a noun), which is also available in its full form.
18.Initialism is a type of shortening, using the first letters of words to form a proper name, a
technical term, or a phrase; an intialism is pronounced letter by letter.
19.Acronyms are the words formed from the initial letters of the name of an organization or
a scientific term, etc.
20.Motivation deals with the connection between name and sense. It is the relationship
between the word structure and its meaning.
21.Onomatopoeic motivation means defining the principle of motivation by sound.
22.Semantic motivation means that motivation is based on semantic factors, and it is a kind
of mental association.
23.Metaphor is a figure of speech containing an implied comparison, in which a word or
phrase ordinarily and primarily used of one thing is applied to another
24.Metonymy is the device in which we name something by one of its attributes, as in
crown for king , the turf for horse-racing, the White House for the President.
25.Analogy is a process whereby words are created in imitation of other words.
26.Lexical meaning is the meaning of an isolated word in a dictionary
27.Conceptual meaning（概念意义）: shared by all speakers of a given community
28.Connotative meaning（内涵意义）: feeling or idea that is suggested by a particular word
although not necessarily a part of the word’s meaning
29.Semantic Feature :very word can be analyzed into many semantic components or semantic features (viewed as distinctive features)
30.Concatenation连锁联结(p.92):e process where the later meaning is related to the proceeding one only, just like a chain. Though the latest sense can be traced back to the original, there is no direct connection between the two
31.Extension of meaning (Generalization)（P.93):A process by which a word which originally had a specialized meaning has now become generalized.
32.narrowing of meaning （specialization词义的缩小）：It is the opposite of widening,is
a process by which a word or wide meaning aquires a narrower or specialized sense.
33.Elevation of meaning (Amelioration词义的升格) :levation is the process by which words rise from humble beginings to positions of importance.
34.Degradation of meaning (Deterioration词义的贬降）:A process whereby words of good origin fall into ill reputation or non-affective words come to used in derogatory(贬低)
sense..
35.Semantic Shift/Meaning Transfer（词义的转移）:Words which were used to designate one thing but later changed to mean something else have experienced the process of semantic transfer
36. A transferred epithet is one that is shifted from the noun it logically modifies to a word associated with that noun.
37.Synaesthesia通感: A stimulus applied to one of the “six senses” produces a response from the other(s).
38.Semantic Field（语义场）:ocabulary of a given language is not simply a listing of independent items, but is organised into areas, or fields, within which words interrelate and define each other in various ways.
39.Hyponymy (p.111-112):the relationship which obtains between specific and general lexical items
40.Synonymy (同义关系):It refers to the words which have nearly the same denotative meaning are synonyms, and the relationship between them is synonymy.
41. A synonym refers to one of two or more words in the English language which have the same or very nearly the same essential meaning.
42.Homonymy（同形/同音异义关系）（p.125）:It refers words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling.
词汇学的基本知识
词汇学的基本知识 词汇学是研究词语的学问，它是传统语言学（语法、语音、词汇）的一个分支。词汇学的 主要研究的内容是：词的性质、词的构成、词义的本质及发展、词的各种关系（同音、同 义、反义等）。 一、什么是词 词是有意义的能够独立运用的造句的最小单位，它具有固定的语音形式。汉语词的划分有一 定的困难，因为在书写时词和词之间是不分开的。就“独立运用”而言，许多虚词和量词是 不能独立运用的。于是增加了一条补充，一句话中把能独立运用的词划分出去，剩写的也是词。如：“我把这本书包了个书皮。”这个句子中的“本”“个”和“把”也是词。汉语中词 和短语的界限也不很清楚。一般可以用扩展插入法来区分。能插入的是短语，不能插入的是 词（意义不能变）。比如：钢笔——钢的笔、白菜——白的菜、白布——白的布、吃饭——吃 了饭、鸡蛋——鸡的蛋、睡觉——睡不睡觉。“钢笔”不能插入词，“白菜”插入后意思变了，它们肯定是词。“白布”可以插入且意思不变，可以做为短语。“吃饭”可以插入，“鸡蛋”可 以插入，但“鸡蛋”的频度很高，可以把它做为词。睡觉可以插入，但两个语素的组合是固 定的，把这类词做为离合词（理发、洗澡、打仗等）。 一个语素（有意义的汉字）能独立运用就是词。（米、吃、红、个、从） 两个语素组合后，意义不是它们的简单相加，就是词。（钢笔、金鱼、） 两个语素组合后，不能扩展插入词，就是词。（钢笔，白菜） 两个语素组合后，虽能扩展插入词，但它们是不能用别的语素替换的，则是一种特殊的词 ——离合词。 两个语素组合后，虽能扩展插入词，但它们的使用频度很高，且大家约定俗成认为它是词。（“鸡蛋”是词、“鹰蛋”就有人认为是短语）。 综上所述，汉语的词与短语之间的界限是有模糊地带的。 人们对客观世界的认识形成了概念，词是反映概念的，但它们之间的关系不是一一对应的。 比如，“月亮”、“月球”对应的是一个概念，“人民”这个词可以对应不同的概念。 二、现代汉语词汇的构成 词汇由词和固定的短语——熟语、谚语等构成。 词可以从不同的角度分类： 1.语法分类——实词、虚词（词类） 2.结构分类——单纯词、合成词 3.音节分类——单音节词、多音节词 4.常用——常用词汇（基本词汇）、一般词汇 5.口语词汇——书面词汇 6.普通话词汇——方言词汇 7.汉语词汇——外来语词汇 8.古词语——新词语 熟语可以包括成语、谚语、歇后语等。成语表意凝炼、形象，在书面语中广泛运用。它来源 于古代的典故，有的选取原句中最能概括原句意思的成分（乘风破浪——愿乘长风，破万里浪），有的用四个字概括寓言、故事等（刻舟求剑、狐假虎威），有的增加个别字（短兵相接——车错毂兮短兵接）。成语的意思有的是语素义的简单相加（汗流浃背、无稽之谈、自圆其说）；多数成语的意思不是语素义的相加，有的意思是约定俗成的（高山流水——表示知己知音），有的是取字面的比喻义（水落石出——比喻真相毕露了）。
(完整word版)英语词汇学复习大纲整理
1 B a s i c C o n c e p t s 基本概念 1.1 the definition of a word （ alone in a sentence. A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.） 1.2 sound and meaning ：symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary and conventional . A dog is called a dog not because the sound and the three letters that make up the word just automatically suggest the animal in question. 1.3 sound and form ： 1.4 vocabulary 1.5 classification of words 词汇分类 basic word stock 基本词汇 nonbasic vocabulary 非基本词汇 by use frequency 按使用频率分： basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary 基本词汇和非基本词汇 by notion 按概念分： content words and functional words 实义词和功能词 by origin 按起源分： native words and borrowed words 本地词和外来词 all national character 全民性 stability 稳定性 productivity 多产性 polysemy 一词多义 collocability 搭配性 terminology 术语 jargon 行话 slang 俚语 argon 黑话 dialectal words 方言词 archaism 古语词 neologism 新词 neutral in style 文体上中性 frequent in use 使用频繁 native words 本地词 borrowed words 外来词 denizens 同化词 aliens 异形词 translation-loans 译借词 1. No enough letters: alphabet from Latin 2. Pronunciation changed more rapidly 3. Early scribes: change spelling for easier recognition 4. Borrowing: different rules of pronunciation and spelling obvious characteristics 明显的特点 (Functional words do not have notions of their own and their main function is to express the relation between notions, words, etc.)
词汇学复习重点
Terms: 1. lexicology 2. morpheme 3. root 4. derivational affixes 5. affixes 6. compounding 7. blending 8. conversion 9. back formation 10. synonymy 11. homonymy 12. hyponymy Questions: 1. Explain the relationship between sound and meaning with examples. There is no logical relationship between sound and meaning as the symbolic connection between them is arbitrary and conventional. E.g. “woman” means “Frau” in German, “Femme” in French and “Funv” in Chinese. On the other hand, the same sound /rait/ can mean right, rite and write, though denoting different things, yet have the same sound. 2. Illustrate four types of antonyms with examples. 3. What are allomorphs? Please list the allomorphes of the morpheme{plural} in English. The different morphological or phonetic forms of a morpheme are allomorphs of the morpheme. The noun plural morpheme {plural} in English has a numer of allomorphs, such as [-s] in cats, [-z] in bags, [-iz] in fishes, [-ai] in mice, [-n] in oxen, [-i:] in geese and so on. 4. As language changes over time, the meaning of a word may deviate from its original denotation. Discuss the major types of semantic changes. Major types of semantic changes are semantic broadening, semantic narrowing and semantic shift. Semantic broadening refers to the process in which the meaning of a word becomes more general or inclusive than its historically earlier denotation. Take the word “holiday”for example, the orlder meaning was a “holy day”. Today everyone enjoys a holiday, regardless of religious background. Semantic narrowing is a process in which the meaning of a word becomes less gneral or inclusive than its historically earlier meaning. For example. “wife”used to mean “any woman”, but now it only means “a married female”. Semantic shift is a process of semantic change in which a word loses its former meaning and acquires a new, sometimes related, meaning. For example, the word silly meant “happy”in Old English, and naive in Middle English, but “foolish”in Modern Engilsh. 5. Illustrate four types of synonyms with examples.
词汇学简论摘要笔记
1。词汇学是以语言中的词和词汇作为研究对象的一门学科。 2。词的意义的体现，则有事物、思维和语言结构三者。因而词的基本分类，则有客体、特征、状态和代替之别。据此研究，一在抓词的理据；二在抓词的变化，考察哪些意义变化引起哪些形式变化和哪些形式变化引起哪些意义变化。即通过词的结构分析，串连语音、形态、语义的内在联系和词义系统相符的名词，确定词与词间的语源关系，从而寻求词根及其衍化轨迹。现代词汇学的研究，不能再墨守传统训访学的方式和方法。既要由上而下地从经籍递推到大众口语，又要根据大众的词汇逆溯到它们最初的来源。这样，对词形结构的分析，词义发展的识别和语音衍化的探讨，才能有所创获。 3。对于某一发展阶段上的语言体系的描写和研究又叫共时的或静态的研究；对于语言体系及其各个组成部分在历史上的发展变化的研究又叫历时的或演化的研究。“共时性”(synchronie)和“历时 性” (diachronie)这两个概念是瑞士语言学家索绪尔(Ferdinand de Saussurel857—1913)在他的《普通语言学教程》里首先提出来的。索绪尔对“共时”和“历时”的解释是，“有关我们这门科学的静态方面的一切都是共时的，涉及演他的一切都是历时的”“共时和历时分别指一种语言状态和一种演化情况。”汉译本《普通语言学教程》，商务印书馆，1980，页119. （P2） 4。个别语言词汇学又可以分为历史词汇学和描写词汇学。前者研究语言的词汇在历史过程中的发展，后者研究在历史发展的某一阶段(一般是指现阶段)语言的词汇系统的状况和特点。自然，二者也是相互为用，不可以截然划分开来的。（P2） 5。若是研究一个民族的古代历久那就更加用得着词汇学(特别是历史词汇学)的知识。正如当代语言学家丰克 (Wilfred Funk)在《词的来源和它们的传奇故事》(Word Origin and Their Romantic Stories，1950)中所说，“词汇也象个小窗户，通过它可以熟悉一个民族的过去。”有时候在缺乏其他史料的情况下，语言材料(主要是词汇材料)就成了研究古代历史上某一个问题的重要依据甚至是唯一依据。（P7） 6。把语言材料应用于古代历史的研，在西方创始于德国语言学家雅各·格林(Jakob Grimml785—1863)。他的著名论点是：“我们的语言也就是我们的历史。”（J。Grimm：《K1einere Schriften》 (小品集)第1册，1864，页290.转引自阿巴耶夫：《语言史和民族史》，《民族问题译丛》1957年第12期，页13。）（P7） 7。分别来说历史词汇学的知识能够帮助解决古代民族史上如下三方面的问题：1)民族起源，即一个民族的起源和形成过程如何，它跟哪些别的民族有亲属关系；2)民族文化历史，即一个民族在各个历史阶段上的文化水平及其主要特点如何；3)民族间互相交往和影响，即一个民族在历史上跟哪些别的民族发生过关系，它受到过它们哪些影响，又对它们有过哪些影响。 解决头一个问题主要依靠基本词汇的材料，而解决后两个问题就还要利用一般词汇的捞料，因为一个民族的物质生活和精神生活的特点及变化都会在语言的词汇中留下它们的痕迹。（P8） 8。总括词的语言外部联系和语言内部联系两个方面，就可以看出一种语言的词汇是在历史上形成并不断发展的社会现象，它本身构成一个完整的体系；词和词之间、词和语言的其他要素之间以及词和客观现实之间都存在着不可分割的多种多样的联系。P14
词汇学知识要点conversion
Conversion 1.Definition of Conversion Conversion / Functional shift/ Transmutation （转化法/功能转换法/转移法）is the word-formation by converting words of one class into another class (part of speech) without adding any affix. It is also called derivation by zero suffix (零位后缀派生法) zero derivation(零位派生法). 2.Features of Conversion (P29) 3.Types of Conversion 1)Conversion to Verbs De-nominal (nouns →verbs) (7 types) De-adjective (adjectives →verbs) : To make…/to become… 2)Conversion to Nouns De-verbal (verbs → nouns ) (5 types) De-adjective (adjectives →nouns) Full conversion: both as nouns and adjectives Partial conversion: the+adj. Miscellaneous 3)Conversion to Adjectives: Nouns as attributives and predicatives Miscellaneous
英语词汇学考试重点整理
Explain the following terms 一1) free morpheme/ A free morpheme is one that can be uttered发出，表达alone with meaning. It can exist on its own without a bound morpheme. In the traditional sense, a free morpheme is a word. 例如hand ,eat, get 2) bound form/never used as sentences. – ess in countess, lioness and duchess –ish in boyish, childish and greenish –s in hats, books and cups 3) function words/ function words are often short words, they do not have much lexical meaning and some of them have no lexical meaning of their own; They are often short words such as determiners限定词, conjunctions连词, prepositions介词, auxiliaries辅助物, and so forth. 如to, the , of , by 4) content words实词/ They are used to name objects, qualities, actions, processes or states, and have independent lexical meaning. They are the nouns, main verbs, adjectives形容词and adverbs副词of a language. 二1) syntheti c综合的language / inflectional grammatical markers, French, German and Russian. 2) analytic language/word order, prepositions or auxiliary verbs , English and Chinese 3) Indo-European family of languages/ Europe and parts of Southern Asia Eight groups 三1) morphemes /The morpheme is the smallest meaningful linguistic unit of language, not divisible可分的or analyzable into smaller forms. 2) allomorphs/variants变体of the same morphem如im-, ir-, il- : allomorphs of the morpheme in- 3) root / is the basic unchangeable part of a word, and it conveys the main lexical meaning of the word. work able, work er, work ed, and work ing 4) stem /A stem is of concern only when dealing with inflectional morphology. Inflectional (but not derivational) affixes are added to it. It is the part of word-form which remains when all inflectional affixes have been removed. 如undesirables, undesirable; desired, desire 5) base / A base is any form to which affixes of any kind can be added. Desirable, desire - base and root, not stem; undesirable, desirable-base, not root and stem 6) inflectional affixes/A inflectional affix serves to express such meanings as plurality复数, tense, and the comparative比较的or superlative 最高的degree. 如-s, -ed, -er, -est 7) derivational affixes / When they are added to another morpheme, they derive a new word. re+write, mini+car, super+market, modern+ize, work+er 8) compounding 复合法/Compounding is a word-formation process consisting of combining two or more bases to form a compound word 9) derivation 派生法/Derivation or affixation is generally defined as a word-formation process by which new words are created by adding a prefix or a suffix or both to the base 10) conversion 转化法/Conversion is a word-formation process in which a word of a certain word-class is shifted into a word of another word-class without the addition of an affix. 11) initialism/It is a type of shortening, using the first letters of words to form a proper name, a technical term, or a phrase. 12) acronym首字母缩略词/Acronyms are words formed from the initial letters of the name of an organization or a scientific term, etc. Acronyms differ from initialisms in that they are pronounced as words rather than as sequences of letters. 13) blending拼缀/Blending is a process of word-formation in which a new word is formed by
词汇学复习重点(精心挑选整理过的)
Motivation of words分类：onomatopoeic motivation, morphological motivation, semantic motivation, etymological motivation. Types of meaning: grammatical ~ & lexical ~; conceptual ~& associative ~(connotative~, stylistic~, affective ~, collocative ~,) Primary meaning is the only meaning that a word had when it was first created. Derived meanings are the meanings that a word gets from the primary meaning at different stages of its development in the course of time. 同义关系Synonyms are words which share the same or nearly the same meaning with each other but different in sound and spelling. There are absolute synonyms and relative synonyms which result from borrowing, dialects and regional English, figurative and euphemistic use of words, coincidence with idiomatic expressions. There exists the difference between or among synonyms in terms of their denotation, connotation or application. Absolute synonyms or complete synonyms are words which are identical in meaning in all its aspects. Relative synonyms or near-synonyms are similar or nearly the same in denotation, but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees of a given quality. 3.Sources of Synonyms 1) Borrowing 2)Dialects and regional English 3) Figurative and euphemistic use of words 4) Coincidence with idiomatic expressions 4.What are the characteristics of antonyms? 1) Antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition 2) A word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym. 3) Antonyms differ in semantic inclusion. 4) Contrary terms are gradable antonyms, differing in degree of intenisty, so each has its own corresponding opposite. 5.同形同音异义关系Homonymy is one of the features of words that a word is different in meaning from another, but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling with the other Homonyms generally fall into three classes: perfect homonyms (same name); homographs (same spelling) and homophones （some sound）. Perfect homonyms are those words identical both in sound and spelling, but different in meaning. Homophones refer to the words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning 6.上下义关系:Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. That is, the meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word. Superordinates refer to some general words; subordinates denote those more specific words. Hyponymy can be described in terms of tree-like graphs, with higher-order superordinates above the lower subordinates. But their status either as superordinate or subordinate is relative to other terms. For example, horse, dog, pig are subordinates in relation to animal, but superordinates of mare, hound and boar, Animal itself becomes a subordinate of creature. And creature in turn becomes 7.词义变化的种类There are five types of meaning, changes: extension, narrowing, degradation, elevation, and transfer among which extension and narrowing are the most common. Changes in meaning can be accounted for from extra-linguistic factors (historical reason, class reason, and psychological reason) and intra-linguistic factors (shortening, the influx of borrowing, and analogy). 8.词义的扩大Extension is a process by which a word with a specialized sense is generalized to cover a broader or less 9.Definite concept. Compare the following；词义的缩小Narrowing is a process by which a word of wider meaning acquires a specialized sense；词义的升华Elevation is a process by which a word moves from a derogatory or neutral sense to a neutral and/or appreciative sense；词义的降格Degradation is a process by which a word of reputation slides into a pejorative use,；词义的转移Transfer is a process by which a word denoting one thing changes to refer to a different but related thing. Paper serves as an example. This word formerly denoted an African plant papyrus, which was
词汇学知识点总结
Language Language is a system of symbol based on physiology, psychology, and physics. It’s a special social action and a carrier of information used for human communication in a society. The relationship between Language, Society, and Thought: 1. any language reflects the culture of the society in a particular period. Therefore language is the mirror reflecting the culture of a society. 2. Language is a product of society. Language is inseparable from human society. 3. Language is used as a means of communication in a society. Outside society there is no language. 4. Society depends upon language for its existence. For example, there are many words connected with carriage. Buggy, a light one-horse carriage with two wheels. Coach, a large closed four-wheel horse-drawn carriage. 5. moreover, man’s thought is indispensable to language just as language is indispensable from society. We know that language is used to express man’s thought. The process of thinking is closely connected with language. That is to say, without thinking, there would be no human language. 6. language serves society as a means of intercourse between people. Linguistics is the scientific study of language. The scope of linguistics include phonology, syntax, semantics, phonetics, philology, lexicology, stylistics, general linguistics, descriptive linguistics…… Lexicology is a branch of linguistics concerned with the study of the vocabulary of a given language. It deals with words, their origin, development, history, structure, meaning, and application. Aim of English Lexicology is to give a systematic description of the English vocabulary. It offers students an insight into the origin and development of the English vocabulary. The significance of English Lexicology: help the learners to enlarge their vocabulary and improve their ability to analyze and use the words. Two approaches to the study of English Lexicology: synchronic and diachronic. Synchronic means describing a language as it exists at one period of time. Diachronic means concerned with the historical development of a language. For example: January, February, march, synchronically, they are the words of the months of one year. Diachronically, they are all borrowed words. Synchronically, we consider words like eventful, talkative as derivatives. Diachronically, they are hybrids, that is, words that are made of two parts, each from a different language. Etymology is the study of the origin and history of words and their meanings. Significance: 1.to provides background information and knowledge about the history, origin and development of the English language. 2. To increase the learner’s enjoyment and real understanding of English words from their changes of forms including their spelling and pronunciation to that of meanings. English is classified as a Teutonic language, that is, a Germanic language. English belongs to the Low West Germanic branch of the Indo-European family. Division of the history of the English language: 1. the period from 450 to 1150 is known as the Old English or Anglo-Saxon period. It’s described as the period of full inflection. 2. The period from 1150 to 1500 is known as the Middle English period, also as the period of leveled inflections. 3. The period from 1500 to the present day is called the Modern English period, also as the period of lost inflection. There are two classes of language in the world: synthetic and analytic. A synthetic language is one which shows the relation of word in a sentence largely by means of inflection. An analytic language is one which indicates the relation of words in a sentence by means of word order, preposition or auxiliary verbs, rather than by inflection. Old English the a synthetic language, while Modern English is an analytic language. Modern English can be divided into two parts: the early Modern English period and the Late Modern English period. Dean Swift was a conservative and he opposed the tendency to shorten words, such as ad
考研英语词汇复习笔记
考研英语词汇复习笔记 翻硕复习的一大重头戏就是词汇，而词汇量是巨大的，必须要有日常的积累和复习，并且掌握科学的记忆方法，才能最有效地积累词予匚量。下面是关于英语词汇的学习笔记，以供大家参考。(1) 1. bereave :使某人丧失(尤指亲属)bereave Sb Of Sb an accident WhiCh bereaved Him Of his Wife 使他丧失妻子的事古攵the bereaved husband 死了妻子的男人 the bereaved丧失亲人的人 bereavement(n):丧亲之痛，丧失亲人 deprive : take Sth away from sb;PreVent Sb from enjoying Or USing Sth剥夺sb/sth的sth;阻止某人 享有或使用Sth deprive sb/sth Of Sth deprive Of OneS CiVil rights剥夺某人的公民权deprivation(n):剥夺;贫困;被剥夺的事物WideSPreaCl deprivation 普遍贫困 MiSSing the HOIiday WaS a great deprivatiOrL错失假日是极大的损失。 deprived(adj):贫困的，穷苦的deprived ChildhOOd 贫苦的童年
2. abdomen : Part Of the body below the CheSt and CliaPhragm,cOntaining the stomach.腹部 abdominal(adj)腹部的an abdominal OPeratiOn 月复咅8手术belly : (口)front Of the HUman body from the WaiSt to the groin;belly 肚子，胃 With an empty belly 空着肚子 in the belly Of a ShiP 在船腹里 belly OUt(动词用法):鼓涨,凸出The Wind bellied OUt the SaiIS 3. c onSeCrate : devote sth/sb to Or reserve sth/sb for a SPeCial (esp religious) PUrPOSe 扌巴sth/sb 献给 sth/sb 做某种(尤其宗教)用途COnSeCrate sth/sb to Sth COnSeCrate OneS Iife to the SerViCe Of GOd,to the relief Of SUffering献身于为神服务(解除世人痛苦)的事业 devote : give OneS time z energy to sth/sb; dedicate 为某人付出，向某人奉献，献身于devote Oneself/sth to sb/sth devoted(adj):热爱的，非常忠实的Z全心全意的a devoted SOn