第二章 音系学answers(1)

Phonetics（Exercise 3）

1. What are the two major media of communication? Of the two, which one is primary and why?

The two major media of communication are speech and writing. (Cf. the answer to the question 4 in exercise 2.)

2. What are the three branches of phonetics? How do they contribute to the study of speech sounds?

The three branches of phonetics are: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics and auditory phonetics. They study speech sounds from different perspectives. Articulatory phonetics studies the production of speech sounds, acoustic phonetics studies the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech and auditory phonetics studies the perception of speech sounds.

3. Draw a picture for the speech organs of human beings. (cf. the figure on P. 33)

4. Where are the articulatory apparatus of a human being contained? See the figure on P. 33.

5. What is voicing and how is it caused?

V oicing is producing a sound (usually a vowel or voiced consonant) by vibrating the vocal cords.

6. What criteria are used to classify English

vowels?

The criteria used to classify English vowels are:

The height of the tongue raising: high, mid, and low

The position of the highest part of the tongue: front, central, and back

The degree of lip rounding: rounded, un-rounded

The degree of tenseness/the length of sound: tense (long) or lax (short)

The change of sound quality:

7. What is the function of the nasal cavity? How does it perform the function?

Nasal cavity is a resonating cavity which amplifies and further modifies sounds produced by the movement of the vocal cords. The soft palate may be lowered, as in the normal position for breathing, so that the air can go through the nasal cavity. When the oral cavity is at the same time blocked, a nasal sound is produced.

8. Describe the various parts in the oral cavity which are involved in the production of speech sounds? (See P.35)

9. Explain with examples how broad transcription

and narrow transcription differ?

Transcription refers to the method of writing down speech sounds in a systematic and consistent way. It serves as an aid to the description of speech sounds.

There are two types of transcription: broad and narrow transcription.

Broad transcription refers to the transcription to indicate those sounds, which are capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language. Two slashes are used, e.g. pet /pet/, bed /bed/.

Narrow transcription is to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including the minute shades, such as the transcription of /l/ in the following words:

Let [let], tell [te?]; peak [p k], speak [sp k] 10. How are the English consonants and vowels

classified?

There are basically two kinds of sounds, consonants and vowels.

Consonants are sounds in the production of which there is obstruction of the air-stream at some point of the vocal tract. V owels are sounds in the production of which no vocal organs come close together and the air-stream passes through the vocal tract without obstruction. The main difference between them is that the air flows freely in vowels, while all consonants involve some sort

of interference of the air-stream in the mouth.

following sound descriptions: 11. Give the phonetic symbol for each of the

（1）voiced palatal affricate: /? /

（2）voiceless labiodental fricative: /f/

（3）voiced alveolar stop: /d/

（4）front close short: /i/

（5）back semi-open long: /?:/

（6）voiceless bilabial stop: /p/

（7）front mid vowel: /e/

（8）lateral liquid: /l/

（9）lax high back vowel: /u/

（10）voiced bilabial oral stop: /b/

（11）mid central lax vowel: / ? /

（12）low front vowel: / ? /

（13）palatal glide: /j/

（14）voiced interdental fricative: /e /

（15）voiced affricate: /? /

（16）velar nasal consonant: /η/

（17）low back vowel: /a: /

（18）high back tense vowel: /u:/

（19）mid back lax vowel: /? /

（20）voiceless interdental fricative: /θ/

12. Give the phonetic features of each of the following sounds : ［d ］voiced, alveolar, stop; ［l ］voiced, alveolar, lateral;

［t∫］voiceless, post-alveolar, affricate; ［w ］voiced, bilabial, glide; ［u ］back, high, lax, rounded; ［?］front, low, lax, unrounded;

［b ］voiced, bilabial, stop; ［v ］voiced, labio-dental, fricative;

［a:］back, low, tense, unrounded; ［m ］voiced, bilabial, nasal;

［r ］voiced, alveolar, liquid; ［i:］front, high, tense, unrounded.

13. Draw a tongue chart for the basic English vowels.

Front Central Back

第二章习题答案

I. 1—5 T F T T F II . 1—5 b d a c a

III. 1. [ b ] bilabial voiced stop

2. [ n ] alveolar nasal stop

3. [ w ] bilabial glide

4. [ v ] voiced labiodental fricative

5. [ t ] voiceless alveolar stop

6. [ i:] high front tense vowel

7. [e ] voiceless interdental

8. [u:] high back tense vowel

9. [? ] low front vowel 10 [?:] central tense vowel

IV . 1. [b p m] 2. [d n] 3. [?] 4. [m] 5. [ ?: ?]

6. [s z]

7. [u: u]

8. [ ]

9. [j] 10 [] V . 1. voiceless alveolar

2. voiced stop

3. voiced fricatives

4. palatals

5. voiced bilabial

6. voiced velar

7. back tense vowels 8. back round vowels 9. front high vowels 10. sibilants VI.

1. Phonetics is the study of speech sounds.

2. Voic ing refers to the vibrating of the vocal cords when

sounds are produced.

3. The unite of representation used to transcribe the speech sounds is called segment.

4. Classes of sounds that share a feature or features are called natural classes.

VII. Manners of articulation refer to how the air stream is

modified, whether it is completely blocked or partially obstructed. According to manners of articulation, consonants are classified into stops, nasals, fricatives,

affricates, liquids, and gildes

High

Mid-High Mid-low Low

Phonology（Exercise 4）

1. How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study?

Phonetics and phonology both study the same aspect of language---- speech sounds, there is a fair degree of overlap in what concerns the two subjects. Without the knowledge of speech sounds provided by phonetic studies, any study of the sound system of a particular language would have been almost impossible.

However, the two subjects approach speech sounds from different points of view.

A) Phonetics provides methods for the description, transcription of sounds for all languages; phonology studies the sound system of a particular language. Therefore, phonetics is general, descriptive, and classificatory; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, etc. phonological study is particular and functional. It is particular to one language and the conclusion we reach about the phonology of one language should not be generalized into the study of another language. Phonology deals with how human being use speech sounds to express meaning.

B) The basis unit of phonetic study is phone, while that of phonological study is phoneme.

C) A phonetic study is a static one, since it tells us how a sound of a language is made, transmitted and received, whereas a phonological study is a dynamic one, telling how sounds are used to convey meaning.

2. What is a phone? How is it different from a phoneme? How are allophones related to the phoneme?

Phone refers to the speech sound we use when speaking a language. Phoneme is the smallest sound unit that can distinguish meaning. However, phoneme is an abstract unit, i.e. it is not a sound, it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features. In actually speech, a phoneme is realized phonetically as a certain phone.

A phoneme can be realized by one or more than one phone. The different phones which represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme. Allophones are actualizations of a phoneme in a particular language that never affect the meaning.

3. What is a minimal pair and what is a minimal set? Why is it important to identify the minimal set in a language?

Minimal pair refers to two expressions (words or morphemes) of a language w ith different meanings that are distinguished by only one phoneme, e.g. {pig: big}; {tip: dip}; {ship, sheep}.

Minimal set refers to more than two expressions of a language with different meanings that are distinguished by only one phoneme, such as {said: says: set: sell}; {pat: bat: mat}.

Contrasting minimal pairs is a basic procedure in establishing the phonemic inventory of a language.

4. Explain with examples the sequential rule, the assimilation rule, and the deletion rule.

The patterning of sounds in a particular language is governed by rules.

1) Sequential rules

Speech is a dynamic process and when human beings talk, they do not utter each and sound separately, but deliver a continuous flow of sounds. There are rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language, which are called sequential rules. For instance, in English, if three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey the following three rules:

a)the first phoneme must be /s/;

b)the second must be /p/, /t/ or /k/;

c)the third must be /l/, /r/ or /w/

Examples: spring, string, sequential, splendid

2) Assimilation rules

The assimilation rules assimilates one sound to another by copying a feature of a sequential sound, thus making the two sounds more similar. Assimilation is caused by articulatory or physiological processes.

give boats [giv b uts] give peace [gif pi:s]

The sound /v/ ( voiced, labiodental, fricative) is influenced by following sound /p/ (voiceless, bilabial, stop).

3) Deletion rules

The rule means that a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented, e.g. the pronunciation of such words as sign, design, paradigm, there is no /g/ sound although it is represented in spelling by the letter. But in their corresponding noun forms signature, designation, and paradigmatic, the /g/ represented is pronounced. The rule can be stated as: Delete a /g/ when it occurs before a final nasal consonant.

5. State the functions of stress in a language with examples.

Stress is the emphasis (shown by more forceful, louder, and higher-pitched voice) given to some syllables (usually no more than one in each word). The result is that the stressed syllables sound louder than unstressed ones.

According to the context, i.e. whether stress is considered in the context of the word in isolation or in the context of connected speech, stress can be divided into two types: word stress and sentence stress.

1) Word stress

There are some factors which determine the placement of stress in such language.

a) The syntactic class of a word provides some clue to the position of stress.

Combine, convict, insult, abstract, greenhouse

b) The morphological make-up of a word affects its stress pattern. For example, words ending with the following endings:

-ity, -ion, -ian, -ic, -ify, -ible, -igible, -ish, (stress on the preceding syllable): exemplify, terrible, foolish, V erbs of three or more syllables ending in –ate, throw the stress back two syllables: liberate, hibernate; whereas verbs of two syllables ending in –ate, place the stress on ate: narrate.

2) Sentence stress

Sentence stress plays various roles in conveying meaning.

a) Sentence stress depends on the relative importance of the word. The more important a word is, the stronger its stress is.

b) Rhythmic considerations influence the placement of stress (such as in poetry). Stressed syllables tend to occur at regular intervals of time, the stress pattern is affected by the rhythm. e.g. She is fifteen years old. She is only fifteen.

c) The syntactic structure of a sentence influences its stress pattern, such as parenthetical phrases are often not stressed.

6. What are suprasegmental features? How do the major suprasegmental features of English function in conveying meaning?

Supra-segmental phonology refers to the study of phonological properties of units larger than phoneme, such as the syllable, word, phrase, clause, or sentence. The principal features are stress, pitch (tone), and intonation.

Meaning conveyed by these features:

1) Stress (see the answer to the question 6)

2) pitch

Different rates of variation are, in acoustic term, different frequencies, and in auditory terms, are different pitches (degree of highness and lowness of sound or quality of sound). Pitch variations are called tones, and languages using tones are tone languages.

Tone language is a language that distinguishes meanings among words of similar form by variations in pitch and tone. The best-known example is the Chinese dialects of Mandarin and Cantonese, such as the form ―ma‖ has five tones with different meanings: 吗,妈,嘛,马,骂.

3) Intonation

Intonation is the use of changing pitch to convey syntactic information, i.e. the rise or fall of the pitch in speaking, which could affect the meaning of what is said.

The grammatical functions of intonation:

a) It may indicate different sentence types by pitch direction.

b) It may indicate connotative meanings.

I cannot eat anything. (I can eat nothing. I can only eat some particular ones)

c) It may impose different structure on the sentence by dividing the sentence into different intonation units.

He didn’t come because of Mary. Those who sold quickly made a profit.

d) It may make part of a sentence prominent by placing the nucleus on the part concerned.

e) It ha s attitudinal function, expressing the speaker’s feelings or attitudes.

7. A phonetic symbol is actually a ―cover term‖ for a composite of distinct phonetic properties or features. Define each of the symbols below by marking a ―+‖ or a ―---‖ for each given feature: a

Supplementary material: the phonetic features of English diphthongs

According to the direction of gliding, diphthongs can be central or closing. According to the position of the more prominent element in the diphthong, we have divided diphthong into falling diphthongs (if the prominent element comes first) and rising diphthongs (if the less prominent comes first). Diphthongs can be wide (if the glide implies a more radical movement of the speech organs) and narrow (if the two vocalic elements occupy neighbouring positions on the vowel chart). Diphthongs can be opening (if the degree of aperture increases with the glide) or closing (if the less prominent vowel is closer than the first).

8. Distinguish and transcribe the following sounds in groups.

（1）【p】in pit , tip and spit

（2）【l】in lesson and people

（3）【n】in ten and tenth

（4）【k】in key and scheme

（5）【t】in team and steam

9. Fill in the proper word according to the explanations.

（1）the frequency of vibration in the musical sound of the voice.（pitch）.

（2）a special emphasis on a sound or a sound group.（stress）.

（3）the length of silence between parts of utterance.（pause）.

（4）the smallest structured sound unit made up of a rule-governed sequence of phonemes.

（syllable）.

（5）the phonetic process in which two phonemes ,adjacent to each other, become identical.

（assimilation）.

第三章习题答案

I. 1-5T F F T T

II. 1-5 b b c c d 6-10 c b d b d

III.

1.Phonology is the study of sound systems and patterns.

2.Two words that differ by only one sound in the same position are called minimal pairs.

3.If segments appear in the same position but the mutual substitution does not result in change

of meaning, they are said to be in free variation.

4.The features that are found over a segment or a sequence of two or more segments are called

suprasegmental features. The most widely found suprasegmental features are stress, intonation and tone.

IV.

1. Devoice a voiced consonant when it occurs after a voiceless consonant.

2. A voiceless consonant becomes voiced when it occurs between two vowels.

3. V oiceless stops are aspirated when they occur initially in a stressed syllable

4. vowels become nasalized when they occur before nasals.

V.

―hotdog‖ is a compound word and the stress is on the ―hot‖. A hotdog is a long cooked sausage.

―hot dog‖ is a noun phrase and the stress is on ―dog‖. A hot dog refers to a dog that is hot.

VI Phonetics is the study of speech sounds. Phonology is the study of sound systems and patterns. Phonetics and phonology are both concerned with the study of speech sounds, but they two differ in perspectives. Phonetics, particularly articulatory phonetics, focuses on how speech sounds are produced, what phonetic features they have, and how to transcribe them.

In phonetics, sound segments are assumed to be invariable; variations are overlooked.

Phonology focuses on the following three fundamental question: What sounds make up the list of sounds that can distinguish meaning in a particular language? What sounds make up the list of ways in what context? What sounds can appear together in a sequence in a particular language?

《语音学和音系学引论》 第二版

《语音学和音系学引论》(第二版) 分章导读 第一章导言 本章是全书的开篇，分为四个小题目：语音学和音系学，理论和分析，与其他领域的关系，全书的框架。 第一小节介绍本学科的研究范围。作者提出语音学和音系学从两个层面研究人类语音的发生和感知：第一个层面是语音的解剖和生理层面，涉及发音器官及功能、语音、传递语音的声波、听者对语音声波的分析和处理。在这一层面上的研究称为“语音学”，可以细分为语音的解剖学和生理学、发音语音学、声学语音学和听觉(或感知)语音学。在第二个层面上，语音被看作是一种有目的的人类活动，具有传达意义的目的，在这一层面上的语音研究称为“音系学”，因此音系学常被看作是与特定语言内部的语音构造有关的。 第二小节论述理论和实践的关系，指出本书旨在介绍一种科学的理论方法，是与会不会发音或会不会模仿截然不同的。普通人通过说话表达意义，从不有意识地考虑自己的哪些器官在做什么样的动作，但语言学家所感兴趣的恰恰是说话者的这些细微的过程和活动，并对此进行分析，对器官的动作和活动如何表达意义作出解释。 第三小节首先讲解语音学和音系学对口语的记录和描述以及对英语拼写的指导作用，然后讨论其在外语教学中的应用和有关英语标准发音(RP)的争论，最后说明语音研究与科学技术的相互联系。从事录音、语言描述和语言教学工作的人对语音知识会有一定的兴趣，而从事听力学、语言矫治和言语病理学的人员需要具备坚实的语音学和音系学基础。二十世纪的科技进步为语音研究提供了新的手段，使语音研究的成果与生理学、物理学和电子学有了更密切的关系。近年来语音研究与科学技术结合在语音合成和语音－文本转换方面也有了可喜的进展，具有很高的商业价值和对理论探索的兴趣，使语音学家和音系学家得以更加紧密地与计算机和人工智能方面的专家进行合作。 第四小节叙述本书的框架，指出各章的目的和方法。本书在结构上比较特别，语音学和音系学的内容交叉进行。第二、三、六、七、八章明显属于语音学的内容，其余各章属于音系学内容。这样做的目的是模糊语音学和音系学的界限，使这两个在很长一段时间独立进行研究的学科更加一致起来。 思考题： 1.语音学和音系学在对语音的研究上有哪些异同点？ 2.语音学和音系学与我们平时发音的关系是什么？ 3.语音学和音系学知识可以应用于哪些其他领域？ 4.语音学和音系学与语言学的其他分支学科有什么关系？

语音学和音位学 练习题

第2章语音学和音位学 Phonetics&Phonology 1.phonetics is the study of_______. A.all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages B.sppech sounds used by human languages to represent C.the differernces between sounds used in human languages and sounds in nature D.how phonological differences can lead to misunderstanding 2./m, n/ are ____. A.fricatives B.dentals C.glides D.nasals 3./w, j/ belong to ____. A.fricatives B. dentals C. glides D. nasals 4.Which of the following vowel is the rounded vowel? A.[i：] B.[u：] C.[i] D.[a：] 5.In the field of phonology, which of the following does NOT belong to the suprasegmental features? A.stress B.tone C.intonation D.syllable 6.Classification of vowels are made up of the followings EXCEPT____. A.the position of the tongue B.the openness of the mouth C.The shape of the lip D.The width of the vowels 7.A sound which is capable of distinguishing one word or one shape of a word from another in a given language is a______. A.phoneme B.allophone C.phone D.allomorph 8./p, t, k / are______. A.fricatives B. affricates C. glides D.stops 9./kuku:/ is a bird’s call. The name of such a bird is CUCKOO which is an example of ______. https://www.wendangku.net/doc/e82087049.html,nguage universals B.onomatopoeia C.teaching grammars D.morphs 10.The vowel [u:] in [fu:d] (food) is a____ vowel.

语言学知识_音系学

音系学 一．音系学（Phonology）的定义： 音系学主要有以下两个任务：其一，发现某一特定语言中出现的所有能够区别意义的语音；其二，找出语音是如何组织起来表达意义的。 二．音素（Phone）、音位（Phoneme）和音位变体（Allophone）： 音素（Phone）：一个语音单元或音段。 音位（Phoneme）：一个具有区别性价值的单位，是一组语音特征的抽象集合体。 音位变体（Allophone）：同一个音位在不同语音环境下的实现的方式。 三．音位的分布（Distribution of Phonemes）： 音位对立（phonemic contrast）以及互补分布（complementary Distribution）：相似的音素之间相联系的方式主要有两种：如果它们是同一个音位的音位变体，不区别意义，就处于互补分布状态；如果它们不是同一个音位的音位变体，且能够区分意义，就构成了音位对立。 自由变异（free variation）： 如果两个音素出现在一个相同的语音环境中，并不区别意义，换而言之，用一个音素替换另一个音素而不产生一个新词，仅仅产生同一个词的不同读音，那么这两个音素就处于自由变异。 最小对立体（minimal pairs）： 如果两个单词，除了出现在同一个位置上的一个音以外，其余的都相同，则这两个词就构成了一个最小对立体。若最小对立体按照相同的条件进一步的扩展，扩展到多对，就构成了一个最小对立集（minimal set）。例如：hook和book，book和look，look和cook就构成了三对对立体，而这六个词则构成了一个最小对立集。 四．音系学的一些规则（Some Rules of Phonology）： 在音系学中，孤立的音素是没有意义的。因此为了表达意义，音素必须组合在一起，但是也需要符合一定的组合原则。 1）序列原则（Sequential rules）：即语音组成词在排列顺序上要受到一定的制约。音位系统规定了哪些音位可以放在词首，哪些可以放在哪些可以相互搭配。 2）同化原则（assimilation rule）：一个音通过吸收其相邻音的特点，变得与其相似，这种音系规则叫做同化原则（assimilation rule）。如果后面的音同化了前面的邻音，这种同化叫做逆同化（regressive assimilation）；反之，则叫做顺同化（progressive assimilation）。常见的同化有鼻音化（nasalization），齿音化（dentalization）和软腭 化（velarization）。 3）省略原则（deletion rule）：有关于在什么条件下某个音被省略掉，即只有拼写形式存在而不发音的音系规则。 五．超音段特征（Suprasegmental Features）： 超音段特征主要有音调（tone）、重音（stress）和语调（intonation）。 重音（stress）：在产生一个音节过程中所用力的程度。重音分为两种：单词重音和句子

语言学概论(二)

语言学概论(二)

第二章、语音和音系 第一节语音与语音学和音系与音系学 一、语音和语音学： （一）语音 语音是语言的声音。具备两个特点： 第一、语音是从人的发音器官发出的声音，是人的发音器官运动的结果； 第二、语音负载一定的意义，它是一定的信息符号的载体。 上下课铃声咳嗽声打呼噜声 语音是语言的物质外壳。 （二）语音学： 语音学是从自然属性出发以人类语言的声音为研究对象的科学，是语言学的一个部门。 语音研究成为语言学中的一个独立的部门是从19世纪中叶开始的。 语音学可以分为不同的类别、不同的分科。 研究方法：传统语音学、现代语音学 传统语音学分析语音时主要靠发音器官的模仿，靠耳朵听音分辨，一向被称为“口耳之学”。

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