英语翻译

Materials and structural forms are combined to make up the various parts of a building, including the load-carrying frame, skin, floors，and partitions. The building also has mechanical and electrical systems, such as elevators, heating and cooling systems, and lighting systems. The superstructure is that part of a building above ground, and the substructure and foundation is that part of a building below ground.
各种材料和不同的结构形式共同组成了建筑物的不同部分，包括承重结构，外壳，楼板和隔墙。建筑物也有像升降机、供暖、冷却、照明等机械和电力的系统。上部结构是建筑物地面以上的部分，而下部结构和基础则是建筑物地面以下的部分。
The skyscraper owes its existence to two developments of the 19th century : steel skeleton construction and the passenger elevator. Steel as a construction material dates from the introduction of the Bessemer converter in 1855. Gustave Eiffel (1832-1923) introduced steel construction in France. His designs for the Galerie des Machines and the Tower for the Paris Exposition of 1889 expressed the 1ightness of the steel framework.
摩天大楼的出现得益于19世纪的两大发展：钢骨架结构和旅客升降机。钢作为一种建筑材料，源于1885年贝色麦转炉的引入。Gustave Eiffel（1832-1932）将钢结构引入法国。1889年巴黎展览会的塔和他为Galerie des 机械的设计表现了钢结构的灵活性。
The Eiffel Tower, 984 feet (300 meters) high, was the tallest structure built by man and was not surpassed until 40 years later by a series of American skyscrapers.
The first elevator was installed by Elisha Otis in a department store in New York in 1857. In 1889，Eiffel installed the first elevators on a grand scale in the Eiffel Tower , whose hydraulic elevators could transport 2,350 passengers to the summit every hour .
艾菲尔铁塔高984英尺（300米），是人类建造的最高的结构，直到40年后才被美国的摩天大楼超越。
第一个升降机是在1857年被Elisha Otis安装于纽约的一幢百货公司。在1889年，Eiffel在艾菲尔铁塔上安装了第一个大尺寸的升降机，它的水力升降机能在一个小时内运送2350个旅客到达顶点。
Load-Carrying Frame.
Until the late 19th century, the exterior walls of a building were used as bearing walls to support the floors. This construction is essentially a post and lintel type, and it is still used in frame construction for houses. Bearing-wall construction limited the height of buildings because of the enormous wall thickness required ; for instance , the 16-story Monadnock Building built in the 1880’s in Chicago had walls 5 feet ( 1.5 meters ) thick at the lower floors .
承重结构。直到19世纪晚期，建筑物外墙被用作支承楼板的承重墙。这种结构本质上一种梁柱模型，并且仍然被用于住宅的框架

结构中。由于需要巨大的墙体的厚度很大，承重墙结构而限制了建筑物的高度。例如，芝加哥建于19世纪80年代16层的Monadnock大厦，较下层的楼板下的墙厚达5英尺（1.5米）。
In 1883, William Le Baron Jenney (1832-1907) supported floors on cast-iron columns to form a cage-like construction. Skeleton construction, consisting of steel beams and columns, was first used in 1889. As a consequence of skeleton construction, the enclosing walls become a “curtain wall” rather than serving a supporting function. Masonry was the curtain wall material until the 1930’s, when light metal and glass curtain walls were used. After the introduction of the steel skeleton, the height of buildings continued to increase rapidly.
在1883 年，William Le Baron Jenney (1832-1907)采用铸铁柱支撑楼板的方式以形成笼状结构。由钢梁和钢柱组成的骨架构造首次在1889年应用。作为骨架建筑，围墙变成一个“幕墙”，不在起支撑作用。砖石一直被用作幕墙材料，直到20世纪30年代，被轻金属和玻璃幕墙所替代。在钢结构引入后，建筑物的高度继续快速地越建越高。
All tall buildings were built with a skeleton of steel until World War II. After the war, the shortage of steel and the improved quality of concrete led to tall buildings being built of reinforced concrete. Marina Towers ( 1962 ) in Chicago is the tallest concrete building in the United States; its height-588 feet (179 meters）-is exceeded by the 650-foot ( 198-meter ) Post Office Tower in London and by other towers .
在二次世界大战前，所有的高层建筑都是采用钢结构。战后，钢材的短缺和混凝土质量的提高导致钢筋混凝土高层建筑的出现。芝加哥的Marina塔(1962)是美国最高的混凝土建筑。它的高度达588英尺(179米)，被伦敦的高达650英尺（198米）的邮政大厦和其他塔式建筑所超越。
A change in attitude about skyscraper construction has brought a return to the use of the bearing wall, In New York City, the Columbia Broadcasting System Building, designed by Eero Saarinen in 1962, has a perimeter wall consisting of 5-foot (1.5-meter) wide concrete columns spaced 10 feet (3 meters) from column center to center.
关于摩天大楼构造观点的转变又恢复了承重墙的使用。在纽约城由Eero Saarinen于1962年设计的哥伦比亚广播系统大楼，有一个由5英尺（1.5米）宽，相邻柱的中心距为10英尺（3米）的混凝土柱组成的环形墙。
This perimeter wall, in effect, constitutes a bearing wall. One reason for this trend is that stiffness against the action of wind can be economically obtained by using the walls of the building as a tube; the World Trade Center buildings are another example of this tube approach. In contrast, rigid frames or vertical trusses are usually provided to give lateral stability.
实际上，这

个环形墙组成了一个承重墙，产生这种趋向的一个理由是，采用建筑物的墙壁作为一个筒体，可以非常经济地获得起到抗风作用的刚度。世界贸易大厦是这种筒体方法的另一个例证。相比之下，刚性框架或垂直的桁架常用保证结构的侧向稳定性。
Skin. The skin of a building consists of both transparent elements (windows) and opaque elements (walls). Windows are traditionally glass , although plastics are being used , especially in schools where breakage creates a maintenance problem The wall elements , which are used to cover the structure and are supported by it , are built of a variety of materials: brick , precast concrete , stone , opaque glass , plastics , steel , and aluminum . Wood is used mainly in house construction; it is not generally used for commercial, industrial, or public buildings because of the fire hazard
外壳。建筑物的外壳由透明元素（窗）和不透明元素（墙）所组成。尽管塑料正在被使用，窗传统上还是使用玻璃，特别是在学校，破损产生了一个维护问题。用于覆盖结构且支撑结构的墙由多种材料建造：砖，预制构件，混凝土，石，不透明玻璃，塑料，钢和铝。木主要被用于住宅建筑，由于有火灾的危险，它通常不用于商业，工业和公用建筑。
Floors. The construction of the floor in a building depends on the basic structural frame that is used. In steel skeleton construction, floors are either slabs of concrete resting on steel beams, or a deck consisting of corrugated steel with a concrete topping. In concrete construction, the floors are either slabs of concrete on concrete beams or a series of closely spaced concrete beams (ribs) in two directions stopped with a thin concrete slab, giving the appearance of a waffle on its underside.
楼板。建筑物中楼板的构造依赖于所使用的基本结构框架。在钢结构中，楼板或是搁置在钢梁上的混凝土板，或是表面附有混凝土的波纹钢组成。在混凝土结构中，楼板或是搁置在混凝土梁上的混凝土板，或是井字梁形成的楼板，在其下部形成井字形状外形。
The kind of floor that is used depends on the span between supporting columns or walls and the function of the space. In an apartment building, for instance, whore walls and columns are spaced at 12 to 18 feet (3.7 to 5.5 meters), the most popular construction is a solid concrete slab with no beams. The underside of the slab serves as the ceiling for the space below it. Corrugated steel decks are often used in office buildings because the Corrugations, when enclosed by another sheet of metal, form ducts for telephone and electrical lines.
这种类型的板的使用依赖于支撑柱或墙间的跨度和空间的作用。例如，在公寓中，当墙和柱的间距在12英尺到18英尺（3.7米到5.5米），最常用的结构是无梁的实

心混凝土板。这种板的下部可以用作其下层空间的天花板。办公大楼中常使用波纹钢楼板，这是因为波纹钢楼板的波纹当由另一块金属板盖上时，可以形成电话线和电线通道。
Mechanical and Electrical Systems. A modern building not only contains the space for which if is intended (office, classroom, and apartment) but also contains ancillary space for mechanical and electrical systems that help to provide a comfortable environment. These ancillary spaces in a skyscraper office building may constitute 25% of the total building area. The importance of heating, ventilating, electrical, and plumbing systems in an office building is shown by the fact that 40% of the construction budget is allocated to them.
机械和电力系统。一个现代建筑不仅包括它所需要的空间（办公室，教室，公寓），还包括帮助提供舒适环境的机械与电力系统的辅助空间。在摩天办公大楼中，这些辅助空间可能构成总建筑面积的25%。在办公大楼中，供暖，通风，电力和卫生管道系统的重要性体现在它们占40%的工程预算
Because of the increased use of sealed buildings with windows that cannot be opened, elaborate mechanical systems are provided for ventilation and air conditioning. Ducts and pipes carry fresh air from central fan rooms and air conditioning machinery. The ceiling, which is suspended below the upper floor construction, conceals the ductwork and contains the lighting units. Electrical wiring for power and for telephone communication may also be located in this ceiling space or may be buried in the floor construction in pipes or conduits.
因为使用带有不能开窗的密封性建筑屋的增加，复杂的机械系统在通风和空调应用。渠道和管道携带来自中央风扇室和空气调节机的新鲜空气。悬吊在上部楼板结构下面的天花板，隐藏着管道系统和照明设备。用于动力和电话通讯的电力配线，也被安置在天花板空间内，或被埋置在楼板结构中的管道内。
There have been attempts to incorporate the mechanical and electrical systems into the architecture of buildings by frankly expressing them ; for example , the American Republic insurance Company Building ( 1965 ) in Des Moines , Iowa , exposes both the ducts and the floor structure in an organized and elegant pattern and dispenses with the suspended ceiling . This type of approach makes it possible to reduce the cost of the building and permits innovations, such as in the span of the structure.
人们曾多次尝试不隐藏机械和电力系统而将它们融进建筑外观设计中。举例来说，在爱荷华州首府得梅因的美国共和保险公司大楼（1965），管道和楼板结构以一种有组织和优雅的形式暴露在外，用吊顶进行分配。这种方法可降低建筑的造价，且可进行技术革新，例如在结构的跨度方面。

Soils and Foundations. All buildings are supported on the ground, and therefore the nature of the soil becomes an extremely important consideration in the design of any building. The design of a foundation depends on many soil factors, such as type of soil, soil stratification, thickness of soil layers and their compaction, and groundwater conditions. Soils rarely have a single composition; they generally are mixtures in layers of varying thickness. For evaluation, soils are graded according to particle size , which increases from silt to clay to sand to gravel to rock .
地基与基础。所有的建筑物都支撑在地面上，因此，土体的性质成为任何建筑设计中极端重要的考虑因素。基础的设计依赖于许多土体的要素，如土的类型，土壤的层理，土层的厚度和它的压缩性，以及地下水的状态。土壤很少有一个单一的成分。它们通常是不同厚度土层的混合物。按照颗粒大小进行土的等级分类，土颗粒从淤泥到粘土到砂到砂砾到岩石依次增加。
In general， the lager particle soils will support heavier loads than the smaller ones . The hardest rock can support loads upto100 tons per square foot (976. 5 metric tons / sq meter), but the softest silt can support a load of only 0.25 ton per square foot (2.44metric tons / sq meter). All soils beneath the surface are in a state of compaction; that is, they are under a pressure that is equal to the weight of the soil column above it. Many soils (except for most sands and gavels) exhibit elastic properties - they deform when compressed under load and rebound when the load and removed.
大体上，较大颗粒土的负载能力将会强于较小的一些。最硬的岩石可以高达每平方英尺100吨（每平方米976.5公吨）的负载，但是最软的淤泥所能承受的负载只有每平方英尺0.25吨（每平方米2.44公吨）。所有表面以下的土都处在受压状态中，说得更精确一些，这些土承受与作用在其上的土柱重量相等的压力。许多土（除了大多数的砂和砾石以外）显示出弹性性质——在荷载作用下受压变形，当荷载解除后可以回弹。
The elasticity of soils is often time-dependent, that is, deformations of the soil occur over a length of time which may vary from minutes to years after a load is imposed. Over a period of time, a building may settle if it imposes a load on the soil greater than the natural compaction weight of the soil. Conversely , a building may heave if it imposes loads on the soils smaller than the natural compaction weight . The soils may also flow under the weight of a building; that is , it tends to be squeezed out .
土壤的弹性常常依赖于时间，也就是说，土的变形可能发生在荷载作用后从数分钟到数年的时间长度上。超过一个时段，如果建筑物作用在土体上的负载高于土的天然压实重量，它可能

产生沉降。相反地，如果建筑物作用在土体上的负载小于土体的天然压实重量，它可能隆起。土也可能在建筑物自重作用下产生流动，就是说，它很容易被压挤出。
Due to both the compaction and flow effects, buildings tend to settle. Uneven settlements, exemplified by the leaning towers in Pisa and Bologna, can have damaging effects- the building may lean, walls and partitions may crack, windows and doors may become inoperative, and, in the extreme, a building may collapse. Uniform settlements are not so serious, although extreme conditions, such as those in Mexico City, can have serious consequences.
由于压实和流动效应，建筑物趋向于沉降。例如比萨和博洛尼亚的斜塔，不均匀沉降能产生破坏效果——建筑物可能倾斜，外墙和隔墙可能产生裂缝，窗户和门可能够变得不起作用，并且极端的情况，建筑物可能倒塌。尽管在某些极端条件下，像墨西哥城的情况，能产生严重的后果，但是均匀沉降并不是那么严重。
Over the past 100 years, a change in the groundwater level there has caused some buildings to settle more than 10 feet ( 3 meters ) . Because such movements can occur during and after construction, careful analysis of the behavior of soils under a building is vital.
过去100年以来，那里地下水水位的变化已经使一些建筑物沉降超过10英尺（3米）。由于这种运动能发生在施工工程中和其后，所以仔细分析在建筑物下土的行为显得非常重要
The great variability of soils has led to a variety of solutions to the foundation problem. Where firm soils exists close to the surface , the simplest solution is to rest columns on a small slab of concrete（spread footing ). Where the soil is softer, it is necessary to spread the column load over a greater area; in this case, a continuous slab of concrete (raft or mat) under the whole building is used. In cases where the soil near the surface is unable to support the weight of the building, piles of wood, steel, or concrete are driven down to firm soil..
土的可变性产生基础问题多样的解决方法。在地表附近存在坚硬土时，最简单的解决方法是把柱放置在一个小的混凝土板上（扩展基底）。土较软的地方，有必要将柱荷载传递到一个较大的面积上，在这种情况下，则在整个建筑物底下采用连续的混凝土板（筏或席）。有些情况，地表附近的土体不能承载建筑物重量时，那么，木制，钢制或混凝土制桩被打入以加固土体。
The construction of a building proceeds naturally from the foundation up to the superstructure. The design process, however, proceeds from the roof down to the foundation (in the direction of gravity). In the past, the foundation was not subject to systematic investigation .A scientific approach to the design of foundati

ons has been developed in the 20th century.
建筑物的施工工程自然是从基础到上部结构。但是，设计工程则是从屋顶到基础（沿重力的方向）。过去，基础并未进行系统调查分析。而在20世纪内科学设计基础的方法得到发展。
Karl Terzaghi of the United States pioneered studies that made it possible to make accurate predictions of the behavior of foundations, using the science of soils mechanics coupled with exploration and testing procedures. Foundation failures of the past , such as the classical example of the leaning tower in Pisa , have become almost nonexistent. Foundations still are a hidden but costly part of many buildings.
美国Karl Terzaghi的研究，利用土力学和探测及测试程序技术，使精确预报基础的行为成为可能。过去基础的破坏，像经典的例子——比萨斜塔，已经变得几乎不存在。然而，基础仍然是许多建筑物一个隐藏而昂贵的部分。