自学考试英语词汇学重点笔记整理
1 - The definition of a word comprises the following points:
(1) a minimal free form of a language;
(2) a sound unity;
(3) a unit of meaning;
(4) a form that can function alone in a sentence.
A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.
1 词定义包括以下几点：
（ 1 ）一门语言中最小的自由形式;
（ 2 ）一个声音的统一体
（ 3 ）一个意义单位;
（ 4 ）在一个句子中独立起作用的一个形式。
词是一门语言中具有一定的声音、意义和句法功能的最小的自由形式
2- Sound and Meaning: symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary and conventional.
A dog is called a dog not because the sound and the three letters that make up the word just automatically suggest the animal in question.
2 -声音和意义：象征性联系几乎总是任意和约定成俗的
狗称为狗不是因为这个声音以及这三个字母在一起就能自动表示这种动物。
3- Old English, the speech of the time was represented very much more faithfully in writing than it is today. The internal reason for this is that the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans, which does not have a separate letter to represent each sound in the language so that some letters must do double duty or work together in combination.
3 –古代英语，随着语言的发展，声音和形式之间的差异越来越大。产生这种差异的在原因是英语拼写
采用了拉丁字母，从而使英语中的每个音位并不能都用单独的字母来表示，有些字母必须起双重职能或组合
在一起来表示一个音
Another reason is that the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years, and in some cases the two have drawn far apart.
另一个原因是，发音比拼写变化的快，在某些情况下，两者产生了很大的差异。
A third reason is that some of the differences were created by the early scribes.
第三个原因是，是由于早期抄写僧所造成的一些差异。
Finally comes the borrowing, which is an important channel of enriching the English vocabulary.最后一个原因是外来词。外来词是丰富了英语词汇的重要途径。
5 - Vocabulary: All the words in a language make up its vocabulary. Not only can it refer to the total number of the words in a language, but it can stand for all the words used in a particular historical period. We also use it to refer to all the words of a given dialect, a given book, a given discipline and the words possessed by an individual person. The general estimate of the present-day English vocabulary is over million words. 5 -词汇：一门语言中所有的词构成该语言的词汇。“词汇”一词具有多重
含义。它不仅可以指一门语言的词汇量，还可以指某一特制定时期的词汇。我们还可以用该词指称某一方言
的词汇、某一本书的词汇、某一学科的词汇，甚至还可指某个人的词汇量。英语是世界上高度发达的语言之一，也是词汇量最大、最丰富的语言之一。据初步统计，当代英语词汇量已达100多万词。
6 - Words may fall into the basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary by use frequency, into content words and functional words by notion, and into native words and borrowed words by origin.
按使用频率分，词可以分为基本词汇和非基本词汇;按有无实义来分，词可以分为实义词和功能词；按起源分，它又可分为本族语词和外来语词。
7 - The basic word stock is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language. Though words of the basic word stock constitute a small percentage of the English vocabulary, yet it is the most important part of it. These words have obvious characteristics.-一门语言的基本词汇是长期积累下
来的，是该语言的共核。虽然英语中的基本词汇只占总词汇量的一小部分，但却是最重要的部分。基本词汇
具有下列明显的特点。
8 - All national character. Words of the basic word stock denote the most common things and phenomena of the world around us, which are indispensable to all the people who speak the language。They include words relating to the following respects: Natural phenomena/Human body and relations/Names of plants and animals/Action, size, domain, state/Numerals, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions
全民性。基本词汇指称我们周围世界最常见的食物和现象，是讲这门语言的人们所必不可少的。基本词汇包
括以下几个方面相关的词：自然现象/人体和人们之间的关系/动、植物名称/行为、尺寸、畴，状态/数词、代词、介词、连词等
9 - Stability. Words of the basic word stock have been in use for centuries.-稳定性。基本词汇长期为人们所使用。
10 Productivity . Words of the basic word stock are mostly root words or monosyllabic words.They can each be used alone, and at the same time can form new words with other roots and affixes.能产性。基本词汇大多根词或单音节词。他们可以分别单独使用，也可以和其他根
源和词缀一起构成新词。
11 - Polysemy. Words belonging to the basic word stock often possess more than one meaning because most of them have undertone semantic changes in the course of use and become polysemous.多义词。基本词中的词由于长期使用过程中产生了语义变化，単义变成了多义。
12 - Collocability . Many words of the basic word stock quite a number of set expressions, idiomatic usages, proverbial sayings and the like. –搭配性。基本词汇
中的许多词形成了诸多固定的词语，惯用用法，习语和谚语等。
Words, void of the stated characteristics, do not belong to the commom core of the language. they include the following.不具备上述特点的词不属于改语言的共核，包括：13 - Terminology consists of technical terms used in particular disciplines and academic areas 术语。是指特定学科和叙述领域所使用的专有名词。
14 - Jargon refers to the specialized vocabularies by which members of particular arts, sciences, trades and professions communicate among themselves such as in business.-行话。是流行于艺术，科学，商业和其他职业部的专有名词。
15 - Slang belongs to the sub-standard language, a category that seems to stand between the standard general words including informal ones available to everyone and in-group words like cant, jargon, and argot, all of which are associated with, or most available
to, specific groups of the population. -俚语属非标准语言，介于一般标准词汇和团体部用词之间，如套语、行话和黑语，都在特定人群中流行。
Slang is created by changing or extending the meaning of existing words though some slang words are new coinages altogether. Slang is colorful, blunt, expressive and impressive. 俚语大多还是由现有词汇语义的改变或引申，只有少数是自创的，俚语在表达上富有色彩，直接，表现力强，效果明显。
16 - Argot generally refers to the jargon of criminals黑话通常指罪犯的行话.
17 - Dialectal words are words used only by speakers of the dialect in question. -方言词限于讲方言的人所使用。
18 - Archaisms are words or forms that were once in common use but are now restricted only to specialized or limited use.古语词是指过去曾经广泛使用而现在仅限于某些特殊用法的词。
19 - Neologisms are newly-created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings.-新词语是指新创造的词语或又产生新义的旧词。
20 - By notion, words can be grouped into content words and functional words. Content words denote clear notions and thus are known as notional words. They include nouns, verbs, adjectives,adverbs and numerals, which denote objects, phenomena, action, quality, state, degree, quantity.
20词汇可以根据有无实义分为实义词和功能词。实义词表示明确的概念，它们包括名词，动词，形容词，副词和数词，表示事物、现象、行动、物质、状态、程度、数量等。
21 - Functional words do not have notions of their own. Therefore, they are also called empty words. As their chief function is to express the relation between notions, the relation between words as well as between sentences, they are known as form words. Prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliaries and articles belong to this category. 21 –功能词本身不具有实义，因此又称为虚词。虚词就是表示两个实义之间的关系以及词与词之间、句子与句子之间的关系，也可称为形式词。虚词有介词，连词，助动词和冠词。
22 - However, functional words do far more work of expression in English on average than content words. -然而在英语中，功能词比实义词起着更重要的作用。
23 - Native words are words brought to Britain in the fifth century by the German tribes; the Angles, the Saxons, and the Jutes, thus known as Anglo-Saxon words英语本族语词是公元5世纪由日耳曼部落盎格鲁人、萨克逊人和朱特人带入英国的，又称盎格鲁-萨克逊词语。
24 - Apart from the characteristics mentioned of the basic word stock, in contrast to borrowed words, native words have two other features:除了上文提到的英语基本词汇的共同特点外，与外来语词相比，本族语词还有另外两个特点：
1）Neutral in style. they are not stylistically specific.文体上中性。文体上有什么特定的色彩。
Stylistically, natives words are neither formal nor informal whereas the words borrowed from French or Latin are literary and learned, thus appropiate in formal style.从文体上来讲，本族语词无所谓正式或者不正式，而来源于法语和拉丁语的外来词富有文学色彩，为有学问人所用，使用的场合也较为正式。
2）Frequent in use. Native words are most frequently used in everyday speech and writing.
使用频繁。本族语词在日常口语和书面语中使用的最为频繁。
25 - Words taken over from foreign languages are known as borrowed words or loan words or borrowings in simple terms. It is estimated that English borrowings constitute 80 percent of the modem English vocabulary. The English language is noted for the remarkable complexity and heterogeneity of its vocabulary because of its extensive borrowings 来自其他语言的词简称为外来词或者借词。英英语中源于其他主要语言的借词有很多，据估计，现代英语词汇有80%是借词。由于广泛地使用借词，英语中的词汇呈现极为复杂而不纯的局面。
26 According to the degree of assimilation and manner of borrowing,we can bring the loan-words under four classes.根据同化的程度和借词的方式，可以把外来语词归为4类。
1）Denizens. denizens are words borrowed early in the past and now well assimilated into the English language.同化词是指早期从其他语言中借来现今已被英语通话了的词。
2）Aliens are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling. These words are immediately recognizable as foreign in origin
-非同化词是仍保留他们原来的发音和拼写形式的词。仅从发音和拼写形式我们便可看出这些词是外来词. 3）Translation-loans. they are words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling.译借词，是利用母语现有的词语但在构词模式上模仿了外语而构成的词。
4）Semantic-loans. Words of this category are not borrowed with reference to the form. But their meanings are borrowed. In other words, English has borrowed a new meaning for an existing word in the language.
借义词，只借义，不借形。换句话说，英语利用现有词的形式赋予其新的外来语含义。
Chapter 2
1 - It is assumed that the world has approximately 3, 000 (some put it 5, 000 ) languages, which can be grouped into roughly 300 language families on the basis of similarities in their basic word stock and grammar.-据估计，世界上约有3 000多种（有人认为5 000种）语言，这些语言可以根据他们的基本词汇和语法的相似性大致划分为300个谱系。
2 - The Indo-European is one of them. It is made up of most of the languages of Europe, the Near East, and India. -印欧语就是其中之一。该语系包括欧洲的大多数语言、近东诸语言和古
梵语。
3 - They accordingly fall into eight principal groups, which can be grouped into an Eastern set: Balto-Slavic , Indo-Iranian , Armenian and Albanian ; a Western set: Celtic, Italic, Hellenic, Germanic.
3这些语族相应地分为8大语族，这8大语族又可分为东部诸语族。东部诸语族有波罗的海-斯拉夫语族，印
度-伊朗语族，亚美尼亚-阿尔巴尼亚语族;西部诸语族有凯尔特语族，意大利语族，希腊语族，日耳曼语族。
4 - In the Eastern set, Armenian and Albanian are each the only modern language respectively. The Balto-Slavic comprises such modern languages as Prussian, Lithuanian, Polish, Czech, Bulgarian, Slovenian and Russian.
4，在东部诸语族中，亚美尼亚-阿尔巴尼亚语族都只留下今天的亚美尼亚语和阿尔巴尼亚语。波罗的海-斯
拉夫语族包括普鲁士语，立宛语，波兰语，捷克语，保加利亚语，斯洛文尼亚语和俄语等。
5 - In the Indo-Iranian we have Persian. Bengali, Hindi, Romany, the last three of which are derived from the dead language Sanskrit.
5 -印度-伊朗语族语族波斯语。孟加拉国语，印地语，普吉赛语，后3门语言来源于已经消亡的古梵语。
6 - In the Western set, Greek is the modern language derived from Hellenic.
6 -在西部诸语族中，现代希腊语来源于古希腊语族。
7 - The Germanic family consists of the four Northern European Languages: Norwegian, Icelandic, Danish and Swedish, which are generally known as Scandinavian languages. Then there is German, Dutch, Flemish and English.
7 -日耳曼语族包括4门北欧语言：挪威语，冰岛语，丹麦语和瑞典语，这4门语言统称为斯堪的纳维亚语。其次是德语，荷兰语，佛兰芒语和英语。
8 - Old English (450-1150)
Anglo-Saxon as Old English. Old English has a vocabulary of about 50, 000 to 60, 000 words. It was a highly inflected language just like moderm German.
8 盎格鲁-撒克逊语被称为古英语。古英语约有50000至 60000词汇。而且也如现代德语一样是一门典型的屈折语。
9 - Middle English (1150-1500) -中古英语（ 1150年至一五〇〇年）
Although there were borrowings from Latin, the influence on English was mainly Germanic.
Between 1250 and 1500 about 9000 words of French origin poured into English. Seventy-five percent of them are still in use today.
If we say that Old English was a language of full endings. Middle English was one of leveled endings.
9 虽然英语也从拉丁语中借词，但影响英语的主要还是日耳曼语。
从1250年到1500年的250年间，大约有9000个法语词汇进入到英语中，其中75%仍在使用。这些词语人类社会的各个方面都有关系。
如果说古英语近视此为的话，那么中古英语的词尾已去了一半
10 - Modern English (1500-up to now) -现代英语（ 1500到现在）
Modern English began with the establishment of printing in England.
现代英语开始于印刷术传入英国。
Early (1500-1700) and Late (1700-up to the present) Modern English
现在英语分为早期（ 1500至1700年）现代英语和晚期（ 1700 -至今）现代英语
In the early period of Modern English, Europe saw a new upsurge of learning ancient Greek and Roman classics. This is known in history as the Renaissance. 在早期现代英语阶段，欧洲掀起了学习希腊和罗马的古典著作的运动。这场运动史称文艺复兴。
Latin and Greek were recognized as the languages of the Western world’s great literary heritage and of great scholarship.
当时拉丁语和希腊语被认为是达标西方世界灿烂文学遗产的语言，是学术语言
In fact, more than twenty-five percent of modern English words come almost directly from classical languages.
事实上，现代英语词汇中有25%以上几乎是直接从古典语言中直接介入的（WBD）。
In modern English, word endings were mostly lost with just a few exceptions. It can be concluded that English has evolved from a synthetic language (Old English) to the present analytic language.在现代英语中，除了少数几个词之外，词尾几乎都消失了。可以这样说，英语已从古英语的综合型语言发展成了现在的分析型语言。
11 - Three main sources of new words: the rapid development of modern science and technology（ 45 ％）; social, economic and political changes（ 11 ％）; the influence of other cultures and languages（ 24 ％）. 11 -新词的产生有3大来源：现代科学和技术的迅猛发展（ 45 ％） ;社会，经济和政治的变化（ 11 ％） ; 其它文化和语言的影响（ 24 ％）。
12 - Modern English vocabulary develops through three channels: creation, semantic change, borrowing.
现代英语词汇的发展主要通过三个渠道：创词、旧词新义和借词。
Creation refers to the formation of new words by using the existing materials, namely roots, affixes and other elements. In modern times, this is the most important way of vocabulary expansion.
创造是指通过使用现有的材料，即词根，词缀和其它形式创造新词。这是词汇词汇扩展的最重要的形式。Semantic change means an old form which takes on a new meaning to meet the new need. This does not increase the number of word forms but create many more new usages of the words, thus enriching the vocabulary. 旧词新义是指赋予旧有新词新的含义以满足新的需要。这一方式不增加词得数量，但却创造了词的许多新用法，以丰富词汇。
Borrowing has played a vital role in the development of vocabulary, particularly in earlier times. Borrowed words constitute merely six to seven percent of all new worlds. In earlier stages of English, French, Greek and Scandinavian were the major contributors.借词在词汇的发展中起了重要的作用，尤其是在早期。借词在所有新词中，借词只占6%。英语在早期阶段主要是向法语、拉丁语、希腊语和斯堪的纳维亚语借词。
Reviving archaic or obsolete words(复活古词和废弃词) also contributes to the growth of English vocabulary though quite insignificant.
复活古词和废弃词对整个英语词汇来说虽然影响不大，但却是是一种发展方式。
Chapter 3
1 - These different forms occur owing to different sound environment. These minimal meaningful units are known as morphemes.
In other words, the morpheme is "the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words"
1 –在不同的发音环境下以不同形式出现。这些最小的有意义单位称为词素。
换言之，词素是“构词中最小功能单位”
2 - Morphemes are abstract units, which are realized in speech by discrete units known as morphs. They are actual spoken, minimal carriers of meaning. The morpheme is to the morph what a phoneme is to a phone.
2 -词素（形位）是抽象的单位，是由分立的形素在话语中具体实现的。“形素”是实际说出来的最小的意
义携带体形位与形素的关系同音位与因素的关系一样。
3 - These morphemes coincide with words as they can stand by themselves and function freely in a sentence. Words of this kind are called monomorphemic words.
3 -这些词素与词一致，因为它们在句子中可以独立起作用，这类词叫单语素词。
4 - Some morphemes, however, are realized by more than one morph according to their position in a word. Such alternative morphs are known as allomorphs.
4 -有些词素根据它们在词中的位置不同可有一个以上的不同形素实现，这些不同的形素叫词素变体。
5 - There are cases where the allomorphs of the plural morpheme are realized by the change of an internal vowel or by zero morph.
5 –名词复数词素的变体也有一些特殊情况，可以通过改变部元音来实现名词复数。
6 - Free Morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are considered to be free. These morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. They are identical with root words, as each of them
consists of a single free root, we might as well say that free morphemes are free roots.
6 -彼此之间相互独立的词素叫自由语素。这些词素本身具有完整的意义，在句子中用作自由语法单位。自由词素与根词一致，因为根词就是由单个的自由词素构成的。因此，我们不妨说自由词素就是自由根词。
7 - Bound Morphemes which cannot occur as separate words are bound. They are so named because they are bound to other morphemes to form words. Bound morphemes are chiefly found in derived words.
7 –不能独立成词的词素叫做粘附词素。之所以叫粘附词素是因为它们要粘附在别的词素上才能构成词。粘附词素重要出现在派生词里。
8 - Bound morphemes include two types: bound root and affix.
粘附词素有两类：粘附词根和词缀。
Bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. Unlike a tree root, it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words.粘附词根。就如自由词根一样，是带有基本意义的词的组成部分。与自由词根不同的是，粘附词根是一种粘附形式，必须与别的词素结合在一起才能构成词。
In English, bound roots are either Latin or Greek. Although they are limited in number, their productive power is amazing.
英语中粘附词素不是来源于拉丁语就是来源于希腊语。粘附词素虽然数量不多，但却有惊人的能产性，构成数以百计的现代英语词汇。
Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function.词缀是附着于词并对其意义或者功能作修饰的形式。
According to the functions of affixes, we can put them into two groups; inflectional and derivational affixes. 根据词缀的功能，可讲词缀分为两组：部屈折词缀和派生词缀。
Affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional, thus known as inflectional morphemes. The number of inflectional affixes is small and stable.
加在词尾表示语法关系的词缀发生屈折变化，因此称为部屈折词素。部屈折词缀数量很少而且稳定。Derivational affixes. As the term indicates, derivational affixes are affixes added to other morphemes to create new words. Derivational affixes can be further divided into prefixes and suffixes. Prefixes come before the ward and the suffixes after the word.派生词缀。是加在其他词素上创造新词的词缀。派生词缀还可以进一步分为前缀和后缀。前缀加在词的前面和后缀加在词的后面。
9 - A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity. The root, whether free or bound, generally carries the main component of meaning in a word. Root is that part of a word form that remains when all inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed.
9 -词根是一个词的基本形式，这个形式若再分析下去就不再是这个词了。不管是自由词根还是粘附词根，在词中都是主要的意义成分。词根是当所有部屈折词缀和派生词追都去掉时剩下的那部分词形。
10 - A stem may consist of a single root morpheme as in iron or of two root morphemes as in a compound like handcuff. It can be a root morpheme plus one or more affixational morphemes as in mouthful. A stem can be defined as a form to which affixes of any kind can be added10 –一个词干可能由单个词根词素所组成，如iron（铁，铁制品）中：也可以由两个词根词素所组成，如在复合词handcuff（手铐）中，它可能是一个词根词素，外加一个或者更多的词缀词素。如在mouthful(满口，少量)。因此，词干可以定义为任何词缀都可以添加的一个形式。
(完整word版)英语词汇学复习大纲整理
1 B a s i c C o n c e p t s 基本概念 1.1 the definition of a word （ alone in a sentence. A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.） 1.2 sound and meaning ：symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary and conventional . A dog is called a dog not because the sound and the three letters that make up the word just automatically suggest the animal in question. 1.3 sound and form ： 1.4 vocabulary 1.5 classification of words 词汇分类 basic word stock 基本词汇 nonbasic vocabulary 非基本词汇 by use frequency 按使用频率分： basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary 基本词汇和非基本词汇 by notion 按概念分： content words and functional words 实义词和功能词 by origin 按起源分： native words and borrowed words 本地词和外来词 all national character 全民性 stability 稳定性 productivity 多产性 polysemy 一词多义 collocability 搭配性 terminology 术语 jargon 行话 slang 俚语 argon 黑话 dialectal words 方言词 archaism 古语词 neologism 新词 neutral in style 文体上中性 frequent in use 使用频繁 native words 本地词 borrowed words 外来词 denizens 同化词 aliens 异形词 translation-loans 译借词 1. No enough letters: alphabet from Latin 2. Pronunciation changed more rapidly 3. Early scribes: change spelling for easier recognition 4. Borrowing: different rules of pronunciation and spelling obvious characteristics 明显的特点 (Functional words do not have notions of their own and their main function is to express the relation between notions, words, etc.)
00832英语词汇学1107全国试题
全国2011年7月高等教育自学考试 英语词汇学试题 课程代码：00832 I. Each of the statements below is followed by four alternative answers. Choose the one that best completes the statement and put the letter in the bracket. (30 %) 1. Grammarians insist that a word be a __________ form that can function in a sentence. ( ) A. small B. large C. fixed D. free 2. In the earliest stage of English, the written form of a word should ________ that of the oral form. ( ) A. agree with B. disagree with C. be the same as D. be different from 3. ____________consists of technical terms used in particular disciplines and academic areas as in medicine, mathematics, etc. ( ) A. Terminology B. Jargon C. Slang D. Argot 4. Social, economic and political changes bring about such new words as the followings EXCEPT_________. ( ) A. fast food B. TV dinner C. Mao jackets D. Watergate 5. Reviving archaic words also contributes to the growth of English vocabulary. For instance, “loan”, which was prevalent in the thirteenth century, was replaced by “ __________ ” in American English. ( ) A. own B. let C. rent D. lend 6. If we say that Old English was a language of __________ endings, Middle English was one of leveled endings. ( ) A. full B. short C. long D. paralleled 00832# 英语词汇学试卷第1页共6页
外国文学史笔记整理
艾略特非人格理论P128 卡夫卡《城堡》主题 “城堡”既非具体的城市，又非国家，它只是一种象征。因而有无穷的寓意： （ 1 ）“城堡”象征与普通人疏远、敌对的冷漠无情的国家机器。 （ 2 ）上帝 （ 3 ）象征可望而不可即的人生目标 （ 4 ）象征犹太人苦苦追求的国家、故乡、精神归宿。 （ 5 ）象征“代沟”，K至死未能进入城堡，象征卡夫卡争取与父亲沟通的失败。 卡夫卡《城堡》的艺术贡献 （1）独特的叙述角度和叙述手法 卡夫卡叙述手法的特点，是将叙述者与主人公合而为一。《城堡》中的K既是主人公又是叙述者，读者在阅读过程中只能通过主人公的感官（所见、所听、所想、所思）才能获得信息，再没有旁观者清的叙述者出场来向读者解释情节发展的前因后果。 （2）象征寓意的意象构筑。《城堡》中的K半夜被摇醒，要求出示居留许可证，其实也就象征着无所归依的现代人被摇醒说明自己的人生由来，解释自己的生存依据。 （3）精确、细致、严密的语言风格 《城堡》作为卡夫卡后期创作的代表作品，表现了炉火纯青的语言艺术造诣。整个小说像日常生活用语，简单而生动；又像法律用语，严密而精确，娓娓道来。尽管小说的主要情节是荒诞的，但卡夫卡对事物过程的描述完全是现实主义的，冷静而细致。解释事物的因果关系逻辑严谨，推理缜密，无懈可击，使读者难以摆脱作者的叙述逻辑。 约克纳帕塔法:译为河水静静流过平原。表现的就是约克纳帕塔法颓败的命运，旧的制度、旧的秩序不断瓦解、慢慢消亡的命运。也是《喧哗与骚动》的主题之一。 《喧哗与骚动》思想内容 小说写的是杰弗逊镇上康普生家族的没落，以及在没落过程中各个家族成员之间的遭遇和精神状态。 这个曾经出过将军和州议员、拥有大量田产和黑奴的庄园世家现在败落了。 《喧哗与骚动》叙述人意义 （1）白痴班吉 作者在第一部分选择白痴班吉来叙述故事，是有其深刻用意的。因为人生，尤其事美国南方社会中的人生，浑浑噩噩，就“像一个白痴所讲的故事”，这正好点明了作品的主题。作品的标题来自莎剧《麦克白》的一段台词：人生像一个白痴所讲的故事，充满着喧哗和骚动，却无丝毫意义。 人生的毫无意义由于是通过班吉的混乱意识表现出来的，就更具有发人深省的象征意义。班吉33岁，只有3岁孩子的智力，没有时间概念，过去和现在之间没有任何界限，都汇入一种混乱的意识流动中。但是，读者从班吉混乱的意识中，仍然可以感受到他因为失去姐姐对他的关怀而感到的痛苦。 叙事结构：小说由四个部分组成，每个部分都由不同的叙事者讲述。尤其有特点的是第一部分的叙事者——白痴班吉的叙事风格。 班吉的叙事突出地反映了福克纳对意识流小说技巧的精心营造，白痴的形象也寄托了福克纳的刻意追求：
英语词汇学考试重点整理
Explain the following terms 一1) free morpheme/ A free morpheme is one that can be uttered发出，表达alone with meaning. It can exist on its own without a bound morpheme. In the traditional sense, a free morpheme is a word. 例如hand ,eat, get 2) bound form/never used as sentences. – ess in countess, lioness and duchess –ish in boyish, childish and greenish –s in hats, books and cups 3) function words/ function words are often short words, they do not have much lexical meaning and some of them have no lexical meaning of their own; They are often short words such as determiners限定词, conjunctions连词, prepositions介词, auxiliaries辅助物, and so forth. 如to, the , of , by 4) content words实词/ They are used to name objects, qualities, actions, processes or states, and have independent lexical meaning. They are the nouns, main verbs, adjectives形容词and adverbs副词of a language. 二1) syntheti c综合的language / inflectional grammatical markers, French, German and Russian. 2) analytic language/word order, prepositions or auxiliary verbs , English and Chinese 3) Indo-European family of languages/ Europe and parts of Southern Asia Eight groups 三1) morphemes /The morpheme is the smallest meaningful linguistic unit of language, not divisible可分的or analyzable into smaller forms. 2) allomorphs/variants变体of the same morphem如im-, ir-, il- : allomorphs of the morpheme in- 3) root / is the basic unchangeable part of a word, and it conveys the main lexical meaning of the word. work able, work er, work ed, and work ing 4) stem /A stem is of concern only when dealing with inflectional morphology. Inflectional (but not derivational) affixes are added to it. It is the part of word-form which remains when all inflectional affixes have been removed. 如undesirables, undesirable; desired, desire 5) base / A base is any form to which affixes of any kind can be added. Desirable, desire - base and root, not stem; undesirable, desirable-base, not root and stem 6) inflectional affixes/A inflectional affix serves to express such meanings as plurality复数, tense, and the comparative比较的or superlative 最高的degree. 如-s, -ed, -er, -est 7) derivational affixes / When they are added to another morpheme, they derive a new word. re+write, mini+car, super+market, modern+ize, work+er 8) compounding 复合法/Compounding is a word-formation process consisting of combining two or more bases to form a compound word 9) derivation 派生法/Derivation or affixation is generally defined as a word-formation process by which new words are created by adding a prefix or a suffix or both to the base 10) conversion 转化法/Conversion is a word-formation process in which a word of a certain word-class is shifted into a word of another word-class without the addition of an affix. 11) initialism/It is a type of shortening, using the first letters of words to form a proper name, a technical term, or a phrase. 12) acronym首字母缩略词/Acronyms are words formed from the initial letters of the name of an organization or a scientific term, etc. Acronyms differ from initialisms in that they are pronounced as words rather than as sequences of letters. 13) blending拼缀/Blending is a process of word-formation in which a new word is formed by
考研英语词汇复习笔记
考研英语词汇复习笔记 翻硕复习的一大重头戏就是词汇，而词汇量是巨大的，必须要有日常的积累和复习，并且掌握科学的记忆方法，才能最有效地积累词予匚量。下面是关于英语词汇的学习笔记，以供大家参考。(1) 1. bereave :使某人丧失(尤指亲属)bereave Sb Of Sb an accident WhiCh bereaved Him Of his Wife 使他丧失妻子的事古攵the bereaved husband 死了妻子的男人 the bereaved丧失亲人的人 bereavement(n):丧亲之痛，丧失亲人 deprive : take Sth away from sb;PreVent Sb from enjoying Or USing Sth剥夺sb/sth的sth;阻止某人 享有或使用Sth deprive sb/sth Of Sth deprive Of OneS CiVil rights剥夺某人的公民权deprivation(n):剥夺;贫困;被剥夺的事物WideSPreaCl deprivation 普遍贫困 MiSSing the HOIiday WaS a great deprivatiOrL错失假日是极大的损失。 deprived(adj):贫困的，穷苦的deprived ChildhOOd 贫苦的童年
2. abdomen : Part Of the body below the CheSt and CliaPhragm,cOntaining the stomach.腹部 abdominal(adj)腹部的an abdominal OPeratiOn 月复咅8手术belly : (口)front Of the HUman body from the WaiSt to the groin;belly 肚子，胃 With an empty belly 空着肚子 in the belly Of a ShiP 在船腹里 belly OUt(动词用法):鼓涨,凸出The Wind bellied OUt the SaiIS 3. c onSeCrate : devote sth/sb to Or reserve sth/sb for a SPeCial (esp religious) PUrPOSe 扌巴sth/sb 献给 sth/sb 做某种(尤其宗教)用途COnSeCrate sth/sb to Sth COnSeCrate OneS Iife to the SerViCe Of GOd,to the relief Of SUffering献身于为神服务(解除世人痛苦)的事业 devote : give OneS time z energy to sth/sb; dedicate 为某人付出，向某人奉献，献身于devote Oneself/sth to sb/sth devoted(adj):热爱的，非常忠实的Z全心全意的a devoted SOn
外国文学史复习上(笔记整理)
第一章古代文学 欧洲古代文学包括古希腊文学和古罗马文学，古希腊文学是欧洲文学的源头。古罗马文学是继承古希腊文学的基础上发展起来的，但具有自己的民族特色，它是沟通古希腊文学与欧洲近代文学之间的桥梁。古罗马文学为欧洲近代文学的发展奠定了基础。 一、古希腊神话的基本内容和特征是什么？ 基本内容：神的故事和英雄传说。 ①在神话的故事中，讲到天地的开辟，神的产生，神的谱系，人类的起源，神的日常生活等。 ②英雄传说是古希腊人在幻想中追忆远古社会生活和部落中杰出人物时创造出来的。英雄实是部落中集体智慧和力量的化身，因受人们的崇拜而被神化，如伊阿宋取金羊毛、普罗米修斯、赫拉克勒斯、奥德修斯等。 艺术特征主要有三点： （1）、想象力极强。把自然界、人类社会、精神领域的一切现象都拟人化、神话化，入情入理，创造出令人难忘的意境和鲜明的形象。eg：阿波罗的爱情故事、法厄同驾太阳马车的故事、潘多拉盒子的故事 （2）、故事性极强。情节曲折，起伏跌宕，有头有尾，娓娓道来，动听感人。eg：宙斯和伊俄的故事、哈得斯的婚姻故事、普罗米修斯的故事 （3）、哲理性强。希腊神话既富情趣，又极深刻，是早期人类经验和智慧的结晶，许多故事寓意丰富，发人深思。如：不和的金苹果的故事、希绪弗斯的故事、安泰俄斯的故事等。 古希腊神话的价值和影响。（是希腊艺术的“武库”和土壤，是后世创作的源泉。） （1）它是古希腊文学艺术的宝库和土壤。荷马、赫西俄德、绝大部分悲剧、大量美术和雕塑作品都以它为素材。（2）它对古罗马文学艺术产生了巨大影响。维吉尔《埃涅阿斯记》大量取材，奥维德《变形记》则或全面转述。（3）、它是文艺复兴直至现当代一些著名作家艺术家创作的灵感和原型。莎士比亚、高乃依、拉辛、达芬奇、普桑、米开朗琪罗、贝尔尼尼等直至当代。 二、古希腊文学可以分为几个时期?各时期有什么特点？ （1）第一时期：公元前12世纪~公元前8世纪是古希腊氏族社会向封建社会过渡，史称“英雄时代”或“荷马时代”主要成就是神话和史诗 （2）第二时期：公元前8世纪~前6世纪氏族社会进一步解体，奴隶主城邦逐渐形成时期，史称“大移民时代”，主要成就是抒情诗和寓言 （3）第三时期：公元前6世纪~公元前4世纪希腊奴隶制发展全盛期，史称“古典时期”，主要成就：戏剧、散文和文学理论 （4）第四时期：公元前4世纪末~公元前2世纪史称“希腊化时期”，主要成就是新喜剧和田园诗 三、古罗马古罗马文学的地位、特点以及不同时期的主要成就？ 地位：古罗马文学是在古希腊文学的基础上发展起来的，继承发展了古希腊文学的内容和形式，在戏剧和散文方面有长足的发展，是希腊文学与欧洲近代文学的中介和桥梁，在西方文学史上占有重要的地位。 特点:具有理性精神、集体意识和庄严崇高的气质，精神与情感世界相对贫乏，在艺术上强调均衡、严整、和谐，重视修辞与句法、技巧上偏于雕琢与矫饰。 成就：（1）共和时期：（公元前240~公元前30年）埃纽斯“罗马文学之父” 喜剧首先繁荣，代表作家普劳图斯《双生子》、《一坛黄金》，喜剧诗人有泰伦斯《婆母》 （2）黄金时期：（公元前100~公元17年）西塞罗卢克来修《论自然》， “三大诗人”：维吉尔古罗马最伟大的诗人，代表作《埃涅阿斯纪》是欧洲文学史上第一部文人史诗奥维德《变形记》贺拉斯《诗艺》（文学批评的代表作寓教于乐） （3）白银时期：（公元17~130年）长篇小说有阿普列尤斯的《金驴记》是欧洲文学史上最早长篇小说；普鲁塔克的散文《希腊罗马名人传》；卢肯的史诗《法萨利亚》 《埃涅阿斯纪》是古罗马诗人维吉尔最重要的作品，也是整个罗马文学的顶峰之作。史诗的主题是描述罗马祖先建国的功绩，歌颂罗马的光荣。《埃涅阿斯纪》以荷马史诗为范本，前半部分写漂泊，与《奥德赛》相似；后半部分写战争，与《伊利亚特》雷同。但它又不是对荷马史诗的简单仿作，而是有着鲜
自考英语词汇学翻译精华整理
学习资料收集于网络，仅供参考 English Lexicology(英语词汇学) 1.English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the morphological structures of English words and word equivalents, their semantic structures, relations, historical development, formation and usages.英语词汇学旨在调查和研究英语单词和单词的等价物的形态结构,其语义结构、关系、历史发展、形成和用法。 2.English Lexicology is correlated with such linguistic disciplines as morphology(形态学), semantics(语义学), etymology(词源学),stylistics（文体论）and lexicography(词典学) Chapter 1--Basic concepts of words and vocabulary 1.Word（词的定义）: A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function. (1)a minimal free form of a language (2)a sound unity (3)a unit of meaning (4)a form that can function alone in a sentence 词语是语言最小的自由形式，拥有固定的声音和意义以及句法作用。 2.Sound and meaning（声音与意义）: almost arbitrary, “no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself”词语是一个符号，代表着世界上其他的事物。每种世界文化已经赞成一定的读音将代表一定的人，事，地方，特性，过程，行动，当然是在语言系统之外。这种象征性的联系几乎总是主观的，并且“在代表事物和思想的声音和实际的事物和思想之间没有法定关系” 3.Sound and form（读音和形式）:不统一的四个原因（1）the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans,which does not have a separate letter to represent each other内因是因为英语字母表采用罗马字母，罗马字母没有独立的字母代表每个读音，因此一些字母代表两个读音或者组合在一起发音。 （2）the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years另一个原因是发音比拼写的变化快，在一些时候还拉开了距离。在最近五百年里，尽管口语发音已经出现了显著的变化，却没有相应的拼写变化。 （3）some of the difference were created by the early scribes第三个原因是一些早期的书写员发明了一些不同。（4）the borrowings is an important channel of enriching the English vocabulary最后借词来了，这是丰富英语词汇的重要途径。 （5）printing印刷已经变得非常普及。它有助于固定单词的拼写、standardization标准化使得拼写不容改变。、dictionary字典在拼写终结中得到好处。 —Old English,The speech of the time was represented very much more faithfully in writing than it is today. 古代英语中的口语比今天更忠实的代表书面语 —The written form of English is an imperfect representation of the spoken form。英语的书写是发音形式不完善的代表 4.What is vocabulary？ （1）Total number of the words in a language一个语言的单词综合 （2）Words used in a particular historical period 特殊历史时期使用的单词 （3）All the words of a dialect，a book ，a discipline...某个方言，书籍，学科中的所有单词 5.Classification of English Words：英语词汇由所有种类的词汇组成。它们可以根据不同的标 准或者不同的目的进行分类。 By use frequency:basic word stock&nonbasic vocabulary根据使用频率，单词可以分为基础词和非基础词。 By notion:content words&functional words可以根据概念分成实词和虚词
英语词汇学笔记--名词解释篇
英语词汇学笔记之“名词解释篇” 2010.1.11济南1.Word --- A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic funtion. 2. Morpheme --- A morpheme is the minimal significant element in the composition of words. 3. Free morphemes or Content morphemes (Free root)--- They are morphemes that may constitute words by themselves : cat, walk. 4. Bound Morphemes or Grammatical morphemes--- They are morphemes that must appear with at least one other morpheme, either bound or free : Catts, walk+ing. 5. Bound root --- A bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. Unlike a free root, it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words. Take -dict- for example: it conveys the meaning of "say or speak" as a Latin root, but not as a word. With the prefix pre-(=before) we obtain the verb predict meaning "tell beforehand". 6. Affixes --- Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or funtion. 7. Inflectional morphemes or Inflectional affixes --- Affixes attaches to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional ,thus known as inflectional morphemes. There is the regular plural suffix -s(-es) which is added to nouns such as machines, desks. 8. Derivational morphemes or Derivational affixes--- Derivational affixes are affixes added to other morphemes to create new words. 9. Prefixes --- Prefixes are affixes that come before the word, such as, pre+war. 10. Suffixes --- suffixes are affixes that come after the word, for instance, blood+y. Derivational morphemes/ derivational affixes --- A process of forming new words by the addition of a word element. Such as prefix, suffix, combing form to an already existing word. Prefixation ---- is the formation of new words by adding prefix or combing form to the base. (It modify the lexical meaning of the base) Suffixation--- is the formation of a new word by adding a suffix or combing form to the base and usually changing the word-class of the base. Such as boy. Boyish (noun- adjective) 11. Roo t --- A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analysed without total loss of identity. 12.Opaque Words--Words that are formed by one content morpheme only and cannot be analysed into parts are called opaque words, such as axe, glove. 13. Transparent Words--Words that consist of more than one morphemes and can be segmented into parts are called transparent words: workable(work+able), door-man(door+man).
(完整word版)外国文学史复习笔记
外国文学史期末复习笔记 第一章古代文学 一、古希腊文学 （一）英雄时代（荷马时代） 1.时期（填空） 公元前12世纪至公元前8世纪是古希腊从氏族公社制向奴隶制社会过渡的时期，史称“英雄时代”，又称“荷马时代”，这时文学的主要成就是神话和史诗。 2.神的名称（必考填空、选择） 雷电神：宙斯天后：赫拉海洋神：波塞东（poseidon）农神：得墨忒耳（demeter）太阳神：阿波罗（apollo）战神：阿瑞斯（Ares） 火神：赫淮斯托斯（Hephfis）神使：赫尔墨斯(Hermes) 女战神：雅典娜爱神：阿佛洛狄忒(Aphrodite) 月神：阿尔忒弥斯(Artemis) 家神：赫斯提亚(Hestia) 3.古希腊神话（名词解释） 1）时间：公元前12世纪至公元前8世纪是古希腊从氏族公社制向奴隶制社会过渡的时期，史称“英雄时代” 2）含义：是原始氏族社会的精神产物，是古希腊人集体创造的口头创作，是欧洲最早的文学形式。大体可以分为神的故事和英雄传说两大部分 3）产生原因：是生产力发展的低级阶段的反映；氏族公社社会基本特征的表现；希腊宗教崇拜的起源。 4）艺术特征（简答） ①想象力极强。 ②故事性极强。 ③哲理性极强。 5）影响： ①古希腊文学艺术的宝库和土壤；荷马史诗《神谱》古希腊戏剧。 ②对古罗马的文化艺术产生了巨大影响。 ③古典时期、文艺复兴时期以神话为基础 4.潘多拉的盒子（名词解释）
1）潘多拉，希腊神话中火神赫淮斯托斯或宙斯用粘土做成的地上的第一个女人，作为对普罗米修斯造人和盗火的惩罚送给人类的第一个女人。众神亦加入使她拥有更诱人的魅力。 2）潘多拉打开魔盒，释放出人世间的所有邪恶——贪婪、虚无、诽谤、嫉妒、痛苦等等，但潘多拉却照众神之父的旨意趁希望没有来得及释放时，又盖上了盒盖，把它永远锁在盒内。 （二）大移民时代 代表作家作品（填空） 抒情诗：抒情诗有多种体裁，主要有双管歌、琴歌和讽刺诗，其中琴歌的成就最大。 《伊索寓言》反映的是奴隶制劳动人民的思想感情 （三）古典时期 二、古罗马文学（古罗马文学为什么是希腊和后世文学的桥梁） 1.古罗马成了古希腊文化的直接继承者。 2.丧失了古希腊文学的生动活泼的精神灵气，显示出了精神和情感世界的贫乏。 3.古罗马崇尚武力，对人的力量的崇拜表现为对政治与军事的追去，由此演化出对集权国家和个体自我牺牲精神的崇拜。古罗马文学比古希腊文学更富有理性意识和责任观念，风格更庄严和崇高。但是，古罗马文学人文观念的主体依然是古希腊式的世俗人本意识，仍属于古希腊式的文化范畴。 4.古希腊文学中的世俗人本意识在古罗马文学中得到了体现，并经由古罗马文学广泛地流传于后世的西方文学。 三、荷马史诗（名词解释） 1.概念：《伊利昂纪》和《奥德修纪》是古代希腊的两大史诗，相传是由一个叫荷马的诗人所做，故称荷马史诗。又被称为“英雄史诗” 2.两部史诗： 1）《伊利昂纪》希腊人围攻特洛伊城的故事。 2）《奥德修纪》希腊英雄奥德修斯在特洛伊战争结束后返乡的故事。 3.人物形象：阿基琉斯：在战场上勇敢善战、奋不顾身而又暴烈鲁莽。 赫克托耳：英雄主义富有悲剧色彩。奥德修斯：
英语词汇学怎么考 英语词汇学必背知识点
英语词汇学怎么考英语词汇学必背知识 点 英语词汇学考试难吗？那么该课程怎么考？要知道英语考试并不是一蹴而就的，所以考前应该日记月累的学习，在最后考试的时候才能更好的通过考试，我们来看看英语词汇学必背知识点吧。 英语词汇学怎么考 英语词汇学是一门理论知识课，每个知识点应该说都重要，所以重点和一般本来就难以界定。从掌握知识来说，不要去分重点和一般，对每章每节都要以搞懂弄通为原则。 1、考前重点词汇复习方法 要知道语法填空重点考查的词：动词、形容词、副词和派生词。其中重点是动词，要把考点的设置与拼写的可能形式结合起来(如从谓语动词的角度来看，就要 考虑动词的时态、语态和主谓一致所带来的动词变化。其中过去式是考查重点，所以对动词的过去式，尤其是不规则动词的过去式和过去分词的拼写，自然就成为后期复习的重点。至于另外三大词类也完全可以如此类推。
2、词汇积累学习
加强短文背诵，增强“词不离句”意识。背诵是非常原始的英语学习方法，但也是非常积极、有效的学习方法。优选一些名家名篇，做为背诵的素材;或从课文中精选一些精悍之作，作为研习的精典，不但能够迅速提高语感，而且容易激发兴趣，形成活生生的词库，为单词的准确使用打下良好的基础。 3、英语主观题拿分技巧 首先是单词拼写，这是所有题目中考生得分最低的一个部分，通常平均分不超过3分，所以大家不要太在意，20个单词，对4个，能有2分就很不错了，如果想要提高这部分，大家还要有准备的背单词，因为这里面的单词，并不全是课本课后单词表的单词，其中很多都是以前在中学学过的，所以要准备这一部分，需要的是买一本自考英语的词汇大纲，按里面的词汇背记才有意义。 如果大家对英语词汇学课程学习有难度，那么可以通过在线视频学习的，以上三点就是学赛小编对英语词汇学必背知识点学习方法，希望大家能更好的学习。 点击进入>>>
外国文学史笔记(打印)
外国文学史笔记 第一章古代文学 西方古代文学包括：古希腊罗马文学和早期基督教文学。(它们是氏族社会向奴隶制过渡时期的产物)。古希腊罗马文学和早期基督教文学中分别体现出来的世俗与人本色彩和神圣与超越色彩共同构成西方文学(和文化)的两个源头。恩格斯说：“没有希腊文化和罗马帝国的基础，也就没有现代的欧洲”。 第一节古代文学概述 一古代希腊文学。(欧洲文学的源头之一) (一)主要成就：神话、史诗和戏剧，此外还有寓言、抒情诗和文艺理论等 (二)希腊神话的主要特征： 1、鲜明的人本色彩，命运观念。 从诸神的恣情纵欲，到盗火者的狂热殉情；从阿喀琉斯多愤怒，到美狄亚的残忍复仇。一切都是世俗，活生生的。绝无宗教恐怖的压抑和彼岸天国的诱惑。 2、现实主义和浪漫主义并存。 古希腊文学的许多篇章从不同程度，不同侧面反映了当时社会。为后人提供了第一手资料，也有相当一部分作品充满了神奇的想象、怪诞色彩、表现出浓厚的浪漫主义色彩。 3、种类繁多，且具有开创性。 除神话，史诗外还有悲剧，喜剧、寓言、故事、教谕诗、抒情诗、散文、小说等。 (三)古希腊文学的发展状况。 分为三个时期： 第一时期(由氏族社会向奴隶社会过渡时期)史称“荷马时代”(英雄时代)： 主要成就：神话、史诗 代表作家：赫西俄德 代表作： （1）教谕诗《工作与时日》：现存最早一部以现实生活为题材的诗作。 （2）叙事诗《神谱》：最早一部比较系统地叙述宇宙起源和神的谱系的作品。 第二时期(奴隶制社会形成至全盛时期)史称“古典时期”： 主要成就：抒情诗、散文、寓言、悲剧、喜剧、文艺理论，其中戏剧成就最大。抒情诗中琴歌成就重大： 萨福：柏拉图称她为“第十位文艺女神”。 独唱琴歌代表诗人阿那克瑞翁：创造“阿那克瑞翁体”。 合唱琴歌代表诗人：品达，代表作《胜利颂》 寓言：《伊索寓言》(散文体):主要反映奴隶制社会劳动人民的思想感情，是劳动人民生活教训和斗争经验的总结(《农夫和蛇》《乌龟和兔子》等。 全盛时期欧洲文学史上著名的三大悲剧诗人：埃斯库罗斯、索福克勒斯、欧里庇得斯喜剧诗人：阿里斯托芬 几次著名的战役后，出现了正式的历史著作。 “历史之父”：希罗多德《希腊波斯战争史》 雄辩家：苏克拉底和狄摩西尼。 文艺理论家：柏拉图(西方客观唯心主义的始祖)反对民主制，创立“理念论”。代表作《对话录》。 亚里斯多德：代表作《诗学》 第三时期(奴隶制衰亡时期)史称“希腊化时期”： 主要成就：
语言学考研笔记整理(共16页)
语言学考研笔记整理 一、语言和语言学 1．语言的本质 （1）自然属性：语言从本质上来说是一套符号系统。 （2）社会属性：是人类最重要的交际工具。 （3）心理属性：是人类进行思维的工具。 语言的自然属性从本质上来说是一套符号系统。 2．什么是符号？语言符号和其它符号的不同特点。 符号：用甲事物指代乙事物，甲即乙的符号。 语言符号的特点：①有声的；②成系统的；③分层次的装置，语音→音素→音节→语素→词；④音义结合是任意的，是约定俗成的（不可论证，无理据）；⑤线条性：语言符号在输出时是一个接一个的，不能全盘端出。 语言符号与客观事物的关系。 3．语言最基本的社会功能：交际功能。 文字：是在语言的基础上产生的，是记录语言的书写符号。 符号：是形式和内容（意义）的统一体。 （1）语言符号的形式：声音（语音）是语言的物质外壳，听觉可感知。 （2）语言符号的内容：意义（语义）是人们对现实现象的概括反映。 （99年填空） 4．语言符号的特点：①任意性和强制性；②线条性；③系统性。 人的语言和动物语言有何不同？ 简要说明语言符号的任意性和强制性。 答：①任意性：语言符号的音与义之间没有必然的、本质的联系，它们的结合是由社会“约定俗成”的。表现：某种具体语言的音义结合关系；形成人类语言多样性的一个重要原因。②强制性：符号的任意性知识是就创制符号时的情形说的。符号一旦进入交际，也就是某一语音形式与某一意义结合起来，表示某一特定的现实现象以后，它对使用它的社会成员来说就具有了强制性。任何人不能借口任意性而随意改变音义之间的结合关系。符号的音义结合是社会约定俗成的，它们之间的关系改变也要由社会来决定。